STRUCTURE OF

NEURONs
Dr.NIKHIL.G.PANPALIA
Guide: Dr.K.R.NAIK
•Historical
background
 HISTORY OF NEURONS

• Cell theory
➢ In 1838 Theodore Schwann and Matthias Schleiden
proposed that the cell was the basic functional unit
of all living things.
➢ The complexity and small size of most neurons
made elucidating the structure of the neuron the
most formidable task in the field of histology, and
the debate about the fine structure of the nervous
system spanned most of the nineteenth century.
 Purkinje’s work
Johannes Evangelista Purkinje

• One of the first people to use the new compound microscopes to

investigate nervous tissue was Johannes Evangelista Purkinje
• Dopaminergic midbrain neurons
• Cerebellar cells which bear his name.
• Purkinje’s speculations on the functions of the entities he had
discovered suggest that he contributed more to the Neuron
Doctrine :
“With reference to the importance of the corpuscles…they are probably
central structures…because of their whole organization in three
concentric circles [i.e. cytoplasm, nuclear membrane and nucleolus]
which may be related to the elementary brain and nerve fibres…as
centres of force are related to the conduction pathways of force, or like
the ganglia to the nerves of the ganglion, or like the brain substance to
the spinal cord and cranial nerves. This means they would be collectors,
generators and distributors of the neural organ.”
 Golgi contribution Camillo Golgi

• Staining method – Camillo Golgi (1843-1926, right).

• Golgi staining or Golgi impregnation - involves
hardening of tissue in potassium bichromate and
ammonia immersion in a silver nitrate solution.
• In 1873, Golgi published descriptions of hippocampal
and cerebellar tissue that he had stained using his
new technique. Golgi reasserts his belief that the
nervous system consists of a reticulum .

Hippocampus Cerebellum
 Cajal work
• Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1852-1934) - neuron was the
anatomical and functional of the nervous system.
• Cajal examined nervous tissue from embryos, - the
axon and dendrites grow out of the cell body of the
neuron.
• Cajal describes the basket cells in the molecular layer
of the cerebellar cortex:
“They are small, globular, and irregular…[and] supplied with
numerous protoplasmic prolongations [dendrites]. The special
character of these cells is the striking arrangement of their nerve
filament [axon], which arises from the cell body but also very often
from any thick, protoplasmic expansion[dendrite].”

Chicken cerebellum by Santiago Ramony y Cajal

 Neuron doctrine
✓ The neuron is the fundamental structural and
functional unit of the nervous system
✓ Neurons are discrete cells which are not
continuous with other cells
✓ The neuron is composed of 3 parts – the
dendrites, axon and cell body, and
✓ Information flows along the neuron in one
direction (Dendrites to the Axon, via the Cell
body).
• Neuron Term introduced in 1891.

• The axis cylinder Axon was coined by RudolphVon

Kollicker

• protoplasmic processes Dendrites was termed by

WilhelmHis

• Charles Sherrington described the junction between

nerve and muscle, and named it the Synapse
•Introduction
 What is neuron ?
• Excitable cells specialized for reception of
stimuli and conduction of impulses.
▪ Brain, Spinal cord and Ganglia
▪ No division and replication
▪ The human nervous system is estimated to consist of
roughly 360 billion non-neural glial cells and 90 billion
nerve cells.
• Neurons are post mitotic structures therefore
they donot divide.
 Neurons vs. Other Cells

• Similarities with other cells: • Differences that make neurons

• Neurons and other body cells unique:
both contain a nucleus that holds • Unlike other body cells, neurons
genetic information. stop reproducing shortly after
• birth.
Neurons and other body cells are •
surrounded by a membrane that Neurons have a membrane that is
protects the cell. designed to sends information to
• other cells.
The cell bodies of both cell types • Theaxon and dendrites are
contain organelles that support specialized structures designed to
the life of the cell, including transmit and receive information.
mitochondria, Golgi bodies, and • The connections between cells
cytoplasm. are known as a synapses.
• Neurons release chemicals known
as neurotransmitters into these
synapses to communicate with
other neurons.
 Cell Body

Nucleus

Nucleolus
Neurons consist of a main
part called the cell body,
which contains the nucleus
and various organelles.
 Dendrites
Neurons also contain cell body
“extensions” called processes or
neurites, which carry impulses to
and from the cell body.

