RADIATION HYGIENE

IONIZING RADIATION

Natural ionizing radiation of cosmic and telluric origin has existed in the
environment throughout the evolution of life on Earth. Additional exposures to ionizing
radiation, in addition to natural radiation, occurred after the discovery of artificial
radioactivity and became an important concern for Public Health.
Ionizing radiation is divided into two main groups: corpuscular radiation (alpha,
beta, proton, neutron particles) and electromagnetic radiation (X-ray and gamma radiation)
of the same family as visible light and radio waves, but with the shortest wavelength and
highest energy.
Natural radioactivity of the environment
Natural irradiation is caused by radiation coming from outer space on the one hand
and from the Earth's crust on the other. The population is subjected to different intensities of
irradiation, depending on the place and way of life.
Exposure of the human body to natural radiation
Natural radioactivity is about the same today as it was 10,000 years ago. About 50%
of the body's radioactivity comes from 40K, the naturally occurring radioactive form of
potassium. The rest of the radioactive exposure is caused by radioactive carbon and
hydrogen.
Most radioactive substances enter the body with food, water and air. In general, the
food we ingest contains variable concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th, 40K, 14C and 3H.
The cosmic radiation discovered in 1912 by Hess is either of solar origin or of
galactic and extragalactic origin. They act on the Earth's atmosphere and produce other types
of secondary radiation, mainly through the appearance of new radioelements, of which the
main ones are 14C, sodium 22Na, 7Be and 3H (tritium). It is very difficult to protect against this
bombardment, which intensifies during solar flares.
Cosmic radiation varies by latitude. The Earth's magnetic field deflects cosmic
radiation, which is more intense at the poles than at the equatorial. Also, cosmic radiation is
different depending on altitude. At sea level, an individual receives an equivalent dose of
about 300 μSv/year. This value increases according to a logarithmic scale and reaches 1000
μSv/year at 2000 m; 2000 μSv/year at 4000 m - for certain Sherpas and becomes higher in
aircraft personnel. For these people, there is a fear that the cosmic radiation not filtered by
the atmospheric layers dangerously irradiates passengers and crew, at the altitude of
supersonic flight, between 16,000-18,000 m altitude.
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 Earth radiation is emitted by long-lived radionuclides in soil and rocks, some of
which reach the human body through food and water. The intensity of terrestrial radiation
varies according to the geological nature, it is generally small, a few radioactive atoms
among millions of stable atoms
This type of radiation, coming from the ground, is due to certain rocks made up of
unstable radioelements, which are found in the earth's crust and which have not exhausted
all their radioactivity.
Radionuclides derive mainly from 238U (most found) and less often from 233U.
Radium, descended from uranium, has a very high radioactivity, the half-life being 1,620
years and decreasing by about 1% in 20 years. Other radioactive elements are rubidium 87Rb
and 40K which is constantly present in rocks, plants, animals and human organisms. Some
human activities reintroduce various natural radioelements present in the subsoil into the
environment: phosphate plants, coal-fired power plants, the first stages of the nuclear fuel
cycle. For several decades it has been discovered that the gaseous radioelement radon is
eliminated from the soil and spring waters on our planet.

Artificial radioactivity of the environment

Radioactive sources
Nuclear experiences. The entire population has been and continues to be irradiated
following the experimental nuclear explosions, for which the former USSR and the USA are
mainly responsible, but also France, Great Britain, China and India. American nuclear tests
were intense between 1954-1959, and between 1960-1963 explosions in the former USSR
predominated, the main author was. In 1963, the former USSR, the USA and Great Britain
signed the Treaty on the Partial Prohibition of Nuclear Explosions Carried Out in the
Atmosphere, Ocean and Outer Space. In France, aerial research was stopped in 1975, and in
China in 1977.
Some products fall near the explosion site, others remain in the lower layer of the
atmosphere and are blown away by the wind, then reach the earth gradually, within a month.
Most of the radioelements reach the stratosphere where the currents are always oriented to
the east and at a somewhat constant latitude.
In each hemisphere, radioactive pollution is most intense between 25-50° latitude.
The Northern Hemisphere, where most nuclear experiments take place, is much more
contaminated than the Southern Hemisphere. The radioelements released into the
atmosphere are numerous, but in most situations, they exist in very small quantities, or they
decay quickly. Four of them can contribute to human irradiation: zirconium 95Zr, 90Sr, 137Cs
and 14C.
The 95Zr activity with a duration of 64 days is practically exhausted. 137Cs and 90Sr,
with an active period of 30 years, provided most of their dose until the end of the twentieth
century. Only 14C, whose lifespan is 5,730 years, will remain active for a long time.

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 The risk is serious, because strontium is chemically close to calcium, and 137Cs to
potassium, and that is why there is competition for their absorption in the body.
Nuclear industry. All industrial facilities dispose of residues in the environment, and
nuclear equipment is not excluded from this rule. Nuclear power plants are only one part of
the nuclear fuel cycle, which begins with the extraction and treatment of uranium ore, then
follows the manufacture of nuclear fuel and its use in power plants. The fuel can then be
reprocessed, which allows uranium and plutonium to be recovered. The cycle ends with the
final disposal of nuclear waste.
The operation of a reactor generates liquid and gaseous effluents, which contain
artificial radioactive bodies, the result of the fission of uranium and plutonium and the
activation of all chemical bodies subject to neutron flux, which manifest themselves in the
center of the reactor. 131I, rare gases and tritium (radioactive hydrogen) are found in effluents
despite a treatment applied to the residue before it is disposed of into the environment.
Waste. Effluents from the nuclear industry are not considered as waste and their
disposal into the environment is authorized. On the contrary, radioactive waste is radioactive
material for which further use is not foreseen and its radioactivity does not allow it to be
disseminated into the environment. The definitive storage of waste, especially those with
high activity, is not always solved.
The ash of fusible substances, which are highly radioactive, are progressively
transformed into stable products and emit beta, gamma and heat radiation. Then there are
transuraniums formed in reactors, which emit alpha particles (such as plutonium, which for
some is not waste but an energy substance).
All the products that become radioactive through the operation of the reactors
become radioactive waste: the liquids that carry the heat, the various filters, certain
components of the structure of the reactors and globally all the elements after the dismantling
of a reactor that reaches the end of its operation.
On the other hand, medical use and scientific and industrial research produce
radioactive waste.
Categories of radioactive waste. Short-lived low- and medium-activity, beta- and
gamma-type A wastes are generally deposited in containers or embedded in bitumen or
concrete stored on the surface or submerged in deep ocean trenches deeper than 3,500 m,
from which the waters are considered never to return to the upper layers of the ocean.
Oceanographers have pointed out, however, the danger of these dives, if the tightness of the
containers is not perfect.
Type B, low- and medium-level, long-lived wastes emit alpha radioactivity and are
produced by nuclear reactors and reprocessing plants. They can be stored deep because they
give off little heat.

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 Highly radioactive type C waste that requires numerous treatments. They are
liquefied, calcined and embedded in a solid medium. Before being deposited in the
basement, they must be preserved on the surface for 30 years, due to the release of heat.
This issue is very delicate, it involves in-depth studies on the safety of deposition in
deep geological layers. The safety assessment must be carried out by independent and
competent experts and the results must be provided to the public.
Other sources of irradiation. Pasteurization and sterilization of food, metallurgy,
measurement of the density of various materials, are also alternative sources of radiation. In
some areas of research, radionuclides are also used.
Classical medical imaging/radiology is most often indispensable for medical
diagnosis, but unnecessary, repeated and excessive irradiation should be avoided. In
industrialized countries, the annual frequency of X-rays is between 300-900/1,000
inhabitants, without considering dental X-rays and mass screenings.
An X-ray releases 1.3 mSv, a dose 15 times higher than a simple X-ray cliché. The
risk for the lens is higher because a single dose of 2 Gray or cumulative doses of 12 Gray
causes cataracts. Cranial tomography releases very low doses, the risk is higher for cerebral
angiograms.
The genetic tests that can be induced by the medical use of ionizing radiation, for
diagnostic purposes, were the first to be studied due to the radio sensitivity of the gonads,
the greater the younger the subject. Considering the anatomical position of the sexual organs
in men and women, all examinations are 2-3 times more irradiating for women than for men,
since the ovaries are more likely to be near or inside the beam. Equivalent doses for gonads
are increased in intravenous urography, retrograde urethropyelography, hysterography,
barium transit, phlebography, radiography of the pelvis and dorso-lumbosacral column.
X-rays of pregnant women carry a variable risk to the fetus depending on the age of
pregnancy. Before embryo implantation, the effects of irradiation are all-or-nothing. They
can prevent implantation and generate an abortion. From the 3rd week of pregnancy to the
8th week, malformations may occur. From the second month of pregnancy, the risk of
insufficient CNS development is increasing. Throughout pregnancy, irradiation can pose a
risk of cancer and especially leukemia, which could develop later in childhood.

Secondary radioactivity of the environment

Secondary radioactivity of air. Following an accidental military or civilian nuclear
explosion, the very high temperature can cause the cloud of radioactive gases and substances
to rise very quickly to over 1,000 m, where it will be subjected to the influence of the wind.
Then, the first rains or storm showers, which cause a washing of the air, deposit a large
number of radioactive molecules on the ground. The contamination of subsequent rains will
progressively decrease.

