CSC 101

(INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING I)

LECTURE NOTES BY:

MR S. BAKARI

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE,

MAU, YOLA

CSC 101 LECTURE NOTES BY: MR S. BAKARI. DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE, M.A.U, YOLA
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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
Our lifestyle has undergone a tremendous change with the advancement of technology
especially in the field of computer and information technology (I.T). Computers are
now integral part of our day-to-day life as they are found in our offices, homes, schools,
colleges hotels, shops, in fact, every aspect of our life has been greatly affected by
computers.
This advancement in technology has made our life easier and more comfortable. For
instance, we can execute a number of activities using computer based systems. We can
write a draft on ward processor and email it, make financial and statistical calculations
using electronic spreadsheet software like MS Excel, we can also make Architectural
and Engineering drawings and modeling using design software like Auto-card.
To a layman understanding, a computer is defined as an electronic device, operating
under the control of some logical instructions stored in its own memory unit, that can
accept data (input), manipulate the data according to specified rules (process), produce
output and store the result for future use.
History of Computers
The Abacus
Abacus is known to be the first mechanical calculating device. Which was used perform
addition and subtraction easily. This device was a first developed by the Egyptians in
the 10th century B.C, but it was given it final shape in the 12th century A.D. by the
Chinese educationists.
Abacus is made of a wooden frame, metal rods, and wooden beads in which rod where
fitted across with rounds beads sliding on the rods. It is divided into two parts called
‘Heaven’ and ‘Earth’. Heaven was the upper part and Earth was the lower one, thus any
number can be represented by placing the beads at proper place.

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The Abacus

Napier ’s bones
John Napier, a Scottish mathematician, Physicist and astronomer invented a calculating
device, in 1617 called the Napier Bones. It was a better calculating device. In this
device, Napier used the bone rods for the counting purpose where some numbers are
printed on these rods. Using this machine, they can do addition, multiplication,
subtraction and division in an efficient way.

The Napier’s Bones

The Pacaline
Blaise Pascal was a French mathematician and physicist. Pascal had invented the first
calculating machine in the year 1642. He was 19 years old that time. The machine was
meant to assist his father’s work as a tax collector.

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Pascal machine consists of clogged wheels, gears, and dials. Each wheel was divided
into ten sections, representing numbers, and the mechanism allowed a carry from one
wheel to the next.
This principle is still in use today. Odometers in cars use Pascal’s wheel principle to
keep track of the number of kilometers traveled. The machine had input, processing and
output devices, and was only capable of addition.

The Pascaline
The Jacquard Loom
The Jacquard loom is a mechanical loom, invented by Joseph Marie Jacquard in 1800.
The loom simplifies the process of manufacturing textiles with complex patterns such
as brocade, damask, and matelassé.
In 1725, French weaver, Basile Bouchon constructed a weaving loom that could be
controlled by holes in a roll of paper. The holes allowed some needles in the loom to be
engaged, while others were held back.
The loom was, therefore “programmed” by the placement of the holes in the roll of
paper to produce a particular pattern. However, in Bouchon’s loom, someone had to be
employed to control the needles and decide which would be used for each line of weave
in the fabric.
But Joseph-Marie Jacquard improved upon Bouchon’s design by developing a loom
which used a punched card to control each line of the weave. Over 1000 needles could
be controlled at one time, and very intricate designs were easily created.

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The Jacquard Loom
Babbage Analytical Engine
Charles Babbage was a mathematics professor at Trinity College in Cambridge,
England. After several unsuccessful attempts at building a mechanical calculating
machine, Babbage developed the analytical engine in 1834.
Babbage’s designs were similar to the general design of modern-day computers. It
includes a central arithmetic unit for calculating, called a mill, an area for retaining
numbers, called a store, and sophisticated methods for input and output.
While working on his analytical engine, Babbage began a lengthy correspondence with
poet Lord Byron’s daughter, Ada Augusta, Countess of Lovelace.
Lady Lovelace became fascinated with Babbage’s ideas, and in her analysis of his
analytical engine, she developed the essential ideas of programming, such as
“branching” to perform decisions and repetitions.
Because of her work in this area, she is considered to be the first computer
programmer. The programming language “Ada” is named after her.

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Babbage’s Analytical Engine
First Generation (1946-1959)
The first generation computers had the following features:
 They used Vacuum Tubes for circuitry
 Punch Cards were used for storage
 It supported machine language.
 It had slow performance
 It occupied large size due to the use of vacuum tubes.
 It had a poor storage capacity.
 It consumed a lot of electricity and generated a lot of heat.
The examples of first generation computers are:
 ENIAC
 UNIVACTBM 701
Second Generation (1959-1965)
Several advancements in the first generation computers led to the development of
second generation computers.
Following are various changes in features and components of second generation
computers
 Transistors had replaced Vacuum Tubes for circuitry
 Punch cards were replaced by Magnetic Tapes for storage
 Batch operating system
 Faster and smaller in size
 Reliable and energy efficient than the previous generation
 Less costly than the previous generation
The examples of second generation computers are:
 Honeywell 400
 CDC 1604
 IBM 7030
Third Generation (1965-1971)
Following are the various components and features of the third generation computers:

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  Integrated Circuits made from semi-conductor materials had replaced
transistor for circuitry.
 Large capacity disks and magnetic tapes
 Supports time-sharing OS
 Faster, smaller, more reliable and cheaper than the previous generations
 Easy to access
The examples of second generation computers are:
 IBM 360/370
 CDC 6600
 PDP 8/11
Fourth Generation (1971-2010)
Fourth generation computers have the following components and features:
 ICs with Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) technology
 Semiconductor memory
 Magnetic tapes and Floppy
 Small & easy to use; hand-held computers have evolved
 This generation saw the development of networks and the internet
 It saw the development of new trends in GUIs and mouse
The examples of second generation computers are:
 Apple II
 VAX 9000
 CRAY 1 (super computers)
Fifth Generation (2010-Present)
These are the modern and advanced computers. Significant changes in the components
and operations have made fifth generation computers handy and more reliable than the
previous generations.
 Integrated Circuits with VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) and nano
technology
 They support Artificial Intelligence (A.I)
 Large capacity hard disk