Two different types of processes can

come from the cell body. The first is
called the dendrite and the other the
axon. axon
Dendrites, also called afferent
processes, carry impulses TOWARDS
the cell body.

Axons, also called efferent processes,

carry impulses AWAY from the cell body.
Types of neurons
 Types of neurons
• Classified according three methods
1) Morphology
2) Size
3) Function
 Morphological classification
• Unipolar
• Multipolar
• Bilpolar
 Unipolar neurons
• Unipolar neurons - cell body has a
single neurite that divides a short
distance from the cell body into two
branches, one proceeding to some
peripheral structure and the other
entering the central nervous system .
• Examples -found in the posterior root
ganglion. Cell body

Dendrites
Unipolar neurons
 Multipolar neurons
• Multipolar neurons have a number of
neurites arising from the cell body .
• With the exception of the long
process, the axon, the remainder of
the neurites are dendrites.
• Most neurons of the brain and spinal
cord are of this type.
 Bipolar neurons
• Bipolar neurons possess
an elongated cell body,
from each end of which a
single neurite emerges .
• Examples of this type of
neuron are found in the
retinal bipolar cells and
the cells of the sensory
cochlear and vestibular
ganglia.
 According to size
• Golgi type I neurons
have a long axon.
– Pyramidal cells of the cerebral
cortex
– Purkinje cells of the cerebellar
cortex Golgi Type ii Neuron
– Motor cells of the spinal cord

• Golgi type II neurons

have a short axon
cerebral and cerebellar cortex

Pyramidal cells (Golgi Type I

neurons Golgi Type ii Neuron
 Functional classification
• Sensory or afferent neuron
• Motor or efferent neuron
• Interneuron or association neuron
Sensory neurons or Afferent neurons

• Periphery of the body to the Central nervous system.

•These neurons are usually concentrated in areas called ganglia and
their dendrite branches extend to the skin or to sensory organs and act
as sensory receptors (either directly or indirectly).
Motor neurons or Efferent neurons
•These neurons carry impulses Away from the cell body and thus the
central nervous system to muscles, gland, or some other “effector” to
produce a certain action.
•Most of the neurons in the spinal cord and many of those in the brain
are motor neurons.
Interneurons or Association neurons
• This type of neuron is restricted to the central nervous system.
• They are also called connector neurons.
•These neurons act as bridges between sensory and motor neurons or
relay impulses to various functional centers of the brain or spinal cord.
Structure of neuron
 Structure of neurons
1. Cell body and its organelles
2. Plasma membrane
3. Nerve cells processes
Main structures of Cell body
• Nucleus
• Cytoplasmic organelles
 Nucleus of cell body
• Large, rounded Dendrites

• Appears Pale, chromatin widely

scattered; single prominent
nucleolus; Barr body present in
Nucleus
female
• Located centrally placed, displaced
to periphery in cell injury Nucleolus

• Functions in controlling cell activity

• Meshwork of neuronal and glial
processes are collectively termed as
neuropil
Body of nerve cell