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 Secondary soil radioactivity. The nature of the soil and its acidity intervene in the
migration of radioelements in depth. If the soil is clayey, deposits remain concentrated in the
first 5 cm. If the ground is sandy, the progression of radionuclides is much greater,
sometimes reaching up to 40 cm in depth. The soluble or insoluble chemical form in which
the radionuclide is found is an important parameter of soil contamination.
The soil can retain these radioactive elements for several years after deposition, the
radioactivity of the soil can be mobilized again in the air and can lead to the inhalation of
dust raised by the wind, by winding the soil as a result of agricultural work, sports.
Secondary radioactivity of water. In the aftermath of the 1986 Chernobyl accident,
surface waters, rivers and lakes varied by washing away the topsoil; however, it was difficult
to obtain information on water contamination in Kyiv in the weeks after the disaster.
Radioactivity of the food chain. The most primitive plants, mosses and lichens have
a high power of absorption and retention of radioactivity. At the Arctic Circle, lichens are
heavily contaminated due to nuclear experiments carried out between 1950 and 1960 and
the Chernobyl cloud in April 1986, which added 20% 137Cs. Lichens, an important source of
food for reindeer, contribute through meat and milk to the irradiation of the Lappish and
Canadian community.
Depending on the concentration of cesium in the soil, the fungi will be more or less
contaminated. The European Commission has set the maximum radioactivity limit for
mushroom consumption at 600 Bq/kg fresh mushrooms.
131
I released into the atmosphere is concentrated in animal milk, contaminating all
milk products. After the Chernobyl catastrophe, at an activity of 1,500 Bq/kg in grass,
sheep's milk contained 3,000 Bq/l of radioactive iodine, goat's milk 400 Bq/l, and cow's milk
150 Bq/l. The norm for milk and dairy products intended for infants is 370 Bq/l, and for
powdered milk 10-12 Bq/kg.
Cereals are responsible for 67% of food radioactivity and they accumulated the
radioactive products resulting from nuclear experiments in the 1960s. Around the world,
children in the Northern Hemisphere have 4 times more radioactive strontium than children
in the Southern Hemisphere. Strontium, chemically similar to calcium, binds to bones and
can induce cancer. For each individual, the percentage of dose received from artificial or
natural sources varies considerably depending on where they live, the type of habitat and
their way of life.

Radioactivity and health

The disturbances induced by low doses of radiation do not have their own
characteristics. Cancers induced by any radioactive source are no different from those due
to other causes. The only way to establish a correlation between neoplasms and radiation is
to compare one irradiated group with another non-irradiated group and to investigate the
increase in cancer incidence in the first group. Unfortunately, there are many difficulties

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because the average mortality from cancer represents 25% of deaths. The excess of cancer
due to environmental radioactivity is small and because of this it is difficult to be statistically
individualized. In addition to this, many studies rely only on cancer mortality but,
fortunately, not all cases of cancer are fatal, so an error in the estimate can be made. Mortality
is an insufficient parameter of analysis that is complemented by morbidity data, which are
indispensable for a more accurate assessment of the effects.
A very long latency time separates irradiation from clinical manifestations. The
consequences of exposure to low doses of radiation do not appear immediately; It is difficult
to correlate after 20 years the appearance of cancer with its cause or, for future generations,
genetic changes with irradiation. Only statistical studies on important populations for
decades could give conclusive results.
Living matter is characterized by great heterogeneity, a great diversity of organic
molecules, water and inorganic substances that are either dissolved in water or in the form
of organo-mineral combinations take part in its composition. Due to the great diversity in
the structure of living matter, the interaction of radiation with it produces a multitude of
effects, which are often difficult to explain.

Biological effects of ionizing radiation

The somatic effects occur at the level of the somatic cells and act on the physiology
of the exposed individual, and can lead to rapid death (immediate somatic effects) or to a
reduction in the average life expectancy (late somatic effects).
Immediate (short-term) somatic effects manifest themselves a few days, weeks or
months after irradiation.
Irradiation can be local (internal or external) that manifests itself only through
effects at the level of the respective tissue, or a global irradiation, of the whole body that
manifests itself through generalized effects.
The immediate effects are usually nonstochastic they occur in all individuals
exposed to a dose higher than the threshold dose, while the late somatic effects appear after
a longer period of time, on the order of years (latency period) and manifest themselves
mainly in the form of leukemia or cancer. These effects are stochastic or random (random)
in nature in the sense that it is impossible to highlight a direct causal relationship.
Genetic effects occur in germ (sex) cells in the gonads. These cells are very sensitive
to irradiation during the multiplication period, which explains their mutagenic action. The
effects produced by radiation: alteration of chromosomes, breakage of chromatin fragments,
chemical alteration of the genetic code, action of free radicals on the nitrogenous bases of
nucleic acids, breaking of the chains of these acids.
In the case of humans, LD50 for 21 days is 4 Gy in case of global irradiation (tab.
IV.1)

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 TABLE IV.1.
Effects of total irradiation on humans
Total body dose (Gy) Effects after exposure
1.000 Death in minutes
100 Death in a few hours
10 Death in a few days
7 90% mortality in the following weeks
2 10% mortality in the following months
No mortality,
Significant increase in cancer cases;
1
Permanent sterility in women,
Sterility in men after 2-3 years

Local irradiation with 4 Gy, or more, leads to reddening of the skin, at the level of
the gonads causes sterility.
The early effects of exposure to high doses of radiation include the early somatic
effects, which affect the individual exposed to radiation. Exposure to ionizing radiation can
be external, global, or external, local.
Global external exposure to doses above 1.0 Gy for several minutes to several hours
leads to acute radiation sickness (tab. IV.2).

TABLE IV.2.
Effects of exposure to various doses of radiation in a healthy adult
FORM OF MANIFESTATION Absorbed dose Symptomatology
Infraclinical reaction Under 1 Gy no clinical signs in most individuals
asthenia, malaise, nausea 3-6 hours after exposure,
Mild general reaction 1-2 Gy
complete remission after 24 hours
lymphopenia, leukopenia, thrombocytopenia, anemia –
Mild hematopoietic reaction 2-4 Gy maximum at 3 weeks after exposure, remission after 4-6
months
Serious hematopoietic reaction 4-6 Gy very severe impairment of spinal cord function
Gastrointestinal reaction 6-7 Gy diarrhea, vomiting, hemorrhage
Pulmonary reaction 8-10 Gy hemoptysis, acute respiratory failure
Brain reaction Over 10 Gy coma and death in 14-36 hours

The prodromal phase lasts for several hours and is manifested by nausea, vomiting,
diarrhea and fatigue.
The latent phase in which the person does not present any symptoms has a duration
that depends on the dose and the nature of the subsequent clinical form. In the case of
exposure to doses below 10 Gy, it lasts for 5-14 days.
The clinical picture can be manifested by the following syndromes:
• Hematopoietic syndrome occurs in case of exposure to the lowest doses. At first
lymphopenia sets in, then leukopenia and thrombocytopenia, finally anemia.
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 • Gastrointestinal syndrome is observed in case of exposure to doses of 6-7 Gy,
being the consequence of the destruction of the intestinal mucosa. It occurs after
a few days after exposure, with diarrhea, vomiting, hemorrhages, the prognosis
is serious, death occurs in 10-14 days.
• Pulmonary syndrome is present in 80% of cases exposed to 10 Gy and is
generally not influenced by any therapy.
• Nervous syndrome occurs in people exposed to doses of 20-30 Gy, has a very
short latency period (a few hours or 1-3 days), is manifested by loss of
consciousness, seizures, coma, death after a few hours – 7 days after exposure.

Effects of high-dose irradiation. Life is endangered if highly radiosensitive organs

such as the bone marrow, digestive system and central nervous system are affected.
At a dose of 3-10 Gray, the destruction of part or all of the precursors of the blood
cells of the bone marrow, exposes people to a major infectious risk, through immune
deficiency. Irradiation greater than 6 Gray causes severe digestive syndrome that can be
complicated by perforation or occlusion.
At very high doses, 50 Gray for example irradiation of the brain leads to death within
a few days. Apart from these dramatic pictures, the increased doses of irradiation do not
have the same consequences for different individuals due to the mechanisms of repair of the
lesions, inside the DNA molecules. The irradiated person is not condemned to cancer or to
have genetic abnormalities but presents a risk, which increases with the dose received.

Diseases induced by ionizing radiation

Neoplasms. Carcinogenesis is the main late somatic effect of ionizing radiation.
Irradiation-induced tumors cannot be differentiated from those that are due to other causes.
Epidemiological studies are the main source of information in determining cancer risk. The
subjects of the studies undertaken include atomic bomb survivors, population groups
exposed in the past for occupational or medical reasons, as well as groups of people who
have suffered accidental irradiation.
There are several factors that influence the likelihood that an irradiated person will
develop cancer in a particular tissue. First of all, it is about the radiation dose with its
temporal and spatial distribution and the quality of the radiation. Host-related factors include
age at exposure, tissue susceptibility, gender, and genetic characteristics. Environmental
factors can influence host susceptibility or interaction with radiation. Age at exposure is a
very important factor; It seems that tissue susceptibility correlates with proliferative cell
activity. This is reflected in recent findings, which show an excess of cancer in survivors of
shelling exposed prenatally or in the first years of life and a decrease in susceptibility with
age.

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 The excess of tumor cases is recorded in the stages of life when the prevalence of
cancer is increased and in the non-irradiated population. The percentage of cases according
to sex is similar in exposed and unexposed people.
The differences in latency period are significant; Leukemia, except for chronic
lymphocytic leukemia, is a form of cancer that is frequently caused by radiation, whose
latency period is at least 2-4 years, with a peak in frequency 10 years after exposure. Solid
tumors (breast, thyroid, lung, colon, ovarian or multiple myeloma cancers) have a longer
latency period, frequently decades after exposure.
The dose-response relationship continues to be the most important issue for
assessing cancer risk. In survivors of atomic bombings, the suspected dose of cancer is in
the range of 0.5-1.5 Gy. At doses of 2 Gy and above, there is an increase in mortality from
numerous diseases, except for neoplasms.
Leukemia. The body's cells that multiply incessantly, such as the white line of blood
cells, are the most sensitive to ionizing radiation. Because of this, leukemia is the cancer that
occurs first, within 10 years of exposure to ionizing radiation.
Studies carried out on Hiroshima survivors confirmed the increase in the frequency
of leukemia, which manifested itself 1-3 years after irradiation. Various forms of leukemia
have also been reported in England, after 1983, near nuclear power plants. The most exposed
workers may have brought radioactive substances home through contaminated clothing.
Studies have found abnormal concentrations of radioelements in dust in workers' homes, for
example 60Co (emitter of gamma radiation).
Thyroid cancer. Among Japanese atomic bomb survivors, thyroid cancer was the
first solid tumor reported in excess, as opposed to blood cancers.
Japanese cities were protected by mountains from the atomic explosions of
Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Thus, the indirect radioactive falls they received were negligible.
The thyroid is a sensitive tissue and its irradiation causes carcinogenesis especially
if it occurs in young children. Fortunately, they are curable and mortality is reduced.
Thyroid radioactivity is higher if the dwelling is closer to the nuclear zone, despite
individual variations.
The incidence of thyroid cancer tripled in children in Belarus after 1990. In two and
a half years, 104 cases of thyroid cancer were detected, instead of 4/year (from 1986-1989).
The thyroid consequences of the Chernobyl explosion (1986) are more serious than the
predictions made in the cases of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki explosions (1945).
Other cancers. In young women, the breasts have a special vulnerability to ionizing
radiation. The risk of breast cancer decreases with age. A woman over 40 years of age has a
lower risk of breast cancer induced by ionizing radiation.
Prostate cancer mortality is higher in men exposed to cumulative doses above 50
mSv.