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  Powerful servers, Internet, Cluster computing
 They are powerful, cheap, reliable and easy to use.
The examples of fifth generation computers are:
 IBM
 Pentium
 PARAM
ARCHITECTURE OF A COMPUTER

The Input Unit

This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into computer. This unit
makes link between user and computer. The input devices translate the information into
the form understandable by computer.
The CPU (Central Processing Unit)
CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data
processing operations. It stores data, intermediate results and instructions (program). It
controls the operation of all parts of computer.
CPU itself has following three components
 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
 Memory Unit
 Control Unit
The Output Unit
Output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from
computer. This unit is a link between computer and users. Output devices translate the
computer’s output into the form understandable by users.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER
1. Speed: The computer can process data very fast, at the rate of millions of
instructions per second. Some calculations that would have taken hours and days
to complete otherwise, can be completed in a few seconds using the computer.
For example, calculation and generation of salary slips of thousands of employees
of an organization, weather forecasting that requires analysis of a large amount of
data related to temperature, pressure and humidity of various places, etc.
2. Accuracy: Computer provides a high degree of accuracy. For example, a
computer can accurately give the result of division of any two numbers up to 10
decimal places.
3. Diligence: When used for a longer period of time, the computer does not get tired
or fatigued. It can perform long and complex calculations with the same speed
and accuracy from the start till the end.
4. Storage Capability: Large volumes of data and information can be stored in the
computer and also retrieved whenever required. A limited amount of data can be
stored, temporarily, in the primary memory. Secondary storage devices like
floppy disk and compact disk can store a large amount of data permanently.
5. Versatility: Computer is versatile in nature. It can perform different types of
tasks with the same ease. At one moment you can use the computer to prepare a
letter document and in the next moment you may play music or print a document.
Computer Hardware
Computer hardware refers to the physical or tangible parts of a computer system. They
are the physical components that a computer system requires to function effectively.
Hardware is categorized into input devices, output devices and storage devices.
Input Devices
In computing, an input device is a piece of equipment of hardware used to key-in
(input) data and control signals into the computer system.
Input devices include the following:

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Keyboard: Keyboard is the most common input device of a computer. Its main function
is to help in inputting data into a computer.
Mouse: A mouse is a pointing device used in moving a cursor from one place to another
and inputting instruction by means of clicking.
Scanner: Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine. It is
used to transfer paper-based information into a computer. It captures images from the
source, which is later converted into digital form for further manipulation.
Joystick: just like a mouse, a joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move
cursor from one position to another. It is in the form of a stick having spherical balls at
both its upper and lower ends.
Light Pen: Light Pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen, hence the name
“light pen”. It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw pictures on the monitor
screen.
Bar Code Reader: This is a device used in reading bar coded data (data in the form of
light and dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labeling goods, numbering
books etc.
Optical Mark Readers (OMR): OMR is another type of scanner used in recognizing the
type of made by a pen. It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of
examinations having multiple choice questions.

A picture showing some input devices

Other input devices include the following:
 Stylus pen
 Digitizers
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  Track balls
 Magnetic Ink Card Readers (MICR)
 Optical Character Readers (OCR) etc.
Output Devices
An output device is a piece of equipment or hardware component which converts digital
information into human readable form.
Monitor: They are also known as Visual Display Units (VDU). They are the most
crucial output devices of a computer. Without it, the computer is incomplete. The
monitor is a versatile device of the computer for the visual display of all types of
information. The monitor is designed to display symbolic and graphical information. It
shows all the data and information as Soft Copy on its screen. It acts as an interface
between the CPU and the user.
Printer: A printer is an electronic external output device of the computer used to print
digital information on paper as a hard copy. The main task of printers is to convert the
data from soft copy to hard copy on the computer. Printers are of various forms such as
LaserJet, DeskJet, Dot Matrix etc.
Projector: This is an output device we use to cast information like Audio, video,
images, and animation from the laptop/computer to the big screen simultaneously.
That’s why it is widely used in office Presentations that make parenting more lively and
exciting.
Headphone: Headphones are also known as earphones. Headphones are output devices
with which you can listen to any sound signals transmitted by an electronic device.
These are hardware devices that produce audio privately after being connected to smart
phones or computers through a wireless connection.
Computer Speaker: A speaker is a hardware output device connected with a computer
to produce the audio. The sound produced by computer speakers is made by a hardware
component whose name is a sound card that is pre-installed with the computer.
Video Card: Computer Video cards are internal inbuilt hardware output devices. Every
PC user, especially gamers, knows very well that a video card is one of the essential
components of a computer and laptop.

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Speech Synthesizer: These are special output devices consisting of many modules that
provide the ability to convert typed texts into sentences voiced by a human voice.
GPS: GPS (Global Positioning System) is a space-based satellite navigation output
device that determines the time and location information in all weather conditions and
allows you to find the desired object on the map, whether it is situated in any place on
the Earth. The main output of GPS is providing location, weather conditions, and also
tracking.

Output Devices
Storage Devices
A storage device is any type of computing hardware that is used for storing, porting or
extracting data files and objects. Storage devices can hold and store information both
temporarily and permanently. They may be internal or external to a computer, server or
computing device.
Primary storage devices: Generally smaller in size, primary storage devices are
designed to hold data temporarily and are internal to the computer. They have the
fastest data access speed. These types of devices include Random Access Memory
(RAM) and cache memory.
Secondary storage devices: Secondary storage devices usually have larger storage
capacity, and they store data permanently. They can be either internal or external to the
computer. These types of devices include the hard disk, the optical disk drive and USB
storage device.

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Secondary storage is non-volatile, long-term storage. Without secondary storage all
programs and data would be lost the moment the computer is switched off.