neuropil

Photomicrograph - Section Anterior grey column of Spinal cord

Nucleolus
• Structure - Small
circular structure(s)
within nucleus
• Function(s) -Synthesis
and partial assembly
of ribosomes
 Cytoplasm and its organalles
• Cytoplasm is rich in granular
and agranular substance.
• Suspends the organelles within
the cell
• Fills the cell and gives it shape
• Allows nutrients to move
about the cell
• Following are the cytoplasmic
organalles
 Nissls substance
• Nissl substance consists of granules that are
distributed throughout the cytoplasm of the cell
body, except for the region close to the axon,
called the axon hillock .
• The granular material also extends into the
proximal parts of the dendrites; it is not present
in the axon.
• Appearance: Nissl substance is composed of
rough-surfaced endoplasmic reticulum arranged
in the form of broad cisternae stacked one on top
of the other.
• Many of the ribosomes are attached to the
surface of the endoplasmic reticulum.
• Since the ribosomes contain RNA, the Nissl
substance is basophilic and can be well
demonstrated by staining with toluidine blue
or other basic aniline dyes and using the light
microscope.
 Functions of Nissls substance
• The Nissl substance is responsible for
synthesizing protein, which flows along the
dendrites and the axon and replaces the
proteins that are broken down during cellular
activity.
Ribosomes
• Structure - Dot-like
organelles attached to the
rough ER or free in the
cytosol
• Function(s) – Reads RNA
to synthesize proteins
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Structure – a system of
membranous tubes and
sacs covered with dark
dots (ribosomes)
• Function(s)
-Makes alterations to
proteins produced by
ribosomes
-Folds proteins into the
correct shape
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Structure - A system of
membranous tubules and
sacs
• Function(s) - helps move
lipids, steroids, and fatty
acids within the cell
(intracellular highway);
regulates calcium levels;
breaks down toxic
substances
 Golgi complex
• The Golgi complex, when seen
with the light microscope after
staining with a silverosmium
method, appears as a network
of irregular wavy threads
around the nucleus.
• In electron micrographs, it
appears as clusters of flattened
cisternae and small vesicles
made up of smooth-surfaced
endoplasmic reticulum.
 Functions of Golgi complex
• The protein produced by the Nissl substance is
transferred to the inside of the Golgi complex in
transport vesicles, where it is temporarily stored.
• Golgi complex is specialized for different types of
enzymatic reaction.
• At the trans side of the complex, the
macromolecules are packaged in vesicles for
transport to the nerve terminals.
• The Golgi complex is also thought to be active in
lysosome production and in the synthesis of cell
membranes.
 Mitochondria
• Mitochondria are found scattered throughout the cell body,
dendrites, and axons .
• They are spherical or rod shaped.
• In electron micrographs, the walls show a characteristic
double membrane . The inner membrane is thrown into
folds or cristae that project into the center of the
mitochondrion.
• Mitochondria possess many enzymes, which are localized
chiefly on the inner mitochondrial membrane. These
enzymes take part in the tricarboxylic acid cycle and the
cytochrome chains of respiration.
• Therefore, mitochondria are important in nerve cells, as in
other cells, in the production of energy.
 Electron micrograph of a Neuron
Nucleus & Number of cytoplasmic organelles
 Neurofibrils
• Neurofibrils, as seen with the light microscope
after staining with silver, are numerous and run
parallel to each other through the cell body into
the neurites .
• With the electron microscope, the neurofibrils
may be resolved into bundles of Neurofilaments
each filament measuring about 10 nm in
diameter .
• The neurofilaments form the main component of
the cytoskeleton.
Figure 2-13 Photomicrograph of a silver-stained section of a neuron showing the
presence of largesection
Silver stained numbers
of aofNeuron
neurofibrils
showingin the cytoplasm
presence of the
of large cell body
numbers and
of neurofibrils in
the neurites. cytoplasm of the cell body & neurites
 Microfilaments
• Microfilaments measure about 3 to 5
nm in diameter and are formed of
actin.
• Microfilaments are concentrated at
the periphery of the cytoplasm just
beneath the plasma membrane
where they form a dense network.
• Together with microtubules,
microfilaments play a key role in the
formation of new cell processes and
the retraction of old ones.
• They also assist the microtubules in
axon transport.
 Microtubules
• They measure about 25 nm in diameter and
are found interspersed among the
neurofilaments .
• They extend throughout the cell body and its
processes
• The microtubules and the microfilaments
provide a stationary track that permits specific
organelles to move by molecular motors.
• They are responsible for cell transport.
• Cell transport involves the movement of
membrane organelles, secretory material,
synaptic precursor membranes, large dense
core vesicles, mitochondria, and smooth
endoplasmic reticulum.
• Cell transport can take place in both
directions in the cell body and its processes.
• It is of two kinds: rapid (100 to 400 mm per
day) and slow (0.1 to 3.0 mm per day).
• Rapid transport (100 to 400 mm per day) is
brought about by two motor proteins
associated with the microtubule adenosine
triphosphate (ATP)-ase sites;
• Kinesin for anterograde (away from the cell)
movement
• Dynein for retrograde movement.
• Slow transport (0.1 to 3.0 mm per day)
involves the bulk movement of the cytoplasm
and includes the movement of mitochondria
and other organelles.
• Slow axonal transport occurs only in the
anterograde direction.
(A) Longitudional section of two adjacent dentrites (B) Transverse section of a dentrites