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 Lung cancer occurs especially in uranium mine workers, in whom the probability of
cancer per unit dose is 4-7 times higher, than in survivors of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki
bombs.
Genetic effects. Ionizing radiation causes damage to the genetic material in
reproductive cells, resulting in mutations that are passed on to subsequent generations.
Genetic effects began to be studied in the 1920s. The development of nuclear energy and the
spread of radiation sources have stimulated efforts to assess genetic risk in the exposed
human population. Knowledge about the normal frequency of genetic disorders in the
population is needed to assess this risk. At this time there are insufficient data to estimate
genetic risk in the exposed human population; therefore, experimental data obtained in mice
and primates are mainly used and less data obtained in humans.

Radiation protection recommendations in medicine

Radiation protection assumes that there is a direct proportionality relationship (no
threshold) between the absorbed dose received and the probability of the stochastic effect.
The stochastic biological effect occurs over time, with a delay compared to the moment of
irradiation. The delay can be years or decades in the case of malignancies and longer in the
case of genetic effects.
Nuclear and radiological safety measures consist of mandatory regulations on the
administrative part (introduction of the authorization and control system) and the
organizational part.
Exposure to radiation must be limited by prescribing limit doses in the rules.
The International Commission on Radiological Protection considers the risk of
death as a result of contracting cancer following exposure to radiation of 5%, i.e. out of 100
individuals exposed to 1 Sv, it is likely the death from cancer of five individuals.
The exposure to the public must not exceed:
• effective dose of 1 mSv/year;
• in a special circumstance, the actual dose of 5 mSv in a single year, provided
that the average dose over 5 consecutive years does not exceed 1 mSv;
• the equivalent dose in the lens of 15 mSv/year and in the skin of 50 m Sv/year.

Radiation exposure can be: occupational exposure, medical exposure, and the
general population.
Occupational exposure affects employees at workplaces in facilities or laboratories
where nuclear radiation sources are used.
Medical exposure refers to patients, in the case of diagnosis and treatment with
radiotherapy.
The exposure of the population is due to natural sources (exposure of 2.4 mSv/year)
and from the use of artificial radiation sources,

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 Knowledge of these risks requires radiation protection recommendations. Before the
prescription of the radiological act, the benefits of the examination must be balanced with
the dose of X-rays released.
Apart from particular indications, X-ray examinations for mass screening or for
systematic health check-ups should be avoided. It is useless to irradiate, especially of
children, even if it is small, for an exam whose performance is practically zero and costly
for the community. Only children from an at-risk population should benefit from these
explorations. Examinations that do not help at all in the diagnosis will be avoided: skull X-
ray for minor trauma, urography for enuresis, barium transit for chronic abdominal pain in a
child aged 5-10 years, preoperative chest X-ray without special indications.
Repeated exposure to low doses of X-ray radiation in children or adolescents, for
example for scoliosis surveillance, can significantly increase the risk of breast cancer.
A non-irradiating examination (ultrasound or MRI) is recommended to explore an
organ. Gallbladder ultrasound thus replaces cholecystography.
Before doing a non-urgent radiological examination, it is important to check that the
woman is not pregnant. Irradiation of the pelvis is avoided 15 days before the period.
The doses dispensed may be reduced following technical improvements, for
example for dental examinations and mammograms. The computed tomography delivers
doses that can become important, depending on the multiple sections needed (Table IV.3).
An individual X-ray booklet should be introduced, stating all radiological
examinations carried out during life, their dates and exposure doses.
Shielding Gamma Radiation Sources. The absorption of gamma radiation is stronger
the higher the atomic number Z of the absorber, which is why lead screens are preferred.
The materials that absorb them most strongly are those with a high percentage of
hydrogen: water, bakelite and plastics, polyethylene or plexiglass.
Shielding neutron sources: they are first slowed down and then absorbed using
water, paraffin, heavy water or graphite.
TABLE IV.3.
Equivalent of the effective dose during X-rays and CT examinations
Equivalent
IMAGING EXAMINATION
effective dose (mSv)
Chest X-ray 0,10
Skull X-ray 0,15
Abdominal X-ray 1,00
Intravenous urography 3,50
Eso-gastro-duodenal transit 3,80
Barium examination 7,70
Abdomen computed tomography 2,60
Chest computed tomography 4,80

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 NON-IONIZING RADIATION

Life on our planet manifested and developed in a natural electromagnetic

environment, having as sources the sun, the planets, the Earth's magnetic field and the
meteorological phenomena in the atmosphere to which industrial and military energy
sources were added
The WHO introduced the term electromagnetic pollution in 1981. The disturbances
caused by this pollution can cause damage to the human body, which was suspected only
after 30 years and which is the subject of important scientific debate.
Although non-ionizing radiation is widely used in modern technology, people who
are not part of the scientific and professional community possess limited knowledge in this
field and do not suspect that the lighting and appliances in their homes are a source of
electromagnetic radiation.
The electromagnetic spectrum is subdivided into several areas. Each area of the
spectrum can be characterized by wavelength, frequency, and photon energy.
The non-ionizing spectral region includes:
• extremely low frequency (ELF) radiation;
• radio frequencies (RF);
• optical radiation (ultraviolet radiation, visible radiation, infrared radiation).
Wavelength is used for UV, RFV, and IR, and frequency for RF and ELF.
The electromagnetic wave is characterized by the wavelength  measured in meters
and the frequency F has Hz as the unit of measurement.
These two parameters are interdependent and inversely proportional: the  lower it
is, the higher the frequency.
In the I.U. system, these fields are measured with the following units:
• electric field in volts/meter;
• the magnetic field in amperes/meter;
• their product, the power of radiation, in watts/m2 and in submultiples.
When an electromagnetic wave reaches an obstacle, part of it is absorbed and some
is reflected. The absorption and transfer of energy depend on the characteristics of the matter.
Magnetic fields are characterized by 2 parameters: magnetic flux density and
magnetic field strength. The magnetic flux density or magnetic induction is measured with
the Tesla unit (T) in the international MKS system (meter, kilo, second) and in Gauss in the
CGS system (centimeter, gram, second).

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 The strength of the magnetic field is expressed in amperes/meter.

Low and high frequency radiation

Low-frequency radiation
They are radiations with low frequencies, between 3 Hz and 300 KHz and with very
long wavelengths from 15 km to over 10,000 km.
This radiation is divided into:
• ELF (extremely low frequency, i.e. between 3-300 Hz) – this is the frequency
used for the transmission and distribution of electricity;
• VLF (very low frequency between 0.3 KHz – 30 KHz) – electron beams of
cathode ray screens, televisions, monitors;
• LF (low frequency 30-300 KHz) for propagating large waves.

High frequency radiation (radio frequency)

Radio frequencies are including all frequencies between 300 KHz and 300 GHz.
The megahertz range (106 Hz) is  between 1 m and 15 km and is subdivided
according to frequency into: MF (medium frequency), HF (high frequencies) and VHF (very
high frequency). These waves are used for different modes of communication: television,
broadcasting, radio navigation, maritime and air traffic.
The gigahertz range (109 Hz) is the range of hyper frequencies also called
microwaves with =1 mm – 1 m. Depending on the frequency, UHF (ultra-high frequency),
SHF (super high frequency) and EHF (extremely high frequency) are distinguished. They
are used in: radar detection systems. In the medical field, it is applied in diathermy, the
electric scalpel and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). In the domestic field they are used
in microwave ovens.
Natural electromagnetic environment. The natural electromagnetic field is the
result of the interaction between the Earth's magnetic field and the solar wind formed by
radiation and charged particles that materialize through the spectacle of the boreal halo. The
two geophysical phenomena that intertwine are terrestrial magnetism and upper atmosphere
electromagnetism.
Earth’s magnetic field. Geomagnetism is contemporary with the formation of the
Earth, 4 1/2 billion years ago. The total strength of the geomagnetic field varies between 60
T (0.6 Gauss) in the vicinity of the poles and 30 T at the Equator (0.3 Gauss).
Variations in the Earth's magnetic field can be of two types: secular, long-term
variations that originate inside the Earth, and transient variations that have causes external
to the Earth, as a result of Sun-Earth interactions.
The daily variations are small, of a few tens of Tesla gamma, the seasonal ones are
somewhat higher especially at the equinoxes.

