Structural Organization in Animals (Including Frog)

SHORT NOTES
Epithelial Tissue
™ Has a free surface (faces either a body fluid or the outside environment).
™ Compactly packed (with little intercellular matrix).
I. Simple Epithelium (Composed of a single layer of cells).
 Function: Diffusion, secretion and absorption.
 Simple epithelium can be of following types on the basis of structural modifications of cells:
Features Squamous Cuboidal Columnar Ciliated Glandular
Cells Flattened cells Cube-like cells Tall and slender cells Cells bear cilia Cells get specialised
for secretion
Location Walls of blood In ducts of glands and In the lining of In the inner surface Goblet cells of
vessels and air tubular parts of nephrons stomach and intestine of hollow organs alimentary canal
sacs of lungs in kidneys and salivary gland

II. Compound Epithelium (Composed of a multiple layer of cells)

 Function: Provide protection.
 Location: Dry surface of the skin, the moist surface of buccal cavity.
Connective Tissue
™ The cells secrete fibres of structural proteins called collagen or elastin (except blood), also secrete modified polysaccharides (ground
substance).
I. Loose connective tissue
 Cells and fibres loosely arranged in a semi-fluid ground substance

Areolar Tissue Adipose Tissue

™ Present beneath the skin. ™ Located mainly beneath the skin.
™ Contains fibroblasts (cells that produce and secrete fibres), macrophages and mast cells. ™ Specialised to store fat.

II. Dense connective tissue

Dense Regular Tissues Dense Irregular Tissues

™ Regular pattern in orientation of fibres ™ Irregular pattern in orientation of fibres

™ Tendons & Ligaments ™ Present in the skin

III. Specialised connective tissues

Cartilage Bones Blood

™ Solid and pliable intercellular material ™ Hard and non-pliable intercellular ™ Fluid connective tissue
™ Cells: Chondrocytes material ™ Cells WBC, RBC and platelets
™ Functions: Tip of nose, outer ear ™ Cells: Osteocytes ™ Functions: Circulating fluid
joints, for protection, etc. ™ Functions: Provides structural frame to that help in transportation of
the body, etc. substances

Muscles Tissue
™ Myofibrils (fine fibrils) → Fibres → Muscle.
™ Muscles are of three types: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac.

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 Skeletal Muscle Smooth Muscle Cardiac Muscle
™ Closely attached to the ™ Fibres taper at both ends (fusiform) ™ Contractile tissue
skeletal bones ™ Non-striated and involuntary ™ Striated and involuntary
™ Striated and voluntary ™ Location: Wall of internal organs such as ™ Intercalated discs present at some fusion points
™ Location: Closely the blood vessels, stomach and intestine ™ Location: Present only in the heart
attached to skeletal bones

Neural Tissue
™ Exerts the greatest control over the body’s responsiveness to changing conditions.
Neurons Neuroglial Cells
Composition Unit of neural system Make more than one-half the volume of neural tissue
Excitability Yes No
Function Respond to various stimuli Protect and support neurons

COCKROACH
™ Size - 1/4 inches to 3 inches (0.6-7.6 cm).
Classification
™ Kingdom- Animalia, Phylum- Arthropoda, Class- Insecta, Genus- Periplaneta, Species- americana.

Morphology
™ 34-53 mm long.

Exoskeleton
™ Hardened plates called sclerites joined to each other by articular/arthrodial membrane.

Head Thorax Abdomen

™ Triangular in shape Three parts-prothorax, mesothorax and
™ ™ Consists of 10 segments
™ Anteriorly at right angles to the metathorax ™ 7th (boat shaped), 8th and 9th
longitudinal body axis ™ Each thoracic segment bears a pair of sternum forms a brood or genital
™ Formed by the fusion of six walking legs pouch in females
segments ™ Two pairs of wings- ™ 9th and 10th terga and 9th sternum
™ Bears a pair of compound eyes, Mesothoracic Wings (Forewings/Tegmina) forms genital pouch in males
a pair of antennae (monitor ™ Opaque dark and leathery ™ Anal styles present in males only
environment) & anal cerci (on 10th segment)
™ Cover the hind wings when at rest
™ Mouthparts (biting and chewing present in both sexes
Metathoracic Wings (Hindwings)
type) - labrum, a pair of mandibles,
™ Transparent and membranous
a pair of maxillae, a labium,
hypopharynx ™ Used in flight