There are three main types of secondary storage in a computer system:

 Solid state storage devices, such as USB memory sticks
 Optical storage devices, such as CD, DVD and Blue-ray discs
 Magnetic storage devices, such as hard disk drives
However, not all computers require secondary storage. Embedded computers, such as
those found in a washing machine or central heating system, do not need to store data
when the power is turned off. The instructions needed to run them are stored in read-
only memory (ROM) and any user data is held in RAM.
Solid State Storage
Solid state storage is a special type of storage made from silicon microchips. It can be
written to and overwritten like RAM. However, unlike RAM, it is non-volatile, which
means that when the computer's power is switched off, solid state storage will retain its
contents.
Solid state is also used as external secondary storage, for example in USB memory
sticks and solid state drives.
One of the major benefits of solid state storage is that is has no moving parts. Because
of this, it is more portable, and produces less heat compared to traditional magnetic
storage devices. Less heat means that components last longer.
Solid state storage has no moving parts making it more portable and durable.
Solid state storage is also faster than traditional hard disk drives because the data is
stored electrically in silicon chips called cells. Within the cells, the binary data is stored
by holding an electrical current in a transistor with an on / off mode. Unlike RAM
which uses a similar technique, solid state storage retains this even when the power is
switched off by using a technology known as flash memory.
Solid state is an ideal storage medium for many modern devices such as tablets,
smartphones and digital cameras.
Magnetic Storage Devices

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Magnetic devices such as hard disk drives use magnetic fields to magnetize tiny
individual sections of a metal spinning disk. Each tiny section represents one bit. A
magnetized section represents a binary '1' and a demagnetized section represents a
binary '0'. These sections are so tiny that disks can contain terabytes (TB) of data.
As the disk is spinning, a read/write head moves across its surface. To write data, the
head magnetizes or demagnetizes a section of the disk that is spinning under it. To read
data, the head makes a note of whether the section is magnetized or not.
Magnetic devices are fairly cheap, high in capacity and durable. However, they are
susceptible to damage if dropped. They are also vulnerable to magnetic fields - a strong
magnet might possibly erase the data the device holds.
Optical Storage Devices
Optical devices use a laser to scan the surface of a spinning disc made from metal and
plastic. The disc surface is divided into tracks, with each track containing many flat
areas and hollows. The flat areas are known as lands and the hollows as pits.
When the laser shines on the disc surface, lands reflect the light back, whereas pits
scatter the laser beam. A sensor looks for the reflected light. Reflected light - land -
represents a binary '1', and no reflection - pits - represents a binary '0'.
There are different types of optical media:
 ROM media have data pre-written on them. The data cannot be overwritten.
Music, films, software and games are often distributed this way.
 Read (R) media are blank. An optical device writes data to them by shining a
laser onto the disc. The laser burns pits to represent '0's. The media can only
be written to once, but read many times. Copies of data are often made using
these media.
 Read/write RW works in a similar way to R, except that the disc can be written
to more than once.

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COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Software is a generic term for organized collections of computer data and
instructions. It is defined as a set of instructions that tells a computer what to do.
Types of Software
System software is responsible for controlling, integrating, and managing the
individual hardware components of a computer system so that other software and the
users of the system see it as a functional unit without having to be concerned with
the low-level details such as transferring data from memory to disk, or rendering text
onto a display. Generally, system software consists of an operating system and some
fundamental utilities such as disk formatters, file managers, display managers, text
editors, user authentication (login) and management tools, and networking and
device control software.
Application software is used to accomplish specific tasks other than just running the
computer system. Application software is further categorized into two (2):
 Special Purpose Applications: these are designed to solve a specific problem
to the user. That is to say that they can’t perform other tasks. Example of
specialized applications includes Games, Video & Audio Players, Image views
etc.
 General Purpose Applications: They are main to solve variety of problems.
Examples include Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, and CorelDraw etc.
Classification of Computers
Computers exist in various forms depending on the basis one looks at them.
Categorically, computers are classified based on:
 Purpose
 Type
 Size
 Generation
Classification by purpose:
Special Purpose Computer: Special purpose computer is solely made to cater to the
requirements of a particular task or application, for example, weather forecasting.

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It incorporates the instructions needed into the design of internal storage so that it can
perform the given task on a simple command. It, therefore, does not possess
unnecessary options, and costs less. Examples include the Automated Teller Machine
(ATM), Point of Sales (POS) machines, Election Card Readers, Voting Machines etc.
General Purpose Computer: The general-purpose computer is designed to meet the
needs of many different applications. The instructions needed to perform a particular
task are not wired permanently into the internal memory.
When one job is over, instructions for another job can be loaded into the internal
memory for processing. Thus, a general-purpose machine can be used to prepare pay
bills, manage inventories, print sales reports, do scientific calculations and so on.
Example is the Desktop Computer, Laptops, Smartphones etc.
Classification of computers by type of data they process
1. Analog computer: Analog computer operates on inputs of continuously
varying electrical voltage. It measures the input rather than counting. The
name that is derived from the Greek word 'analog' denotes that the computer
functions by establishing similarities between two quantities that are usually
expressed as voltages or currents. Examples include Speedometer, Voltmeter,
Thermometers, Analogue clocks etc.
2. Digital Computer: A digital computer operates essentially by counting. All
quantities are expressed as discrete digits or numbers and computations are
done with numerical digits. Mathematical expressions are represented as
binary digits (0 and 1) and all operations are done using these binary digits at a
very high rate. Digital computer is much faster than analog computer and the
computations are far more accurate. They come in various sizes starting from
pocket size to the large systems occupying big rooms. Most of the computers
available today are digital. Examples include PCs, Desktop computers, Laptops
and smartphones.
3. Hybrid Computer: Hybrid computer combines features of both analog and
digital computers. In this computer, some calculations are done in the analog
portion of the computer and some are done in the digital portion of it. In a
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 hospital, for example, analog devices may measure patient's heart function,
temperature and other vital signs. These measurements may then be converted
into numbers and supplied to a digital component in the system. This
component is used to monitor the patient's vital signs and to send an immediate
signal to the nurse's station if any abnormal readings are detected. Example:
Filling station fuel pumps, ultrasound machines, monitoring machines etc.
Classification of Computers by Size
1. Super Computer: They are the fastest, most powerful and most expensive
types of computers. Their size and storage capacity is huge. They are designed
to process vast amount of data within a shortest possible period of time.
Super computers are found in weather forecasting stations, flight simulators,
aircrafts and nuclear weapons manufacturing industries. Examples include
IBM Roadbunner, IBM Blue Gene, Intel ASI Red, PARAM 1000, and CRAY-
XMP-14 etc.
2. Mainframe Computer: Mainframes computers are multi-programming,
multi-user, and high performing computers, which means they can handle the
workload of more than 100 users at a time. Their storage capacity is enormous,
they have high speed data processing capabilities as well as ability to handle
hundreds of input and output devices at a time.
Mainframe computers are mainly used by commercial organizations like
banks, companies, scientific research centers and government departments like
railways. Examples include IBM Es000 series, ICL39 series, and CDC 6600
etc.
Mini Computer: Minicomputer is a digital and multi-user computer system
with the connection of more than one CPU. Thus, many people can work on
these computers simultaneously instead of a single person. Also, it can process
with other peripheral devices like printers, plotters etc.
Mini computers are used as real-time application industries, bookings,
research centers etc. examples include PDP 11 (Programmed Data Processor
11), IBM 8000 series etc.