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 The Earth’s electric field. The earth, through its solid and liquid particles, is the seat
of electric currents that produce variations in the magnetic field. The electricity of the Earth's
surface is negative and the conductivity of the rocks is influenced by the amount of water
they contain: clay is poorly conductive, limestone less and granite not at all.
Solar electromagnetic field. The Sun is responsible for diurnal, annual and cyclical
electromagnetic variations every 11 years. It develops a global magnetic field of 100,000
gamma that is 1.5-2 times the induction field of the Earth.
By constantly emitting charged particles, the solar wind is formed that meets the
Earth's magnetic field and creates electric currents in the upper atmosphere. Near the ground,
the electrical potential of the atmosphere is positive, having 100-150 V/m.
Biological influences of the natural electromagnetic environment
Attempts have been made to correlate solar magnetic storms with chronic human
diseases and mortality. Becker and Friedman showed the existence of a relationship between
the number of admissions to psychiatric hospitals and magnetic storms; These are
schizophrenia and manic-depressive psychosis. Transient variations in the Earth's magnetic
field disrupt the electrical activity of the brain and trigger epileptic seizures. It also seems
that the epiphysis is a magneto-sensitive gland. The action of permanent gravitational
anomalies can alter the character of a biorhythm, causing certain biological imbalances,
areas with low gravitational potential are considered dangerous to health.
Sensitivity of the human body to electromagnetic radiation
Non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation does not possess sufficient energy to cause
ionization, but depending on its frequency it induces other biological effects. In particular,
two regions of the electromagnetic spectrum were studied: the extremely low frequency field
(ELF) and radio frequencies (RF).
Inside any living organism there are endogenous electrical currents, which intervene
in the complex mechanisms of physiological regulation (neuromuscular activity, glandular
secretion, cell membrane functioning).
In these electrophysiological processes, external magnetic and electric fields, either
natural or artificial, can interfere; interactions can be macroscopic and microscopic.
When the human body is placed in a static electric field, currents with opposite
electric charges are induced.
By applying an industrial alternating current, an internal alternating current is
produced in the body. This current flow only to the surface of the body, and its intensity is
insignificant compared to the external electric field. If the body is in contact with the ground,
electrical charges are lost.
In the case of the magnetic field, the situation is different, because most biological
substances are not magnetic.

14
 Variations in magnetic fields develop induced electric fields, the intensity of which
depends on the importance and periods of variation of the magnetic field. The secondary
induced electric current in the body was initially considered as an active factor, but for
several years, the magnetic field has been considered to act on the membrane and cell
nucleus.
Some microstructures have magnetic properties: hemoglobin, due to the iron in its
structure, retinal photoreceptors seem to function as magnetoreceptors. The relationship
between the visual system and magnetic fields was first described in 1896 by Arsonval.
The epiphysis is influenced by the electromagnetic field, its functioning being
synchronized by light and dark, through the retina. The main hormone synthesized in this
gland is melatonin, starting from serotonin that comes from tryptophan. This metabolism is
very intense at night. In the endocrine system, melatonin inhibits several endocrine glands:
the hypothalamus, pituitary gland and especially the gonads. This hormone inhibits the
production of pituitary prolactin and estrogen by the ovaries. Decreasing its production
reduces the inhibitory effect and as a result, estrogen-dependent tissue cancer (breasts and
prostate) can occur. It has been shown by the Americans that chronic exposure to ELF fields
can decrease melatonin secretion. Melatonin also stimulates immune function (Maestroni
and Pierpaoli).
The epiphysis is strongly innervated by the sympathetic system and acts by
synchronizing the body's reactions to environmental conditions. Prolonged exposure to
electromagnetic fields can lead to depression, miscarriages and cancers, which are related to
melatonin.
The cell membrane potential is important for regulating ionic concentrations.
Exposures to ELF fields impose artificial potentials for the membrane, but these are 100
times less important than natural ones, because the intensity of the currents is lower than that
of the endogenous currents, associated with physiological processes.
The action of radio frequencies. Radio frequencies have too little energy to ionize
matter, but they can induce movements of molecules and ions, which are at the origin of a
thermal action, which differentiates them from ELF fields.
Radiofrequency energy produces induced electric and magnetic fields in biological
systems. At frequencies above 30 MHz the human body can be considered as an absorbing
antenna, with a maximum absorption between 30 and 80 MHz. The resonant frequency
corresponds to a wavelength of about two and a half times, up to five times the size of the
body. Body absorption is different depending on the body region: the neck and limbs are
privileged points of concentration of radiofrequency energy.
Low-frequency waves penetrate deeper into the body, the longer the wavelength ()
will be. Energy absorption depends on the water content of the tissues, being 60 times more
important for highly hydrated tissues such as skin, muscles or blood.

15
 Thermal interactions. The production of heat by hyper frequencies is based on a
particular mechanism: intermolecular friction by dipole rotation. Due to thermoregulatory
mechanisms, this heat production does not immediately manifest itself in an increase in body
temperature and the skin's perception of heat is less important than in the case of exposure
to infrared rays. Heat sensitivity is particularly well known for the eyes and testicles. The
ocular effects are explained by the ocular structure that has a high sensitivity to these
wavelengths and the lens that does not present vascularization and preferentially absorbs
radiofrequencies.
Exposure of the testicles to high intensities of microwaves causes severe lesions
such as edema, hypertrophy or atrophy of the testicles. Chronic exposure to low intensities
can cause, according to some authors, a decrease in spermatogenesis, a weakening of libido
and a change in the ratio between male and female sex among newborns, with a
preponderance of girls.
Non-thermal interactions. A persistent controversy began between the supporters of
pure thermal effects and the supporters of a double action of this radiation: thermal at high
doses and non-thermal at lower doses.
There is a consensus on non-thermal interactions such as variation in the membrane
flux of calcium ions. Disagreements persist on the neurovegetative, psychic, blood effects.
The physiological systems that appear to be sensitive targets of radiofrequencies are the
nervous system and in particular neuroendocrine and the immune system.
Effects on the central nervous system
Microwaves can increase the action of anxiolytic drugs. Other interactions of
microwaves could occur with amphetamines and alcohol. This risk, if confirmed, could be
important for tens of millions of users of these drugs, to whom the proximity of a radar
would be likely to cause disturbances.
Actions on the immune system. Many studies have shown the inhibition of T
lymphocytes, the decrease of granulocytes and macrophages.
Action on behavior. Animal experiments seem to suggest a change in conditioned
reflexes, an increase in fatigue, a decrease in adaptation.
The auditory effects of microwaves. Subjects exposed to pulsed microwaves, with a
rather weak power, perceive a ratchet or vibration.
Retinal lesions. While hyperthermia can affect the lens, recent experiments on
monkeys by Kues and Monahan have shown that pulsating, low-intensity microwaves can
cause irreversible damage to retinal photoreceptor cells.
Genetic effects. The electromagnetic fields of radiofrequencies interact neatly with
the genetic material, causing chromosomal aberrations and inhibition of DNA synthesis.
Electromagnetic pollution and its health risks

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 Various studies have been carried out on the link between exposure to these fields
and cancer morbidity, in particular leukaemia.
Despite all the uncertainties, some data from epidemiological studies and
experimental research in vivo and in vitro, suggest a relationship between electromagnetic
fields, the nervous system, reproduction and cancer.
Electromagnetic pollution, reproduction and cancer. Miscarriage in women who
work with viewing screens is much discussed in the literature. Savitz noted a 4-fold increased
risk of cervical cancer when the mother used a heated blanket in the first trimester of
pregnancy. A study by Nordstrom suggests that an effect on reproduction could occur
through the exposure of the father working in high-voltage stations.
The number of congenital malformations revealed was higher among the offspring
of men subjected to such exposures. In addition, the same study showed male fertility
problems in these workers and disruption of the menstrual cycle in women.
EPA data showed that there is a relationship between field strength and increased
cancer risks. When the magnetic field is greater than 2 mG, the risk of developing some
types of cancer is 3 times higher. Studies conducted by the EPA have highlighted a causal
relationship between ELF electromagnetic fields and some forms of cancers, particularly
leukemias and cancers of the nervous system.
A newer location of cancer in people professionally exposed to electromagnetic
fields is breast cancer, which is rare in men. Although there are other risk factors, the
electromagnetic environment could be an aggravating element for breast cancer.

Optical radiation
Ultraviolet, visible, and infrared radiation form optical radiation because it obeys
the laws and principles of geometric optics.
The wavelengths covered by optical radiation are between 1 nm and 1 mm
comprising: ultraviolet (UV), visible spectrum and infrared (IR) spectrum.
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is non-ionizing radiation with the shortest wavelength,
being between the visible light spectrum and X-rays but with a high energy, producing
significant changes in the environment and exerting a complex biological activity. Their
basic function is to move electrons from the inner orbits of atoms to the outer ones, making
possible the reaction between substances (photochemical reactions).
UV rays range from 100 to 400 nm and are divided into 3 different zones:
• UV-A close to visible light is 1,000 times less harmful than UV-B, penetrates
deeper into the dermis and can cause skin damage and cancer, but with less
aggressiveness than UV-B;

17
 • UV-B are highly carcinogenic;
• UV-C close to X-rays, are very harmful but do not reach the Earth's surface,
being stopped by the ozone layer of the stratosphere (25-30 km from Earth).
Depending on the main effect, they are classified into three categories:
• UV-A with a wavelength of 400-320 nm (pigmentogenic region);
• UV-B with a wavelength of 320-280 nm (erythematogenic region);
• UV-C with a wavelength of 280-100 nm (germicidal region).
Sources of ultraviolet radiation
Natural sources. The emission of UV radiation by the sun is much higher at origin,
representing 5% of the total energy emitted, but during its journey to the ground, they are
absorbed in a proportion of 4/5, so that they enter the composition of the solar spectrum in a
proportion of 1%.
Air pollutants achieve an absorption of UV radiation proportional to their density
and nature, being higher (70-90% of the incident radiation) when the impurity particles are
dark in color or close in size to those of UV radiation. Absorption is also achieved by the
surrounding dark surfaces, while the celestial vault reflects them. Sand reflects about 25%
UV-B, seawater on the other hand only 5% of UV-B but absorbs 75% of it at the surface if
the water is clear. The UV dose increases with altitude: for 300 m altitude by 4%.
Artificial sources of UV radiation are medical lamps (quartz) and various
technological apparatus and installations used in production such as welding machines,
cinema reflectors, industrial metal melting plants.
Medical UV radiation lamps work with discharge-based electricity in mercury vapor
bulbs and produce the fluorescence of the phosphorus powder layer.
After the phosphorus used, the radiation produced will include UV-A and UV-B for
tanning or only UV-A used in psoriasis phototherapy. Most lamps produce not only a
spectrum close to the natural one, but also radiation with shorter wavelengths, with a
bactericidal role.
Peculiarities of ultraviolet rays
• their penetrability is reduced and depends on their type: UV-A touch the
epidermis in depth and the dermis, where they can inhibit immunocompetent
cells. UV-B are less penetrating, being absorbed by the middle layers of the
skin;
• the photochemical effect allows the appearance of new compounds:
photosynthesis of vitamin D, chlorophyll photosynthesis, polymerization of
some products and degradation by photolysis;
• in order for the fluorescence phenomenon to occur, the absorption of UV by
certain substances is necessary, which converts them into visible light;