Anatomy Excretory System (Uricotelic)

Digestive System ™ Performed by Malpighian tubules.
™ Three regions: foregut, midgut and hindgut. ™ The fat body, nephrocytes and urecose glands also help in
™ Mouth → Pharynx → Oesophagus → Crop → Gizzard/ excretion.
Proventriculus → Midgut → Ileum → Colon → Rectum
Nervous System
Circulatory System
™ Segmentally arranged ganglia and ventral nerve cord.
™ Open type
™ Haemolymph = Colourless plasma and haemocytes
™ Brain - represented by supra-oesophageal ganglion.
™ Heart of cockroach = Elongated muscular tube Sensory System
Respiratory System ™ Antennae, eyes, maxillary palps, labial palps, anal cerci
™ Takes place by a network of trachea & 10 pairs of small holes ™ Reproductive system
called spiracles (regulated by the sphincters).

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 Male Reproductive System Female Reproductive System
™ A pair of testes (4 -6 abdominal segments) → vas
th th
™ Two large ovaries (2nd – 6th abdominal segments) →
deferens → seminal vesicle (stored and glued sperms) → oviducts → vagina → genital chamber
ejaculatory duct → male gonopore ™ Produce 9-10 ootheca (containing 14-16 eggs each)
™ Mushroom shaped gland (6th-7th segments) - An accessory ™ Development - paurometabolous (through nymphal stage by
reproductive gland moulting about 13 times)
™ External genitalia - Represented by male gonapophysis or
phallomere

FROG ™ It involves heart, blood vessels and blood.

Morphology ™ Heart consists of 3 chambers, two atria and one ventricle.
™ Dorsal body is olive green and ventral side is pale yellow.
4. Excretory System
™ Body is divisible in head and trunk.
™ It consists of a pair of kidney, ureters, urinary bladder and
Anatomy cloaca.
1. Digestive System
™ Each kidney composed of numerous nephrons as a structural
™ Mouth → Buccal cavity → Pharynx → Oesophagus →
and functional unit.
Stomach → Intestine → Cloaca
™ Secretion from liver and pancreas help in digestion. 5. Nervous System
™ Final digestion take place in the intestine. ™ Nervous system consists of central nervous system (brain and
2. Respiratory System spinal cord), peripheral nervous system (cranial and spinal
™ On land it respire with the help of buccal cavity, skin and lungs. nerves) and autonomic nervous system (sympathetic and
™ In water it respires through skin. parasympathetic).

3. Circulatory System 6. Reproductive System

™ Well-developed closed type. ™ Well organized male and female reproductive system.

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 CHAPTER

3 Biomolecules

Carbon compounds that we get from living tissues can be called ™ Fatty acids and glycerol are simple lipid.
‘biomolecules’. ™ Oils have lower melting point.
Chemical Analysis ™ Lecithin (phospholipids) found in cell membrane.
         Living tissue + Trichloroacetic acid Nucleotides
(a vegetable or a piece of liver) (Cl3CCOOH) (Nucleosides + Phosphate group)
↓ ™ DNA and RNA consist of nucleotides that function as genetic
Thick slurry
material.
↓
Stain using cheesecloth/Cotton Primary and Secondary Metabolites
↓
Primary metabolites Secondary metabolites
Entire chemical composition of living tissues or organisms
↓ Identifiable functions & roles in Not involved in primary
normal physiologial processes metabolism
Filtrate (Acid-Soluble or Retentate (Acid-Insoluble or
Examples- amino acids, sugars, Examples- alkaloids, flavonoids,
micromolecules) macromolecules)
etc. rubber, essential oils, antibiotics,
M. wt.= 18-800 Da M. wt.= >10,000 Da coloured pigments, scents,
Inorganic substances Polymeric form (Protein, gums, spices.
e.g. water, ions, gases Polysaccharides, Nucleic Acids)
Organic substances (Simple Lipids (not a polymer) Biomacromolecules
sugars, Amino acids, ™ Not strictly a macromolecules Molecular weight ranging from 18 to 800 daltons(Da)
Nucleotides)
™ M. wt.= < 800 Da Proteins
Monomer- Amino acids (linked by peptide bonds)
Elemental Analysis ™