Electron micrograph of dentrites showing presence of neurofilament & microtubules within their cytoplasm
 Lysosomes
• Lysosomes are membrane-bound vesicles measuring
about 8 nm in diameter.
• They serve the cell by acting as intracellular
scavengers and contain hydrolytic enzymes. Digesting
• Lysosomes exist in three forms: enzymes
(1) primary lysosomes, which have just been formed;
(2)secondary lysosomes, which contain partially
digested material (myelin figures)
(3)residual bodies, in which the enzymes are inactive
and the bodies have evolved from digestible
materials such as pigment and lipid.
Centrioles
• Structure - Cylindrical
bodies that appear
during cell division
• Function(s) – Help move
DNA during division in
animal cells
• Found In - Animal cells
only
cytoplasm
▪ jelly-like material holding lysosome
organelles in place ▪ food digestion
▪ garbage disposal &
vacuole & vesicles recycling
nucleus
▪ transport inside cells ▪protects DNA
▪ storage ▪controls cell

ribosomes
mitochondria ▪ builds proteins
▪ make ATP energy
from sugar + O2 Golgi apparatus
cell membrane ▪finishes, packages
▪ cell boundary ER & ships proteins
▪ controls movement ▪helps finish proteins
of materials in & out ▪makes membranes
▪ recognizes signals
 2) Plasma membrane
• It is the site for the initiation and conduction of the nerve
impulse
• The plasma membrane is composed of an inner and an outer
layer of very loosely arranged protein molecules separated by
a middle layer of lipid .
• Certain protein molecules lie within the phospholipid layer
and span the entire width of the lipid layer. These molecules
provide the membrane with hydrophilic channels through
which inorganic ions may enter and leave the cell.
Resting state
Excited state
Returns to resting state
Ion Channels and the AP
 Properties of the Action Potential
• The action potential:
– Is an “all or none” event: membrane potential either
passes threshold or doesn’t
– Is propagated down the axon membrane
– Has a fixed amplitude: AP’s don’t change in height to
signal information (nondegremental)
– Has a conduction velocity (meters/sec)
– Has a refractory period in which stimulation will not
produce an AP (limits the firing rate)

.
 Saltatory Conduction
• The “jumping” of an impulse between the “Nodes of Ranvier”
dramatically increasing it’s speed.
 3) Nerve cell processes
• Dendrites
• Axons
 Dendites
• The membrane of the neuron functions as a
receptive surface over its entire extent; however,
specific inputs (termed afferents) from other cells
are received primarily on the surface of the cell
body and on the surface of the specialized processes
known as dendrites.
• The dendritic processes may branch extensively and
are often covered with projections known
as dendritic spines.
• Spines provide a tremendous increase in the
surface area available for synaptic contacts.
• Dendrites contain numerous orderly arrays of
microtubules and fewer neurofilaments.
• The microtubule associated proteins (MAPs) in
the dendrite have a higher molecular weight
than those found in the axon. An example is
MAP2.
 Why do dendrites have so much
branches?
• Dendrites provide an enlarged surface area to
receive signals from the terminal buttons of
other axons allowing for a chemical signal to
pass simultaneously to many target cells.
 Dendrites

Figure :Diagrammatic
representation of the
neuron dendrite,
emphasizing the areas of
contact by other afferent
inputs to the neuron.
 Axon hillock
• The cone-shaped region of the cell body where the
axon originates is termed the axonhillock. This area
is free of ribosomes and most other cell organelles,
with the exception of cytoskeletal elements and
organelles that are being transported down the
axon.
• The region between the axon hillock and the
beginning of the myelin sheath is known as
the initial segment. In many cases, this region is
the anatomical location for the initiation of the
action potential.
.
 Axons
• The other type of process in the
idealized neuron is the axon. Each
neuron has only one axon and it is
usually straighter and smoother than the
dendritic profiles.
Axon Hillock
• Axons also contain bundles
of microtubules and neurofilaments and
scattered mitochondria.
• Microfilaments within the axon are Initial segment of
axon
usually associated with an area adjacent Microtubules
to the plasmalemma and often are the
most dense at the nodes of Ranvier.
• The axon itself is often surrounded by a membranous
material, called the myelin sheath, formed by glia cells.
• The myelin sheath acts to insulate the plasmalemma of
the axon in a way that necessitates the more rapid
spread of the depolarization of the plasmalemma and
increases the speed of conduction of the nerve
impulse.
• At the distal-most end of the axon and its collaterales
are small branches whose tips are button-shaped
cytoplasmic enlargements called terminal boutons or
nerve endings
 AXON vs DENDRITE
AXON DENDRITE