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 • the germicidal action is maximum at λ=253.7 nm, when the genetic material is
altered and the reproduction of microorganisms is affected.
Health promoting and pathogenic effects of ultraviolet rays
UV radiation is an indispensable factor for the development of vital processes, so its
relative deficiency can cause diseases. At the same time, they exert a harmful, life-destroying
effect, when they act untimely, excessively and without a gradual adaptation. This dialectical
aspect, with a double biological consequence, positive and negative, are characteristic of
many environmental factors and are very evident in the case of UV radiation.
At the basis of the biological action of UV radiation is the photochemical effect, i.e.
the facilitation of the chemical reaction between substances exposed to irradiation, following
the change in the electrical balance of their atoms.
The main category of changes produced by UV radiation consists of changes in the
composition of some protein substances in the skin, with local or general effects. The
substances generated constitute positive stimuli or even substances with a beneficial role on
some functions and organs; In certain circumstances, the action is harmful from the
beginning or after long-term summation, the most serious being cell destruction (burns) and
their degeneration (cancers), respectively.
The beneficial effect of ultraviolet rays, the production of vitamin D necessary for
the absorption of calcium through the intestinal wall, has made sun exposure popular.
UV action on the skin. Pigmentation is of two types: pigmentation that occurs by
mobilizing melanophores from deep to the superficial layers (it is recorded in the case of
irradiation without erythema, and disappears in 8-10 days), respectively pigmentation itself
(it appears after 7-8 days after exposure, is consecutive to erythema and persists for months).
Pigmentation consists of the formation of melanic pigment (melanin) from
promelanin by the melanocytes of the basal layer of the dermis. The source substance of
melanin is the amino acid tyrosine, which with the help of tyrosinase is converted into
dihydroxy phenylalanine (DOPA). It goes through other intermediate phases and then binds
with a protein substance, becoming melanin. The formation of melanin occurs in basal
melanocytes, after which it undergoes a migration to the stratum corneum (within 48 hours).
Pigmentation differs depending on the  type of irradiation: low-dose irradiation
achieves a slow pigmentation that increases the defense capacity much more (up to 1000
times compared to the threshold dose). At the same time, however, irradiation produces a
thickening of the stratum corneum that also retains UV radiation with  shorts.
Pigmento genesis interpreted as a defense phenomenon is produced by the action of
ultraviolet rays with  a maximum (400-320 nm) and occurs 8-10 days after irradiation.
The important erythema that occurs after sun exposure seems harmless, but it is the
visible sign of skin contact caused by UV. He can go as far as a phlycten burn.

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 The most intense erythema is caused by UV rays of 307 nm and can be aggravated
by agents with photo-toxic action: perfumes, cologne, aftershave lotions, lipstick containing
fluorescein derivatives.
Erythema appears after a latency of 1-8 hours and lasts one or more days. Higher
doses of UV result in a shorter latency period and longer duration of erythema. Mechanisms
of occurrence: the direct action of U.V. on the superficial vessels and the indirect action, the
effect of an active substance that diffuses to the blood vessels in the dermis (prostaglandin
involvement). The erythema trough dose (MTD) is the cut-off dose that produces that effect.
UV radiation interferes with cell division in the skin that ceases for 24 hours or more
after irradiation, then mitosis intensifies and reaches a maximum of 72 hours.
The general phenomena are dependent not so much on the intensity of local changes
as on the negative consequences on the body's functions by the outpouring of toxic
substances from the burn site, which is all the more intense the larger the affected area.
Skin photosensitivity accentuates the aforementioned phenomena through
phototoxicity mechanisms, in which endogenous (porphyrins) or exogenous (drugs, dyes,
ointments) substances intervene. There are also people who are photosensitive due to allergic
processes, in which the substances involved act through the antigen-antibody
interrelationship (photo allergies).
UV radiation photo allergies are due to the formation of photo-antigens with
immunological and allergic effects, favored by organic deficiencies.
Dermal elastosis (skin senescence) is associated with chronic UV exposure. It is
characterized by damage to the connective tissue of the dermis, with reduced elasticity, by
collagen degeneration, uneven pigmentation, respectively with increased cell proliferation
and numerous cell atypia.
Skin cancer is classified among chronic traumatic photo dermatoses and is due to
the sum of the action of the radiant energy of UV radiation through long-term exposure.
Prolonged irradiation causes keratosis and solar elastosis and in the final phase, skin cancer.
It occurs more frequently in blonde people (very rarely in blacks) and at an older age,
especially when UV radiation is associated with tobacco/petroleum chemicals. The types of
cancers related to UV exposure are squamous cell carcinoma, basal cell carcinoma, non-
melanoma skin cancer and cutaneous malignant melanoma.
UV action on the eyes. UV-B and C are absorbed at first in the tissue of the cornea
and conjunctiva. Corneal transmission oscillates between 60-83% in the UV-A band, with a
lot of energy absorbed by the lens. Photokeratitis and photo conjunctivitis result from acute,
high-intensity exposure to UV-B and UV-C (voltaic arc). The maximum sensitivity of the
cornea is at wavelengths of 270 nm or 288 nm.
Exposure to the sun produces these sequelae only when high-reflective materials
such as snow or sand are present in the environment. Triggered symptoms: tearing,
blepharospasm, photophobia, accompanied by a feeling of sand in the eyes and strong pain.

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 Symptoms appear 2-12 hours after exposure and persist over 48 hours, with no
residual disturbances. The lenticular effect related to UV exposure leads to cataracts.
The basic mechanism of cell alteration consists of photochemical denaturation and
coagulation of protein structures. Exposure to UV-A and UV-B from solar radiation has been
implicated as an etiological agent in solar retinitis, macular edema and senile macular
degeneration.
Immune system. Excessive exposure to solar radiation has negative immunity-
depressing effects. Immunosuppression caused by UV allows the activation of the herpes
virus and the human immunodeficiency virus, thus the AIDS disease. AIDS patients should
be warned about the potential danger of worsening immunosuppression and viral activation
by UV. Instead, due to their beneficial effects, it is recommended to use them in rheumatoid
arthritis and lupus erythematosus.
At the hematological level, there is an increase in the concentration of alpha 1 and
alpha 2 globulins, albumins, a decrease in beta globulins and oscillations in gamma
globulins. These phenomena have a dynamic character depending on the timing and intensity
of the irradiation. Through changes in the composition of some proteins, antigens are
developed that cause the formation of autoantibodies, processes embedded between
autoimmune phenomena. There are also more or less changes in the speed of erythrocyte
sedimentation and blood clotting, as well as oscillations in the concentration of some
electrolytes: an increase in the concentration of Na, a decrease in K and Fe - at high doses -
and vice versa at low and repeated doses. It also decreases the concentration of creatine and
cholesterol due to the stressful action of UV radiation.
The endocrine glands react strongly to UV radiation, generally in the form of an
intensification of their function following the demand caused by irradiation: the pituitary
gland, by increasing the secretion of ACTH, to combat the harmful action of UV radiation,
the thyroid, by increasing the metabolism which, after some oscillations, can be 30-35%
higher than before irradiation, which is why hyperthyroid are recommended to abstain from
sun exposure, The adrenal gland reacts by eliminating 17 ketosteroids (5-14% more) and
decreasing eosinophils, tests that translate the phenomenon of stress, the pancreas, by
increasing blood sugar by about 10%.
The central nervous system is generally excited, subjected to a phenomenon of
stress, which is found in the form of amplification of EEG waves, especially alpha, until they
double.
The circulatory system undergoes an intensification of function (pulse, blood
pressure) especially 12-24 hours after irradiation, after which it returns to normal. By
repeating exposure, there can be intensification of the phenomena, which aggravate the
condition of some cardiovascular patients, who are often recommended to avoid prolonged
exposure to strong UV radiation.

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 The digestive system registers an intensification of digestive secretion functions and
motility, therefore gradual and prudent exposure is recommended, especially in those with
certain organic deficiencies.
Indirect effects of UV
Ozone is a photochemical of solar UV with a wavelength of less than 242 nm. It
undergoes daily, seasonal and geographical variations. Stable volatile substances released
from the Earth’s surface as a result of human activities can reach the ozone layer, being
broken down there by photochemical reactions. These are in particular chlorofluorocarbon
(CFCs).
The possibility of ozone depletion by increasing UV-B has important climatic and
biological implications, such as increasing the incidence of skin cancer.
UV protection. Dangerous doses of UV radiation and the need for minimal
irradiation to ensure optimal vitamin D production are appreciated.
The spectrum of action for the production of vitamin D is similar to that for UV
erythema. So, it is possible to estimate the UV doses required for cutaneous vitamin D
synthesis based on effective erythematogenic radiation. This dose has been found to be
around 60 MED in the head, neck and limbs.
Broad-spectrum solar products have been introduced to the market, aimed at
protecting against UV-A and B. Other chemical absorbers of UV-A such as oxybenzol or
inert titanium dioxide particles can block UV-A.
Animal experiments have shown an increase in skin aging and the appearance of
skin tumors after exposure to UV-A.
Artificial tanning is contraindicated for some risk groups: children under 16 years
of age, people who tan with difficulty, drug users, those who have more than 20 pigmentary
nevi with a diameter of 2 mm.
Ultraviolet A increases the risks of skin cancers, cataracts, penile and scrotum
cancer, facts found in those treated for psoriasis.
Appropriate clothing is an important protective factor against the harmful action of
UV radiation. It is light clothing, made of cotton, as thin as possible. Beta-carotene is also
thought to act as a systemic protector.