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 Micro Computer: Micro computers are the computers we use in our day to
day activities. They consist of components like input and output devices,
software, operating systems, networks etc.
Micro computers are widely used in many fields like home, office, data
collection, business, education, entertainments etc. Some of the major
manufacturers of microcomputers include IBM, Lenovo, Apple, HP, HCL etc.
Examples include Desktops, Laptops, smartphones etc.

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 NUMBER SYSTEM
A number system in computer ideology is regarded as the method or system of
numbering and representing of digits in the computer ‘inner’ system. In other words, it
is a technique used in representing numbers in the computer system architecture. The
digital computer represents all kinds of data and information in binary numbers. This
implies every value/number that you are saving or feeding into/fetching from the
computer system memory has a defined number system. The value/data feed in/fetch
from can includes but not limited to: audio, graphics, video, text file, numbers etc. The
total number of digits used in a number system is called its base or radix. The base is
written after the number as subscript; for instance, 10001102 (1000110 base 2), 5610
(56 to base of 10), 718 (71 base 8) etc.
Computer architecture supports following number systems:
i. Binary number system (Base 2)
ii. Octal number system (Base 8)
iii. Decimal number system (Base 10)
iv. Hexadecimal number system (Base 16)
 Binary Number System: A Binary number system has only two digits, which are
“0” and “1”. Every number (value) is represented with 0 and 1 in this number
system. The base of binary number system is 2, because it has only two digits.
Though DECIMAL is more frequently used in number representation, BINARY
is the number system form which the system/machine accepts.
 Octal number system: Octal number system has only eight (8) digits from 0 to 7.
Every number (value) is represented with 0,1,2,3,4,5,6 and 7 in this number
system. The base of octal number system is 8, because it has only 8 digits.
 Decimal number system: Decimal number system has only ten (10) digits from0
to 9. Every number (value) is represented with 0,1,2,3,4,5,6, 7,8 and 9 in this
number system. The base of decimal number system is 10, because it has only 10
digits.
 Hexadecimal Number System: A Hexadecimal number system has sixteen (16)
alphanumeric values from 0 to 9 and A to F. Every number (value) represents

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 with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E and F in this number system. The
base of hexadecimal number system is 16, because it has 16 alphanumeric values.
Here, we have 0 to 9, representing 0 – 9 but from 10, we have A is 10, B is 11, C
is 12, D is 13, E is 14 and F is 15.
The table above shows the sample representations:

Number System Base Used Digits Example

Binary 2 0,1 (101010110)2

Octal 8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7 (350)8
Decimal 10 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 (291)10
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9
Hexadecimal 16 (83B)16
A,B,C,D,E,F

Number System Conversions

There are three (3) types of conversion:
 Decimal Number System to Other Base [for example: Decimal Number
System to Binary Number System e.g. Base 10 to Base 2 etc.]
 Other Base to Decimal Number System [for example: Binary Number System
to Decimal Number System e.g. Base 2 back to Base 10 etc.]
 Other Base to Other Base [for example: Binary Number System to
Hexadecimal Number System e.g. Base 2 to Base 16etc.]
Let’s pick them one after the other to see how the computations are done and the
underlying logic behind them!
Decimal number system to other bases
Below are the steps/procedures:
 Divide the Number (Decimal Number) by the base of target base system (in
which you want to convert the number to e.g. binary (2), octal (8) OR
Hexadecimal (16)).
 Write the remainder from step 1 as a Least Signification Bit (LSB) to Step last
as a Most Significant Bit (MSB); that is, write from down-up.

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 Example 1: Convert 1234510 to Base 2
Solution: Decimal Number is: (12345)10
Divisor Dividend Remainder
2 12345
2 6172 1 (LSB)
2 3086 0
2 1543 0
2 771 1
2 385 1
2 192 1
2 96 0
2 48 0
2 24 0
2 12 0
2 6 0
2 3 0
2 1 1
0 1 (MSB)

Results: The binary equivalent of (12345)10 is (11000000111001)2

Example 2: Convert same number (12345)10 this time, to Base 8

Solution 2:
Divisor Dividend Remainder
8 12345
8 1543 1 (LSB)
8 192 7
8 24 0
3 0

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 3 (MSB)

Results: The octal equivalent of (12345)10 is (30071)8

Example 3: Convert (12345)10 to Base 16

Solution 3:
Divisor Dividend Remainder
16 12345
16 771 9 (LSB)
16 48 3
16 3 0
0 3 (MSB)

Results: The hexadecimal equivalent of (12345)10 is (3039)16

Example 4: Convert (725)10 to Base 16
Solution 3:
Divisor Dividend Remainder
16 725
16 45 5 (LSB)
16 2 13 (D)
0 2 (MSB)

Results: The hexadecimal equivalent of (725)10 is (2D5)16

Other base system to decimal number base
The procedures are spelt out thus:
A. Determine the base value of source Number System (that you want to convert),
and also determine the position of digits from LSB (first digit’s position – 0,
second digit’s position – 1 and so on).
B. Multiply each digit with its corresponding multiplication of position value and
Base of Source Number System’s Base.