• Only one axon is present in a • Dendrites are usually multiple in

neuron. number in a neuron.
• It is a thin long process of • These are short multiple
uniform thickness and smooth processes. Their thickness
diminishes as these divide
surface. repeatedly. The branches are
• The branches of axon are studded with spiny projections.
fewer and at right angles to • The dendrites branch profusely
the axon. and are given off at acute angles.
• Axon contains neurofibrils and • Dendrites contain both
no Nissl’s granules. neurofibrils and Nissl’s granules.
• It forms the efferent • Dendrites form the afferent
component of the impulse. component of the impulse
Synapse
 Synapse
• It is the site of interneuronal communication
• There is a physical gap between pre- and post-synaptic
membranes.
• Presynaptic membrane is typically an axon and it contains
• Mitochondria that provide energy for axon functions
• Vesicles (round objects) that contain neurotransmitter
• Cisternae that are a part of the Golgi apparatus: recycle
vesicles
• Postsynaptic membrane can be
• A dendrite (axodendritic synapse)
• A cell body (axosomatic synapse)
• Another axon (axoaxonic synapse)
Most neurons make synaptic connection to 1000 or more neurons
and receive upto 10,000 connections from other neurons.
 Types of synapses
• There are two fundamentally different types
of synapses:
1. Electrical synapse
2. Chemical synapse.
 Electrical synapse
• In an electrical synapse, the presynaptic and
postsynaptic cell membranes are connected by special
channels called gap junctions that are capable of
passing electric current, causing voltage changes in the
presynaptic cell to induce voltage changes in the
postsynaptic cell.
• The main advantage of an electrical synapse is the
rapid transfer of signals from one cell to the next.
• They are rare in human CNS.
• They can be bidirectional while chemical synapse are
unidirectional.
 Chemical synapse
• In a chemical synapse, electrical activity in the
presynaptic neuron is converted (via the
activation of voltage-gated calcium channels) into
the release of a chemical called a
neurotransmitter that binds to receptors located
in the plasma membrane of the postsynaptic cell.
• The neurotransmitter may initiate an electrical
response or a secondary messenger pathway that
may either excite or inhibit the postsynaptic
neuron.
• Chemical synapses can be classified according
to the neurotransmitter released:
➢glutamatergic(often excitatory),
➢ GABAergic (often inhibitory),
➢cholinergic (e.g. vertebrate neuromuscular
junction), and
➢adrenergic (releasing norepinephrine).
 Neurotransmitter Release

• Vesicles lie “docked” near the presynaptic membrane

• The arrival of an action potential at the axon terminal
opens voltage-dependent CA++ channels
– CA++ ions flow into the axon
– CA++ ions change the structure of the proteins that bind the
vesicles to the presynaptic membrane
– A fusion pore is opened, which results in the merging of the
vesicular and presynaptic membranes
• The vesicles release their contents into the synapse
– Released transmitter then diffuses across cleft to interact with
postsynaptic membrane receptors
81
 Postsynaptic Receptors

• Molecules of neurotransmitter (NT) bind to receptors

located on the postsynaptic membrane
– Receptor activation opens postsynaptic ion channels
– Ions flow through the membrane, producing either
depolarization or hyperpolarization
– The resulting postsynaptic potential (PSP) depends on which
ion channel is opened
• Postsynaptic receptors alter ion channels
– Directly (ionotropic receptors)
– Indirectly, using second messenger systems that
require energy (metabotropic receptors)
 Postsynaptic Potentials
• PSPs are either excitatory (EPSP) or inhibitory (IPSP)
– Opening NA+ ion channels results in an EPSP
– Opening K+ ion channels results in an IPSP
• PSPs are conducted down the neuron membrane
• Neural integration involves the algebraic summation
of PSPs
– A predominance of EPSPs at the axon will result in an
action potential
– If the summated PSPs do not drive the axon membrane
past threshold, no action potential will occur
 Neuromodulator
• Modulate and modify the activity of
postsynaptic neuron
• They donot have direct effect rather they
enhance, prolong and inhibit the effect of
principal neurotransmitter on postsynaptic
membrane.
• Act on G protein coupled receptors
• Ex. Acetycholine, serotonin, histamine and
adenosine
 Source of information
• Snells neuroanatomy

• Grays anatomy
Thank you