Light radiation
Natural light is a chromatic complex, in reality being made up of the combination
of seven colors, with wavelengths () decreasing from red to orange, yellow, green, blue,
indigo and violet, their quantitative proportion being different, namely having a maximum
in yellow (hence the maximum sensitivity of the eye in this color).

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 The intensity of natural light has great diurnal oscillations, it also shows seasonal
oscillations, in winter decreasing a lot. The wavelength of light radiation is between 400-
760 nm.
Sources of light radiation
The sun is the natural source, light radiation represents 40% of the solar spectrum.
Artificial light sources are represented by electric lamps, other sources being exceptional
and at the same time less advisable from an economic, sanitary and practical point of view.
Electric artificial lighting is done with incandescent lamps (which provide a light with a
dominant component of the yellow color and are less economical) and luminescent or
fluorescent lamps (with color light dependent on the structure of the lamp, it is also possible
to obtain the “white” color, close to the natural one). Artificial lighting is indispensable at
night, as well as during the day in places where natural light cannot penetrate.
The amount of light is represented by the luminous flux, which is the total energy of
 400-760 nm incident falling on the object being viewed. The higher it is, the more the
function of the eye is favored. More important than the luminous flux is the intensity or
spatial density of the light falling on the object being viewed. This stands for lighting or
lighting and is measured in the conventional unit referred to as luxury.
Quality refers to the spectral composition, i.e. the proportion of different
wavelengths in the overall luminous flux. The most physiological light from this point of
view is the one that the human eye has become accustomed to and according to which it has
been structured for thousands of generations, that is, light with a spectral composition similar
to the natural one.
Uniformity means the relatively similar intensity of light in the field of vision, in the
area in which man carries out his activity at a given moment, as well as in successive
moments, at a time interval of less than 10-30 minutes.
The oscillation of the photon energy of visible radiation is between 3.1 and 1.8 eV.
Although this energy is low, it can be absorbed by the body's tissues and is sufficient to
cause changes in the energy of tissue molecules, producing effects either directly or
indirectly. The direct effect results from chemical changes in the tissue, due to the absorption
of visible photons.
The action of light radiation on the human body
The direct action of light. The process of vision is necessarily associated with visible
radiation, it is not possible in the absence of light.
Light can be a direct risk to the eyes and skin, or indirectly, as a result of chemical
signals released by cells in response to exposure to visible photons. Examples: effects on
biological rhythms and inhibition of melatonin synthesis by the epiphysis.
The indirect action of light on health. In the life of plants and animals, including
humans, light is a permanent accompanying factor, on whose diurnal and seasonal

23
periodicity the intensity of vital phenomena depends, translated into biorhythms. Their
manifestation forms, very striking in some species, are quite evident in humans as well, light
being the most powerful synchronizer of both the circadian and seasonal rhythms.
The biological rhythms are multiple, different, but they are synchronized by an
internal clock that would be located in the supra-chiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus.
The pineal gland produces melatonin, which is a biological marker of the circadian
rhythm. Melatonin secretion is inhibited by a sufficient amount of light and increases greatly
under the influence of darkness.
Other effects of light also condition people's health and well-being, indirectly. One
of the fundamental functions in biology is photosynthesis, on which the plant cycle depends
and then all the exchanges of energy and materials in the biosphere.
Light has a special role in the psycho-social life of people, in the progress of
humanity in general, in this sense being significant the term synonymous with light that
renders on the one hand the physical notion, and on the other hand the psycho-intellectual
and social one.
Pathological effects resulting from deviations from lighting norms
Inadequate light causes intellectual fatigue due to the effort of concentration and the
stress caused by this discomfort. As a result of the long-term negative influence, pathological
effects on mental development, as well as the cardiovascular system, can be recorded. In the
case of temporary or chronic lack of light, behavioral disorders are recorded up to actual
mental illnesses, as can be seen in those forced to live in polar areas. Depression is
considered a desynchronization with the light environment. This influences the secretion of
melatonin. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that retinal receptors are involved
in the antidepressant response.
Accidents due to inadequate light (insufficient, glare, unevenness) occur both in the
conditions of the natural environment, and especially in the work and transport environment.
According to some hypotheses, immune diseases could be related to the disruption
of melatonin secretion. The autoimmune response in joint diseases would seem to be
exacerbated by obscurity (experimentally demonstrated).
Photosensitive epilepsy manifests itself at any age but predominantly at puberty, in
girls during menarche, so it would be an involvement of estrogens and the epiphysis. It is
triggered by exposure to intense, most often unstable and intermittent light ("light
pollution").
The skin. The absorption of light by the tissues produces heat. At sufficient
intensities, there is a rapid increase in temperature, which can denature proteins. The thermal
mechanism is the first disturbance for an exposure duration between one millisecond and 10
seconds.

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 The eyes. The human eye has high transparency to light, which is transmitted
through the ocular environment to the retina. The photons initiate a photochemical chain
reaction in the light-sensitive retinal absorbents, resulting in visual sensation.
Long-term exposure (more than 10 to 100 seconds) to light, above normal
environmental levels, can cause photochemical disturbances in the retina; permanent or
temporary retinal scotomas can occur.
One of the controversial issues associated with visible radiation is the effect of
lighting on professional performance. Workers over 40 years of age show more stress
symptoms such as headache, tired eyes, eye irritation, because they require more light to
perform a job, than younger workers. Around the age of 40-45 there is a loss of
accommodation, it is more difficult to concentrate at shorter distances from work. The pupils
become smaller with age (senile miosis). The symptoms of visual discomfort are: redness,
inflammation, tearing, headache, fatigue, strabismus, irritability, stress, decreased work
capacity, difficulty reading.
Dazzling light can cause visual discomfort, fatigue, irritability, headaches,
decreased work efficiency.
Prevention of the harmful effects of light radiation
The prevention of disturbances due to insufficient lighting and inadequate light is
achieved by ensuring its intensity, quality and uniformity as close as possible to the needs.
To avoid glare, an average protection angle of 10-300 lamps is ensured. For the same
purpose, glossy surfaces are avoided and their reflection factors are limited depending on
the nature of the activity, the position of the lamp. To ensure the optimal level and quality,
suitable lamps are used for general or local lighting. In this regard, optimal lighting is
ensured primarily by natural light whenever possible.
Artificial lighting is an undeniable physical factor of our daily indoor environment,
influencing physiological and psychological balance and can cause health problems.
Inadequate lighting leads to eye strain, manifested mainly by headache. Excessive
efforts to accommodate and converge intensify an existing myopia. Both the quantity and
quality of light are important. There is no enlightenment that satisfies everyone.
General principles of lighting. Sufficient lighting is essential for visual acuity, the
maximum speed of visual perception to prevent eye strain. The human eye is adapted for
outward vision where the intensity is 1,000 lx in the shade and 100.00 lx in the sun.
The lighting standard is set according to the light falling on the work surface. For
optimal visual perception conditions, 15-20 lx is accepted as a minimum lighting level. If
the reflection is low (working with dark colors, the contrast between the object and the
background is reduced), higher lighting values are required for good visual acuity and an
appropriate speed of visual perception.

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 Increased levels of lighting are necessary in the following situations: continuous
work that puts strain on the eyes; the size of the object is small; people with visual
impairments.
When the contrast between the object and the background is good and the object
being viewed is of normal size, an object illumination of 30 lx is sufficient. A low contrast,
and a small object, require a minimum illumination of 50 lx.
Large differences in lighting between one workspace and another, or between a
workspace and the hallway, require an adaptation process of about 1/2 hour for the view,
which can lead to accidents. That is why high levels of lighting are recommended for stairs,
hallways, storage rooms. The color and finish of walls, ceiling, furniture are of great
importance for lighting, because the amount of reflected light is mainly determined by color.
Infrared (IR) radiation
Infrared radiation constitutes the most quantitatively significant part of the radiant
spectrum and is found everywhere in nature, its flux moving from warmer to colder bodies.
The discovery of infrared radiation by Herschel (1801) by ascertaining the increase
in temperature with the help of a thermometer placed outside the red spectrum of the sun,
highlights their main feature, the caloric one. Infrared radiation has λ the highest of optical
radiation (over 760 nm).
If the Earth did not constantly receive IR from the Sun, life would not be possible.
All hot bodies emit this radiation. Infrared radiation is indispensable for life on Earth, but
isolated sources, especially professional ones, can pose localized thermal risks to the eyes
and skin.
Sources of infrared radiation. A simple scheme for presenting radiation sources is
as follows: sunlight, lamps, incandescent sources (heated body), lasers. Exposure to sunlight
varies greatly with climate, geographical location, altitude, activities carried out.
The action of infrared radiation on the human body. IR radiation can play a leading
role in thermoregulation, along with the other factors that make up the microclimate. If they
sum up their action, they can contribute to the production of hyperthermia and caloric shock,
a circumstance that affects the general population especially in tropical areas and during
periods of heat. The simplest disorder in these areas consists of reduced work capacity and
inability to rest. Children are affected to a greater extent, suffering from states of irritability,
digestive disorders and other consequences of gradual severity, which have been classified
by pediatricians into three categories of clinical forms: the neurovegetative form, the form
with organic disorders and the form of caloric shock
Action on the skin. Exposure of the skin to moderate IR radiation causes reversible
erythema, and prolonged exposure causes pathological erythema. Skin damage from IR
exposure results from an increased temperature in that tissue.