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 C. Add/Sum up the resulted value in step-B.

Example 5: Convert 11011012 to Base 10

Solution: Binary to Decimal Conversion
(1 x 2) + (1 x 2) + (0 x 2) + (1 x 2) + (1 x 2) + (0 x 2) + (1 x 2)
Comment: What we did above is in line with step A
Now, to complete the conversion computation, superscript the index position
starting from 0 backward increasing downward. For instance, the equation
becomes:
(1 x26) + (1 x 25) + (0 x 24) + (1 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20)
= (1 x 64) + (1 x 32) + (0 x 16) + (1 x 8) + (1 x4) + (0 x 2) + (1 x 1)
= 64 + 32 + 0 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1
= 10910
Example 6: Convert 538 to Base 10
Solution: Octal to Decimal Conversion
= (5 x 81) + (3 x 80)
= (5 x 8) + (3 x 1)
= 40 + 3
= 4310
Example 7: Convert 2948 to Base 10
Solution: Octal to Decimal Conversion
= 2 x82 + 9 x 81 + 4 x 80
= 2 x 64 + 9 x 8 + 4 x 1
= 128 + 72 + 4
= 20410

Example 8: Convert 3F6 16 to Base 10

Solution: Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion
= 3 x 162 + 15 x 161 + 6 x 160
= 3 x 256 + 15 x 16 + 6 x 1

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= 768 + 240 + 6
= 101410
Example 9: Convert 2C4E16 to Base 10
Solution: Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion
= 2 x 163 + 12 x 162 + 4 x 161 + 14 x 160
= 2 x 4096 + 12 x 256 + 4 x 16 + 14 x 1
= 8192 + 3072 + 64 + 14
= 1134210
Other base to other number base
To execute this type of conversion, simply convert the given base to base ten, and then
convert to the target base.
Example 10: Convert 100112 to base 8
Solution: Binary to Octal conversion
Note: We convert the binary number to base 10
= 1 x 24 + 0 x 23 + 0 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 1 x 20
= 1 x 16 + 0 x 8 + 0 x 4 + 1 x 2 + 1 x 1
= 16 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 1
= 1910
We now convert our answer which is 1910 base 8
Divisor Dividend Remainder
8 19
8 2 3 (LSB)
0 2

Therefore 100112 = 238

Exercises
1. Convert the following Base 2 numbers to Base 10:
i. 11000011
i. 1001111
ii. 001101111
2. Convert the under listed Base 8 numbers to Base 10:

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 i. 67
ii. 21
iii. 34
3. Convert the specified Base 16 numbers to Base 10:
i. 2A5
ii. 7E3D
iii. 82CA
4. Convert the listed Base 10 numbers to Base 2, 8 and 16
i. 34
ii. 89
iii. 68
5. Convert:
i. 1101102 to base 8
ii. 6789548 to base 16

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 BINARY ARITHMETICS

In the binary number system, there are only two digits (0 and 1) and any number can be
represented by these two digits. The arithmetic of binary numbers involves binary
addition, binary subtraction, binary multiplication, or binary division.
Binary arithmetic operation starts from the least significant bit i.e. from the rightmost
side.
Binary Addition
There are four steps in binary addition, they are written below;
i. 0+0=0
ii. 0+1=1
iii. 1+0=1
iv. 1 + 1 = 0 (carry 1 to the next significant bit)
Example 11: Perform the following binary addition
i. (10001001) + (10010101)
ii. (10101.101) + (1101.011)
Solution:
i. (10001001) + (10010101)
10001001
+ 10010101
100111110
ii. (10101.101) + (1101.011)
10101.101
+ 1101.011
100011.000

Binary Subtraction
There are four simple steps to keep in memory:
i. 0–0=0
ii. 0 – 1 = 1, borrow 1 from the next most significant bit
iii. 1–0=1

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 iv. 1–1=0
Example 12: Perform the following binary subtraction:
i. (10101010) – (10100010)
ii. (1001) – (101)
iii. (1010101.10) – (1111011.11)
Solution:
i. (10100010) – (10101010)
10101010
– 10100010
00001000
ii. (1001) – (101)
1001
– 0101
1000
iii. (1010101.10) – (1111011.11)
1010101. 10
– 1111011 . 11
0100110 . 01
Binary Multiplication
Binary multiplication may sound like it would be more difficult than binary addition or
subtraction – but is actually a simple process.
Here are the four steps to be followed:
i. 0×0=0
ii. 1×0=0
iii. 0×1=0
iv. 1×1=1 (there is no carry or borrow for this)
Example 13: Perform the following binary multiplication:
i. 110 x 11
ii. 1001 x 101
Solution:

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 i. 110 x 11
110
x 11
110
110
10 010
ii. 1001 x 101
1001
x 101
1001
0000
1001
101101
Binary Division
We just need to follow some rules while dividing two binary numbers. There are four
rules to be followed while performing binary division. Similar to the decimal system (or
in any other number system), division by 0 is meaningless in Binary division. The
binary division rules are as follows:
DIVIDEND DIVISOR
0 1
1 1

Rules for binary division

The four rules given above are all the possible conditions for the division of binary
numbers as binary numbers include only two digits 0 and 1.
How to perform binary division?
Binary division problems can be solved by using the long division method, which is one
of the most efficient and easiest ways to divide binary numbers. These are the steps to
be followed in a binary division operation:
Step 1: Compare the divisor with the dividend. If the divisor is larger, place 0 as the
quotient, then bring the second bit of the dividend down. If the divisor is smaller,
multiply it with 1 and the result becomes the subtrahend. Then, subtract the subtrahend
from the minuend to get the remainder.
Step 2: Then bring down the next number bit from the dividend portion and perform
step 1 again.
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Step 3: Repeat the same process until the remainder becomes zero or the whole
dividend is divided.
Let us understand binary division operation better using the following example:
Example 14: Consider two binary numbers, B = 0110102 and C = 01012 where we want
to divide B by C.
Given: Dividend, 0110102 and the divisor, C = 01012

Therefore the quotient is 1012 and 1 is the remainder.

