Logical Fallacies: Academic Reference
List with Examples
I. Formal Fallacies
Affirming the Consequent
If A, then B. B. Therefore, A.
Example: If it’s raining, the streets will be wet. The streets are wet. Therefore, it’s raining.
Denying the Antecedent
If A, then B. Not A. Therefore, not B.
Example: If it’s raining, the streets are wet. It’s not raining. Therefore, the streets are not
wet.
Illicit Major / Minor
Example (Illicit Major): All mammals are animals. All cats are animals. Therefore, all cats are
mammals. (Invalid syllogism)
Undistributed Middle
All A are C. All B are C. Therefore, A = B.
Example: All students are humans. All doctors are humans. Therefore, all students are
doctors.
II. Informal Fallacies
A. Fallacies of Relevance
Ad Hominem
Attacking the person instead of the argument.
Example: Don’t listen to his views on climate change—he didn’t even finish college.
Straw Man
Misrepresenting someone’s argument to make it easier to attack.
Example: 'You want more funding for education? So you want to cut military spending and
leave us defenseless?'
Appeal to Authority
Using an authority in place of actual evidence.
Example: A celebrity says this supplement works, so it must be effective.
Appeal to Ignorance
Claiming something is true because it hasn’t been proven false (or vice versa).
Example: No one has disproved ghosts, so they must be real.
Appeal to Emotion
Manipulating emotions instead of presenting arguments.
Example: Think of the poor children before you oppose this bill!
Appeal to Tradition
Arguing something is right because it’s always been done that way.
Example: We shouldn’t change the grading system—it’s been like this for decades.
Appeal to Popularity
Arguing that because many believe it, it must be true.
Example: Everyone thinks this is the best phone, so it must be.
Red Herring
Introducing irrelevant information to distract from the main argument.
Example: Why worry about the environment when unemployment is high?
B. Fallacies of Ambiguity
Equivocation
Using a word in two different senses in the same argument.
Example: A feather is light. What is light cannot be dark. Therefore, a feather cannot be dark.
Amphiboly
Ambiguity from grammar or structure.
Example: 'I shot an elephant in my pajamas.' (Who’s wearing the pajamas?)
Accent
Changing meaning by emphasizing different words.
Example: I didn’t say he stole the money. (Implication changes with emphasis.)
C. Fallacies of Presumption
Begging the Question
Circular reasoning; assuming the conclusion in the premise.
Example: Reading is beneficial because it’s good for you.
Complex Question
A question that presupposes something unproven.
Example: Have you stopped cheating on your tests?
False Dilemma
Presenting two options as the only possibilities.
Example: You're either with us or against us.
Suppressed Evidence
Ignoring relevant facts that contradict the argument.
Example: This diet works! (ignores data about health risks)
False Cause
Assuming causation from sequence.
Example: I wore my lucky socks, and we won the game.
Slippery Slope
Assuming a chain reaction of events without evidence.
Example: If we allow students to redo tests, next they’ll want to retake the whole class!
Hasty Generalization
Drawing a conclusion from insufficient evidence.
Example: I met two rude tourists from France. French people must be rude.
Composition
Assuming what is true of the parts is true of the whole.
Example: Every player on the team is excellent, so the team must be unbeatable.
Division
Assuming what is true of the whole is true of its parts.
Example: The university is prestigious, so every professor must be brilliant.
III. Other Specialized Fallacies
No True Scotsman
Changing the definition to dismiss counterexamples.
Example: No Scotsman would do that! — But John did. — Then he’s not a true Scotsman.
Tu Quoque
Dismissing criticism by turning it back on the accuser.
Example: You say smoking is bad, but you smoke too!
Moral Equivalence
Equating minor misdeeds with major atrocities.
Example: The librarian fined me—she’s just like a dictator.
Fallacy of Relative Privation
Dismissing an issue because worse things exist.
Example: Why worry about climate change when people are starving?