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 The temperature increase depends on the wavelength, the parameters involved in
heat conduction and dissipation, the intensity and duration of exposure.
The most obvious effects include acute skin burns, vasodilation of capillaries, and
increased pigmentation, which can persist for long periods of time. With continuous
exposure to high-intensity IR radiation, erythema due to vasodilation can become
permanent.
Action on the eyes. IR radiation produces thermal effects in the eyes. The cornea has
a high transparency at IR-A and becomes opaque to IR radiation above 2.5 μm. At moderate
doses of IR, pupil constriction, hyperemia may occur.
More severe exposures can lead to muscle paralysis, hemorrhage congestion,
thrombosis, and stromal inflammation. Within a few days, iris necrosis can cause discolored
atrophic areas. Mid-infrared, farther away from visible light, is completely absorbed by the
cornea, which can cause a corneal burn.
Near-visible light infrared is absorbed by the lens, which is very sensitive to heat
due to the absence of vascularization, which prevents its dispersion.
The mechanism of cataract production for IR has been debated for a long time. Some
results seem to support hypotheses that the iris must be involved in the production of
cataracts caused by IR, at least under conditions of acute exposure.
The retina is susceptible to IR because the ocular environment is relatively
transparent at these wavelengths. IR absorption by the retinal pigment epithelium produces
heat. If the heat is not dispersed quickly and the temperature of these tissues rises by about
20°C, irreversible thermal disturbances lead to the denaturation of proteins and other
macromolecules.
Action on the CNS. By exposing the uncovered head to intense solar IR radiation,
insolation can occur, a dramatic syndrome caused by the crossing of the cranium by IR
radiation with  800-1,000 nm and damage to the meninges, causing a local increase in its
temperature to 40-41ºC and other vascular changes. In the rest of the body, the effects of
meningeal injury are felt in the form of neuro-vascular symptoms: pallor, dry and warm skin,
tachycardia, convulsions, coma and even exitus. By switching the patient to shade and
coolness, applying cold compresses to the head and possibly injecting parenteral hypertonic
solutions, the phenomena disappear.
Prevention of the harmful effects of infrared radiation. The methods are individual
and collective, and are related to the design and systematization of localities, respectively to
the construction of buildings and the arrangement of green spaces.

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 NOISE POLLUTION

Noise is considered any unwanted sound that produces an unpleasant auditory

sensation. Sometimes, it can be a dangerous sound without being disagreeable (while
listening to music at high intensity).
Sound is produced either by the vibration of a body (vocal cords, metal blade,
bottles) or molecules in the air. It propagates from near to near, in the form of acoustic waves,
at a speed of 340 m/s, at a normal atmospheric pressure and a temperature of 15ºC.
The passage of the acoustic wave produces the variation in air pressure that can
stimulate the hearing aid. Therefore, sound can be defined as any variation in air pressure
that can be detected by the human ear. These variations are perceived by the ear when they
occur more quickly (at least 18-20 times per second).
Due to the many sources that produce it, noise does not appear as a permanent
environmental factor, which acts continuously on the human body.
The increase in noise intensity, especially in large urban agglomerations, has led to
the emergence of the notion of noise pollution. Knowing the harmfulness of noise and
ensuring acoustic comfort at work, on the street, at home, is a necessity.
Assessing the effects of noise pollution is difficult because, in addition to the
intensity with which it manifests itself, it depends on a large number of subjective factors.
The dependence on subjective factors makes the effects of noise difficult to appreciate, with
all the possibilities of accurately measuring its intensity. The noise produced by a waterfall
can be appreciated as very pleasant, even if its intensity far exceeds that considered
acceptable (not harmful). If the noise is produced during the performance of pleasant useful
activities, affective participation in these concerns cancels out the feeling of discomfort felt
by other people. On the other hand, there is an intolerance to noise produced by other
sources, including those of neighbors.
The quiet atmosphere during the night creates unexpected meanings and dimensions
for the weakest sound signals: the movements of a banal insect, the drops of water that drip
from a tap. The environment characterized by absolute silence creates a discomfort as
unpleasant and embarrassing as an excessively noisy environment.
The presence of background noise is so necessary that in modern buildings with a
soundproofing, an artificial sound background has been created to preserve the ability to
work.
Noise characteristics and units of measurement
The number of variations in air pressure over time per second or the number of
periods per second is called frequency and is measured in hertz (Hz).

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 Low sounds correspond to frequencies of 16–2,000 Hz and high-pitched sounds to
frequencies of 2,000–20,000 Hz. Below 20 Hz are the infrasound perceived as vibrations
and above 20,000 Hz are the ultrasounds that humans do not perceive, but some animals
perceive them.
The ear does not have the same sensitivity to different frequencies: perception is
finer in the midrange and less important to high-pitched and low sounds. The hearing area
for the ear, depending on the frequency, ranges from 16 Hz to 20,000 Hz.
The wavelength of a sound is a physical dimension that separates in the air 2
consecutive maxima of the sound wave, respectively two successive compressions or two
rarefactions of the air. It is calculated as follows:
 = c/f = cT
where c = speed of sound propagation in the air:
f = frequency;
T = period
The noise level measured in the form of the sound pressure level expressed in
decibels, refers to the comparison of the sound pressure level of a sound, compared to
another sound with a reference sound pressure. The reference sound pressure for the decibel
scale is the hearing threshold, i.e. the minimum sound pressure that produces an auditory
sensation for a sound of 1,000 Hz and 20 μPa. This is denoted 0 dB.
The sound pressure scale is capable of producing an auditory sensation, from 20 μPa
to 10,000,000 μPa and is compressed into a much narrower scale, usually between 0-120
dB. The dependence of the auditory sensation on frequency showed the need for a
measurement system in which to take it into account and the unit of measurement called
phono was reached. In this way, the deficiencies of the "scale in dB" are completed because
it considers the frequency; two sounds of varying frequencies and of the same intensity
physically measured in dB, produce very different auditory sensations.
Sound with a frequency of 1,000 Hz expressed in decibels (dB physical unit of
measurement) corresponds for all sound levels to the number of phons (physiological unit
of measurement). The scale is between 0-120 phones. The lower limit corresponds to sounds
that have not been perceived as auditory sensation, and the upper limit of the phonic scale
means painful auditory sensation. Between the two isophonic curves, lower and upper, the
human hearing area is included.
The assessment of the intensity of a sound in the phons therefore implies an active
intervention of the person making the measurement, through a subjective comparison with
a sound with a fixed frequency of 1000 Hz and with the possibility of changing the intensity
from 0 to 120 phons (dB). Therefore, the auditory intensity expressed in phons, of any sound,
is defined as numerically equal, with the level of intensity in dB of a pure sound having a
frequency of 1000 Hz.
The auditory sensation produced by a sound of 50 phons (50 dB in the frequency of
1,000 Hz) according to the isophonic curve 50, corresponds in different frequency ranges,
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to sounds with very varied intensities: 95 dB at 20Hz, 75 dB at 40 Hz, 58 dB at 100 Hz, 47
dB at 400 Hz, 42 dB at 4,000 Hz and 57 dB at 8,000 Hz.
Since the auditory perception of sound is not directly proportional to the level of
sound pressure, on the basis of experimental studies, another scale has been established, the
linear unit of measurement of which is sound.
Sound is defined as the auditory intensity produced by a sound with a frequency of
1,000 Hz and a sound intensity of 40 dB, or by any sound that has an auditory intensity level
of 40 voices.
The risk of hearing loss shall be considered when establishing the permissible limits
of the noise level, in order to achieve the most perfect hearing in as many people as possible.
For the objective, faithful assessment of the intensity of sound, sound level meters or more
correctly sound meters are used, whose sensitivity must be as close as possible to that of the
human ear, in order to allow an evaluation as close as possible to the human auditory
sensation.
Noise pollution in populated centers is characterized by intermittent, fluctuating
noises with different levels. To assess the harmfulness of these noises, the following were
used: auditory fatigue or temporary hearing loss (Temporary Threshold Shift).
In order to avoid the risk of irreversible damage, it is recommended to limit noise so
that it does not exceed this threshold.
Various proposals have been made for the lowest possible exposure to these noises:
single daily exposure limits to the action of stable noise, limit values for exposure to
intermittent noises that occur at regular intervals.
Fluctuating noises that occur randomly are difficult to assess. It has been proposed
to correlate the risk of hearing loss with the sound energy to which the ear is exposed during
a working day. Reducing the duration of exposure to noise may be accompanied by an
increase in the permissible sound level.

Propagation of sound waves in the atmosphere

The sound wave is refracted successively, when it passes from one layer of the
atmosphere to another. The trajectory of the sound rays is also conditioned by the value of
the temperature gradient.
The propagation of sound waves is little influenced by weather phenomena (rain,
snow, hail, fog), because they do not change the homogeneity of the atmospheric air; noise
absorption due to fog, snow or rain in practice is considered null.
Strong sunlight, through the formation of ascending and descending currents,
modifies the atmospheric homogeneity, which favors the reflection of sound waves.

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 Acoustic clouds (layers of heterogeneous air) favor the production of multiple
reflection and refraction of sound waves, which decreases their propagation at long distances
from the source. In the propagation of noise, a phenomenon of noise attenuation occurs,
related to the dissipation of energy by the friction of molecules, which depends on the
temperature and humidity of the air as well as on diffraction phenomena.

Sources of noise in the communal environment and homes

Road traffic, which is constantly increasing, is one of the most important sources of
noise and vibrations in populated centers (80% of the urban noise fund). Motor vehicles
produce noise at high speeds, by rubbing the tires against the asphalt, and at low speeds, the
main source of noise is the operation of the engine. Other sources related to motor vehicles
are exhaust and the operation of braking systems.
Trams are a source of urban noise during traffic and at the time of stoppage, when
the noise intensity can reach 50 dB. The noise produced by the subway is due to the friction
of the rail wheels and can reach 90-100 dB.
Air transport, which uses jet aircraft, is an important source of noise, with takeoffs
producing noises of 115-120 dB.
If the plane moves at a supersonic speed, there is an accumulation of waves that tend
to merge, and at the place where their cone meets the shock, there is often a single noise
called the sonic bang which is very disagreeable and can lead to the destruction of older
constructions.
Despite all the protests and measures imposed, the inhabitants in the vicinity of the
airports are subjected to the action of noises produced by airplanes at take-off and landing
(over 130 dB).
Other sources of noise are: compressors and pneumatic hammers used in the
construction and repair of streets, portable radios, industrial objectives located in the
perimeter of populated centers, especially if they are a short distance from residential areas.
In apartment blocks, elevators, televisions, household appliances, closing doors and
abnormally loud human voices can be sources of noise in case of inappropriate use.