Exercise
Perform the following binary arithmetic:
1. 1011012 + 111102
2. 1110111112 + 1010101002
3. 100012 - 10012
4. 110112 - 11012
5. 1012 x 1112
6. 1100112 x 1012
7. 101112 / 1012

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 APPLICATION PACKAGES
What is Microsoft Word?
Microsoft Word is a word processing software package. You can use it to type letters,
reports, and other documents. This chapter deals with Microsoft Word 2007 basics.
This chapter will introduce you to the Word window. You use this window to interact
with Word. To begin this lesson, open Microsoft Word 2007. The Microsoft Word
window appears and your screen looks similar to the one shown here.
Getting started
You can start Word 2010 in a number of ways, and then create documents to your
heart’s content. But before you can start Word, your computer must have Microsoft
office suite installed.
Steps
 Go to state menu
 Locate all programs
 Select Microsoft office
 Click left mouse button
The Quick Access Toolbar

Next to the Microsoft Office button is the Quick Access toolbar. The Quick Access
toolbar provides you with access to commands you frequently use. By default Save,
Undo, and Redo appear on the Quick Access toolbar. You can use Save to save your
file, Undo to rollback an action you have taken, and Redo to reapply an action you have
rolled back.

The Title Bar

Next to the Quick Access toolbar is the Title bar. The Title bar displays the title of the
document on which you are currently working. Word names the first new document you

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open Document1. As you open additional new documents, Word names them
sequentially. When you save your document, you assign the document a new name.
The Ribbon

You use commands to tell Microsoft Word what to do. In Microsoft Word 2007, you
use the Ribbon to issue commands. The Ribbon is located near the top of the screen,
below the Quick Access toolbar. At the top of the Ribbon are several tabs; clicking a tab
displays several related command groups. Within each group are related command
buttons. You click buttons to issue commands or to access menus and dialog boxes.
You may also find a dialog box launcher in the bottom-right corner of a group. Clicking
the dialog box launcher gives you access to additional commands via a dialog box.
The Ruler

The ruler is found below the Ribbon. You can use the ruler to change the format of your
document quickly. If your ruler is not visible, follow the steps listed here:

1. Click the View tab to choose it.

2. Click the check box next to Ruler in the Show/Hide group. The ruler appears
below the Ribbon.
The Text Area
Just below the ruler is a large area called the text area. You type your document in the
text area. The blinking vertical line in the upper-left corner of the text area is the cursor.

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It marks the insertion point. As you type, your text displays at the cursor location. The
horizontal line next to the cursor marks the end of the document.

The Vertical and Horizontal and Vertical Scroll Bars

The vertical and horizontal scroll bars enable you to move up, down, and across your
window simply by dragging the icon located on the scroll bar. The vertical scroll bar is
located along the right side of the screen. The horizontal scroll bar is located just above
the status bar. To move up and down your document, click and drag the vertical scroll
bar up and down. To move back and forth across your document, click and drag the
horizontal scroll bar back and forth. You won't see a horizontal scroll bar if the width of
your document fits on your screen.
The Status Bar
The Status bar appears at the very bottom of your window and provides such
information as the current page and the number of words in your document. You can
change what displays on the Status bar by right-clicking on the Status bar and selecting
the options you want from the Customize Status Bar menu. You click a menu item to

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select it. You click it again to deselect it. A check mark next to an item means it is
selected.

Click
During the lessons that follow, you will be asked to "click" items and to choose tabs.
When asked to click:
1. Point to the item.
2. Press your left mouse button once.
If you are asked to double-click an item:
1. Point to the item.
2. Quickly press your left mouse button twice.
If you are asked to right-click:
1. Point to the item.
2. Press your right mouse button.
If you are asked to choose a tab, click the tab.
Select with the Shift and Arrow Keys
1. Place your cursor before the word "On" in the first paragraph.
2. Press and hold down the Shift key, which serves as an "anchor" showing where
text you wish to select begins or ends.

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 3. Press the right arrow key until the first line of text is highlighted.
4. Press the down arrow key until the first paragraph is highlighted.
5. Click anywhere outside the highlighted area to remove the highlighting.
Select with the Mouse
1. Place your cursor before the word "You" in the second paragraph.
2. Press and hold down the left mouse button.
3. Drag the mouse until you have highlighted the second paragraph.
4. Click anywhere outside the highlighted area to remove the highlighting.

Place the Cursor

During the lessons, you will often be asked to place the cursor at a specific location (the
insertion point) on the screen. You place the cursor by moving the cursor to the
specified location and pressing the left mouse button or by using the arrow keys to
move to the specified location.
Start a New Paragraph
When you type in Microsoft Word, you do not need to press a key to move to a new
line. To start a new paragraph, press the Enter key.
Saving Your Document
Once you are done with typing in your new Word document, it is time to save your
document to avoid losing work you have done on a Word document. Following are the
steps to save an edited Word document.
Step 1 − Click the File tab and select the Save As option.

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Step 2 − Select a folder where you will like to save the document, Enter the file name
which you want to give to your document and Select the Save As option, by default it is
the .docx format.

Step 3 − finally, click on the Save button and your document will be saved with the
entered name in the selected folder.

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 Closing word document
When you finish working with a document, you will proceed to close the document.
Closing a document removes it from your computer screen and if you had other
documents open, Word displays the last document you used otherwise, you see a blank
Word window. Here are simple steps to close an opened document −
Step 1 − Click the File tab and select the Close option.