It gives elemental composition of living tissue in the form of ™ Heteropolymer

Hydrogen, Oxygen, Chloride, Carbon etc. ™ Collagen & RuBisCO are the most abundant proteins in the
animal world & in the whole of the biosphere, respectively.
Weight
Wet Weight ™ Biologist describe structure of proteins at 4 levels-
Living Tissue
Dry Weight 1. Primary: Positional information of sequence of amino
Dry
acids.
Burn
Dried living tissue 'Ash' contains 2. Secondary: Thread folded in the form of helix (only
All. carbon compound
right handed).
oxidise to CO2 and H2O
only inorganic elements 3. Tertiary: Three dimensional view (like a hollow woolen
ball).
Micromolecules or Biomolecules 4. Quaternary: More than one polypeptide chain is
involved. E.g. haemoglobin consists of 4 subunits.
Amino Acids
™ They are substituted methanes. Polysaccharides
™ 20 types of amino acids occur in proteins. ™ Monomer- Monosaccharides (linked by glycosidic bonds)
Lipids ™ Cellulose, starch, & Inulin are homopolymers
™ Water insoluble. ™ Chitin (homopolymer) is a complex polysaccharides
Nucleic Acids Enzyme Action
™ Monomer- Nucleotides E + S ES (transient phenomenon) → EP → E + P
™ Deoxyribose containing nucleic acid - deoxyribonucleic acid ™ 'P' is at a lower level than 'S'- Reaction is exothermic.
(DNA) ™ 'S' is at a lower level than 'P'-Reaction is endothermic
™ Ribose containing nucleic acid - Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity
Watson-Crick model 1. Temperature
™ ‘DNA exists as a double helix’ Optimum temperature = Temperature at which enzyme
™ Backbone = sugar-phosphate-sugar chain shows its highest activity.
™ Nitrogen bases are = perpendicular to backbone (inside) 2. pH
™ Two H-bonds between A and T and three H-bonds between Optimum pH = pH at which enzyme shows its highest activity
G and C base pairs 3. Concentration of Substrate.
™ At each step of ascent, the strand turns 36° Increase in substrate concentration increase the velocity of
the enzymatic reaction rises at first but becomes constant
™ 1 turn= 10 base pairs
when all enzymes get saturated with substrate.
™ 1 complete turn = 34Å 4. Inhibitor
™ Rise per base pair = 3.4Å Binding of the inhibitor shuts off enzyme activity (inhibition)
Dynamic State of Body Contituents Michaelis constant (Km)- Concentration at which the reaction
velocity reaches half its maximum velocity.
™ Living state is a non-equilibrium steady state to be able to
Competitive inhibitor- Inhibitor that closely resembles the
perform work
substrate in its molecular structure. Effect of the competitive
™ Metabolism is the sum total of all the reactions occurring inhibitor can be reversed by increasing the concentration of
within the body the substrate.
™ There are two metabolic pathways- Classification of Enzymes
 Anabolic pathways (biosynthetic pathways): Formation ™ Enzymes are divided into 6 classes each with 4-13 subclasses
of more complex structure from a simpler structure and named accordingly by a four-digit number. Six classes of
 Catabolic pathways (degradation pathways): Formation enzymes are-
of simpler structure from a complex structure. ™ Oxidoreductases/dehydrogenases, Transferases, Hydrolases,
Lyases, Isomerases, Ligases.
Enzymes
™ All enzymes are proteins, except some nucleic acids that
Co-factors
behave like enzymes, called ribozymes ™ Non-protein constituents bound to the the enzyme to make
the enzyme catalytically active.
™ Increase rate of reaction by lowering activation energy.
™ Apoenzyme - Protein portion of the enzymes.
™ Thermal stability is an important quality of enzymes those
™ Three kinds of cofactors may be identified: prosthetic groups,
are isolated from thermophilic organisms co-enzymes and metal ions.

8 NEET (XI) Module-1 Zoology PW