Effects of noise pollution on the human body

The effects of noise pollution on the human body can manifest themselves in two
aspects: specific auditory reactions and non-specific extra-auditory reactions.
Specific auditory effects
These effects are divided into: physiological effects and pathological effects.
Physiological effects. For word perception, the most common frequency limits are
in the range 200-6,000 Hz.

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 Factors influencing speech intelligibility are: the acoustic characteristics of the
room, the mutual position of the interlocutors, the distance between the interlocutors, the
intensity characteristics of the voice.
Physiological effects include the masking effect and auditory fatigue.
The masking effect consists in decreasing the perception of the intelligibility of a
noise, due to the simultaneous presence of another different noise, which overlaps the initial
noise. This situation is manifested by an increase in the threshold of audibility of masked
sound, all the more obvious, the closer the intensity of masked and unmasked noises are. In
the case of simultaneous emission of several sounds, the loudest noise makes it difficult or
even impossible to receive the other noises correctly.
The words used in interpersonal communications have very diverse sound
intensities. Typically, the conversational voice has an intensity between 40-50 dB.
In children, the maximum pitch of sounds is observed around the age of 11. If until
puberty there is a small difference between the voice of boys and girls, after this period a
sudden change is observed in boys.
Auditory fatigue. It is characterized by a temporary increase in the threshold of
auditory perception, following exposure to the action of intense noise. Terms such as:
temporary deafness, temporary hearing loss or temporary change in the hearing threshold
are used. Temporary change in the hearing threshold was defined as a temporary decrease
in auditory sensitivity following exposure to noise, reversible to baseline values a few
minutes, hours, days, after the exposure stopped.
Auditory fatigue depends on the noise level and the duration of exposure to noise.
It is especially interested in frequencies of 4,000 Hz and is different from one person to
another. Auditory fatigue is accentuated by increasing the intensity, frequency and time of
exposure to noise. Auditory fatigue is a reversible wear and tear phenomenon, reversibility
is increasingly difficult as the time of exposure to noise increases. Thus, there is a slow,
imperceptible transition from the field of functional disorders to that of organic changes,
illustrated by the appearance of perceptual deafness.
Pathological effects due to noise
Sound trauma. It can occur after exposure to intense noise, even for a very short
time. Rupture of the eardrum is the consequence of the action of increased air pressure, such
as in the case of explosions or intense eruptions of gases from pressurized containers. Even
after the lesion has healed, deafness can persist for a long time for sounds with a frequency
above 9,000 Hz.
Exposure to noise with an intensity of 160 dB can cause the ladder to penetrate
through the oval window and infect the fluid in the inner ear. In case of explosion, the
eardrum can rupture, it is possible to dislocate the ossicles in the middle ear and the organ

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of Corti can be damaged. In the same situation, the snail in the inner ear can be affected with
the appearance of permanent perceptual deafness.
Perceptual deafness characterized by alteration of the hair cells of the inner ear is
irreversible and therefore rebellious to any therapy. This is explained by the fact that hair
cells do not renew themselves during life.
Hearing impairment for certain frequencies can occur at 70 dB. A danger in the same
sense is presented by the detonation of a firearm.
Prolonged exposure to noises of 85 dB and above, which is found in various
occupational activities, causes deafness that becomes an occupational disease. This level of
85 dB has been considered since 1989 as a maximum exposure of workers.
Noise accelerates the onset of presbycusis, deafness due to age.
The risk of noise-induced deafness increases as a result of the use of ototoxic
products. Animal experiments have shown that certain antibiotics (kanamycin) cause the
destruction of hearing cells by exposure to noise, at doses at which these drugs had no
harmful effects. High doses of aspirin may have caused temporary deafness and tinnitus.
Sleep disturbance
Sleep has a restorative function of mental and physical fatigue, and
electroencephalography has made it possible to ascertain different actions of noise on sleep:
• difficult falling asleep, the duration of sleep (25-30 minutes) is double;
• waking up during the night: a noise of 70 dB wakes everyone up;
• change in sleep stages: REM sleep, with shortening of the dream period;
• the total duration of sleep is reduced;
• changes during sleep: peripheral vasoconstriction and tachycardia at 55 dB.
Non-specific extra-auditory effects
Exposure to noise can cause functional changes that are very different in frequency
and intensity, and their mechanism of production is often incompletely understood. The
action of the noise goes beyond the damage to the acoustic analyzer, being received by other
organs as well. Clinical symptoms characterized by ringing of the ears (tinnitus) are the first
signs whose etiology is related to the sound stimulus. Other signs: headache, nausea against
the background of neurovegetative dystonia, fatigue that comes first. Laboratory
examination indicates an increase in ESR, eosinophilia. Weight loss can be very significant.
In case of cessation of noise action, in 2-3 weeks a return to normal is observed.
Deafness generated by exposure to noise alters the mental state of affected people,
due to difficulty understanding speech, a feeling of isolation. As the high frequencies (4,000
Hz) are affected, the conversational voice changes, it presents a dull, guttural timbre and
requires the larynx, as a result of which mucus secretions appear in the tracheo-laryngeal
region and the vocal cords are hyperemic. Respiratory movements change, become short,

33
chest amplitude is reduced, heart rate is slowed, and blood pressure is lowered. These people
are isolated from the environment, lack enthusiasm and are permanently tired.
The intensification of harmonics superior to low sounds makes many of the
functional, psychophysiological changes mentioned above disappear.
These aspects also illustrate the many interferences that the auditory pathways
present through their vast network of connections at the level of the sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous systems.

Measures to combat noise in populated centers

Since noise is one of the major discomfort factors, combating it is a very topical
problem. Some specialists consider noise as serious as chemical pollution of the
environment.
Each person must ensure his or her individual protection, having knowledge of the
effects of noise on the body. Listening to music should be done at a sound volume that is not
dangerous. As means of transport are an important source of noise, the ban on honking in
some population centers has contributed substantially to reducing it. Proper maintenance of
engines, with exhaust pipes in perfect condition and proper braking systems, are factors that
reduce noise pollution. These measures must be applied in particular to noisy means of
transport with high intensities (heavy traffic).
The maintenance of the street network in optimal conditions contributes to a large
extent to maintaining sound comfort, by reducing the noise due to the shocks that occur
during the driving of vehicles over the uneven or degraded portions of the street.
Another measure: road traffic in the perimeter of populated centers should be
regulated, in the sense of establishing differentiated routes, by categories of vehicles.
The noise produced by airplanes is very intense, causing noise pollution that is much
disputed by residents in the vicinity of airports. While some results in terms of intensity
attenuation have been achieved for jet aircraft, the problem of noise produced by supersonic
aircraft has remained unresolved. To ensure sound comfort, it is recommended to prohibit
the flight of supersonic aircraft over populated centers.
In addition to reducing noise at source level, another protective measure is to reduce
the transmission of noise by air. Noise propagates through any airtightness of the building,
so it is recommended to plug the cracks with plaster or acrylic putty, plug the holes with a
resistant material. Hermetic joints must also be made between walls at ground and ceiling
level, to ensure sound insulation.
In order to reduce noise, it is also recommended to use soundproofing screens. If the
noises are multiple, the effectiveness of the screens is nil. In order to have an effect, the
acoustic screen must be sized in such a way that it is 2 times longer than the wavelength of
the sound against which the protection is made. The effectiveness of green screens is reduced
and depends on the tree essences, the size of the branches, the leaves and a dense planting

34
of leafy trees brings only a reduction of 1 dB per 10 m thickness. Through trials, it has been
observed that these screens in vegetation reduce the level of low-frequency noise a little, but
manage to slightly reduce, by absorption, the level of continuous noises of medium and acute
frequency and by absorption and diffusion.
Environmental noise management targets the noise level to which the population is
subjected especially in: built/residential urban areas, in public parks and gardens, in areas
near educational establishments, in areas near hospitals.
The permissible values of the noise level at the limit of the functional areas in the
urban environment are given in table IV.4.
TABLE IV. 4.
Permissible noise levels values
Level Value of the
CONSIDERED SPACE
Equivalent noise (dB) curve noise (dB)
Parks, recreation and rest areas, spa treatment areas 45 40
Schools, nurseries, kindergartens, playgrounds 75 70
Stadiums, open-air cinemas 90 85
Markets, commercial spaces, outdoor restaurants 65 60
Industrial enclosures 65 60
Car parks 90 85
Car parks with underground service stations 90 85
Railway areas 70 65
Airports 90 85

Noise reduction by building materials. Bricks are twice as insulating as sheet metal,
glass, wood. To fulfill its soundproofing role, the wall that separates two apartments must
be at least 17 cm. Windows represent the acoustically fragile part of a façade and are made
up of two parts (glass and frame). If the glazing is double and the joinery is not sealed, the
interior of the building is not protected from road noise. A simple window attenuates outside
noise by 22 dB. A double glazing – one 10 mm and the other 4 mm – separated by a 6 mm
air barrier with quality joinery, can reduce noise levels by 34-37 dB.

SELECTED REFERENCES

1. Gavăt V, Petrariu FD, Gavăt CC, Azoicăi D. Factorii de risc din mediu și sănătatea Iași: Editura
“Edit DAN” Iași, 2001.
2. Gavăt V. Sănătatea mediului și implicațiile sale în medicină Iași: Editura
“Gr. T. Popa” Iași, 2007.
3. Nițescu M. Igiena:curs pentru studenți. București: Editura Universitară “Carol Davila”, 2018.
4. [Link]/legislatie/norme/norme-de-securitate-radiologica/
5. Legea Nr. 121 / 03.07.2019 privind Evaluarea și gestionarea zgomotului ambiant.

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