Step 2 − When you select the Close option and if the document is not saved before
closing, it will display the following Warning box asking whether the document should
be saved or not.
List of shortcut keys used in Microsoft Word
i. Ctrl+A: Select all text.
ii. Ctrl+B: Bolden highlighted text.
iii. Ctrl+C: Copy selected text.
iv. Ctrl+E: Align text to center.
v. Ctrl+I: Italicize text.
vi. Ctrl+J: Justify text alignment.
vii. Ctrl+L: Left align text.
viii. Ctrl+N: Create a new document.
ix. Ctrl+O: Open a file.

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 x. Ctrl+P: Print document.
xi. Ctrl+R: Right align text.
xii. Ctrl+S Save the document or file.
xiii. Ctrl+U: Underline selected text.
xiv. Ctrl+V: Paste copied text.
xv. Ctrl+W: Close a document.
xvi. Ctrl+X: Cut selected text.
xvii. Ctrl+Y: Redo action.
xviii. Ctrl+Z: Undo action.

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MICROSOFT EXCEL
A spreadsheet is a computerized equivalent of a general ledger. It has taken the place of
the pencil, paper, and calculator. Spreadsheet programs were first developed for
accountants but have now been adopted by anyone wanting to prepare a budget,
forecast sales data, create profit and loss statements, and compare financial alternatives
and any other mathematical applications requiring calculations.
Spreadsheet is the computerized equivalent of a general ledger. The electronic
spreadsheet is laid out similar to the paper ledger sheet in that it is divided into columns
and rows. Any task that can be done on paper can be performed on an electronic
spreadsheet faster and more accurately.
The problem with manual sheets is that if any error is found within the data, all answers
must be erased and recalculated manually. With the computerized spreadsheet, formulas
can be written that are automatically updated whenever the data are changed.
What can a spreadsheet do?
In contrast to a word processor, which manipulates text, a spreadsheet manipulates
numerical data and text. Using a spreadsheet, one can create budgets, analyze data,
produce financial plans, and perform various other simple and complex numerical
applications.
Spreadsheets can also be used for graphing data points, reporting data analyses,
and organizing and storing data.
Starting Excel
You are encouraged to start using MS Excel as you read through the following
materials to familiarize yourself with the topics and procedures.
1. Click the Start button on the Windows taskbar.
2. Point to Programs and select Microsoft Office
3. Click Microsoft Excel

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The Excel Screen
The screen in Excel looks different than those used in other types of applications.

The large window, labeled "Microsoft Excel" may take up the entire screen. This is
referred to as the Application Window.
The top line is called the Title Bar and has three buttons (Minimize, Restore, and
Close) to the right. These buttons are used to size the window and close it. This title bar
is standard in all Windows programs.
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The second line is called the Menu Bar. Notice that one character of each selection
is highlighted or underlined. This menu bar is also standard in all Windows
programs.
The next two lines contain buttons with text or images and are referred to as the
Standard and Formatting Toolbars. If you have a mouse, these toolbars allow you to
enhance your worksheet without accessing the menu. Keep in mind that these may not
be in the exact same place as on the illustration above. All toolbars can be customized
to display any buttons you desire.
The next line is the Formula Bar and displays the current cell address and contents. As
you move from cell to cell, Excel will keep track of the current cell address for you. The
Formula Bar can also be used to edit the text (contents) or formulas contained in the
cell.
Columns and Cells and Rows
The horizontal bar across the top of the worksheet area is filled with letters, beginning
with A. Each letter represents a column while the vertical bar on the left side of the
worksheet filled with numbers refers to rows.
The intersection between a column and a row is referred to as a cell. A cell is similar to
a box that can be used to store pieces of information. Each piece of information could
be a word or group of words, a number or a mathematical formula.
Each cell has its own address. This address is used in formulas for referencing different
parts of the worksheet. The address of a cell is defined by the letter of the column in
which it is located and the number of the row.
For example, the address of a cell in column B, row 5 would be referred to as B5. The
column is always listed first followed by the row without any spaces between the two.
The outlined cell (the one with the dark borders) within the worksheet is referred to
as the active cell. Each cell may contain text, numbers, or dates. You can enter up to
32,000 characters in each cell (Equivalent to a 44 page report!).
These cell addresses are useful when entering formulas. Instead of typing actual values
in your equations, you simply type the cell address where the value is stored. Then, if

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you need to go back and change one of the values the spreadsheet automatically updates
the result of the formula based on the new data.
For example, instead of typing 67*5.4 you could enter C5*D5. The number 67 is stored
in cell C5 and the number 5.4 is stored in cell D5. If these numbers change next month
or next year, the formula remains correct because it references the cells - not the actual
values. With the second formula, you can change the numbers stored in cells C5 and D5
as often as required and see the result recalculated immediately.
The next section of the screen lists the columns and rows within the current worksheet.
As mentioned, columns are lettered and rows are numbered. The first 26 columns are
lettered A through Z. Excel then begins lettering the 27th column with AA and so on. In
a single Excel worksheet there are 256 columns (lettered A-IV) and 65,536 rows
(numbered 1-65,536), totaling 16,777,216 individual cells.
Entering Values in Excel
Entering values in excel sheet is a child’s play and this chapter shows how to enter
values in an excel sheet. A new sheet is displayed by default when you open an excel
sheet as shown in the below screen shot.

Sheet area is the place where you type your text. The flashing vertical bar is called the
insertion point and it represents the location where text will appear when you type.
When you click on a box then the box is highlighted. When you double click the box,
the flashing vertical bar appears and you can start entering your data.

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So, just keep your mouse cursor at the text insertion point and start typing whatever text
you would like to type. We have typed only two words "Hello Excel" as shown below.
The text appears to the left of the insertion point as you type.

There are following three important points, which would help you while typing
 Press Tab to go to next column.
 Press Enter to go to next row.
 Press Alt + Enter to enter a new line in the same column.
Saving New Sheet
 Once you are done with typing in your new excel sheet, it is time to save your
sheet/workbook to avoid losing work you have done on an Excel sheet.
Following are the steps to save an edited excel sheet −
 Step 1 − Click the File tab and select Save As option.

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Step 2 − Select a folder where you would like to save the sheet, Enter file name, which
you want to give to your sheet and Select a Save as type, by default it is .xlsx format.

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 INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND SOCIAL IMPACT OF COMPUTER
An information system is a set of processes and procedures that transform data into
information and knowledge. The information system provides information on a timely
basis throughout the organization so the decision maker can take proper and effective
decisions on time.
What is a system?
System is a collection of interacting or interrelated elements or components which form
a unified entity or body operating harmoniously.
Basically there are three major components in every system, namely input, processing
and output.
Input Output
Processing

Basic System Components

In a system the different components are connected with each other and they are inter-
dependent. For example, human body represents a complete natural system. The
objective of the system demands that some output is produced as a result of processing
the suitable inputs. A well-designed system also includes an additional element referred
to as ‘control’ that provides a feedback in order to achieve desired objectives of the
system.

Basic System Architecture

Types of systems
Life, as an entity, consists of different types of systems that make living worthwhile.
These systems are either natural or manmade.
 Natural System: This incorporates the physical and living systems. The stellar
systems (galaxies, solar systems), geological system (mountains, rivers,

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 oceans) and the molecular systems make up the physical systems. The living
system consists of all the classes of animals including man and plants.
 Manmade Systems: This includes, among others, national systems such as
political system, economic system, and educational system. We also have
transportation, communication, financial, manufacturing and automated
systems.
Automated Systems
This type of manmade system is based on electrical/electronic technology. Some of the
common components are:
1. Hardware – CPU, RAM, HDD, Storage devices, video cards, soundcards
2. Software – Systems software [operating system] and applications software.
3. Users of the system.
4. Data – facts required for processing by the system.
5. Policies and regulations governing the normal operation of the system
Types of automated systems
1. Batch system uses its database for sequential access to records, processing
and modification (insertion, updating and deletion) of records.
2. On-line system essentially gets data from specified sources while the output is
directly fed to another system.
3. Real-Time Systems get data from the predefined environment (source),
process them and the results are fed back to the source in order to dynamically
control the environment.
4. Decision-Support Systems help/guide mangers or decision makers in making
intelligent decisions about the management of their operations.
5. Knowledge-Based Systems play a vital role in artificial intelligence and
expert system – where human activities are taken over (supported) by
machines.
SOCIAL IMPACTS OF COMPUTER
Computers have made such an enormous impact in our society today. There is not a
place where you can turn where there isn't a computer involved. In the present time,

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most businesses rely on computers and its similar technology. This field of technology
has been so advanced within the past few years that it has been primary tool in
successful business. We know that computer has become an integral part of our society.
People are using computer as a basic tool to support their day to day works. They use
the system on almost all sectors to enhance the existing process. It is effectively used on
service sectors to enhance the existing process. It is effectively used on service sectors,
financial sector, manufacturing sector, academic sector and communication sectors. Use
of computer has improved the processes to support all types of activities.
Impacts on Industry
Advance manufacturing plans are integrated with the computer system. These are
controlled and process by using computerized mechanism, Concept of CAM (Computer
Aided Manufacturing), CIM (Computer Integrated Manufacturing), CAD (Computer
Aided Design) has helped in the industry sector to make it advance and risk less for day
to day manufacturing system. It saves time and help for quality production. Industry can
use accounting and other office management software to use internal management
smooth and automated.
Impact on Academic sector
Academic sector use the computer system as a basic tool to support the teaching and
learning process. Various types of training, research and engineering process are
supported by the computer system. Teachers and students use the computer system to
support their academic activities. Multimedia system, presentation program like
program like power point has became very popular to support the training, teaching and
learning process. Now a day concept of virtual classroom has launched. Students will
attend their class from their home using computer system. Such classes are called
virtual classes. They can search course materials, learning kits and other academic
papers like research paper, project works, and teachers note etc, from internet.
Impact on Health Sector
Hospitals and other health related institution use computer system on different
purposes. They use it for internal management like accounting work like billing, payroll
system etc. Different medical equipment is integrated with computerized system so it is

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very essential to use the computer for laboratory, diagnosis and other medical test and
investigation. It supports the operation of X-Ray, MRI (Magnetic Resonance Image)
and other medical equipment. Now a day, online treatment and consultation has started.
This concept is called tele-medicine.
Impact on Entertainment
Computer system is the major system to support entertainment. Use of computer on
movies, audio/ visual application and the animation system helps the whole film-
making and editing process. Various types of games are developed using computer
system. Computer animation helps to create new concept to apply on film making.
Single computer can be used to play audio and visual system, browsing internet for
entertainment, play games and edit sound and video clips etc.
Impact on Financial Sector
Computer system plays a great role on the financial sector like banks and financial
company. It is used on banking sector to support office management activities and
services. Banks are launching online banking system such as SMS banking, Internet
banking etc. by using computerized system. They are using ATM (Automated Teller
Machine), online electronic cards like debit cards for transaction of money
Impact on Science and Technology
Computer system is also a major part of Science and technology. It is used as the major
tool to support science and technology sector. Various types of data analysis, research
and investigation are done on the basis of computer aided system. Complex data and the
research system can be simplified and easily solved by using computerized system.
Negative Impacts of Computers
 It is an expensive system, so some people may not be able to afford it and use this
system that creates digital divide on society.
 It facilitates data piracy.
 It has bad impact on job market. It may increase unemployment.
 Computers create chances for hacking and data destruction.
 It is fast changing technology so it is required to be updated timely.

CSC 101 LECTURE NOTES BY: MR S. BAKARI. DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE, M.A.U, YOLA
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 Some members of the society will suffer with computerized system due to illiteracy
of computer system.
 It facilitates computer crime and cyber theft.

CSC 101 LECTURE NOTES BY: MR S. BAKARI. DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE, M.A.U, YOLA
Page 48