Satellite networks

SATELLITE NETWORKS
I. Introduction
1. This document presents the satellite networks used for the transmission of computer data or
for satellite communications.

II. Categories of satellite systems

1.2.1 Generalities
Three categories of satellite systems exist,LEOS, MEOS and GEOSLow, Medium and Geostationary Earth
Orbital Satellite), depending on the distance that separates them from Earth. The following diagram summarizes the characteristics.
important:

LEOS
1000 km
Satellite
MEOS
13000 km
Earth Satellite
GEOS
36000 km
Satellite

Fig. 1: The different types of satellites

The LEOS and MEOS systems pertain to rolling satellites, which means that during communications with
ground stations, mechanisms must be put in place forhandover(like in the networks of
mobiles ein WLANs) when moving from one coverage area to another. The costs of launching
these satellites are generally less than GEOS satellites.

The GEOS satellites, on the other hand, are geostationary satellites, meaning they appear to be stationary for
a ground observer. Located 36,000 km from Earth, they impose a round trip distance of approximately
0.27 s for a ground station communication– satellite. We can note right now a certain
similarity with shared access networks (for example, Ethernet), which also haveaccess
multiple and the diffusionThe difference comes from the propagation delay which is not at all of the same order of
grandeur.

For the three types of satellites, a common problem arises: the satellite's remote position makes it difficult to
transmission of electromagnetic waves. There will therefore be a signal regeneration at the satellite level.
This regeneration is carried out by atransponderThe transponder regenerates the signal and will perform a
change of frequencies.

1.3 Frequency bands

The frequencies used are divided into bands (working group SRD, Standard Radar Definitions)., of the IEEE).
The band numbers and names are as follows for satellite systems:

Band Number Symbol Frequency Comments

12 Millimeter waves 300-3000 GHz
Sub-millimetre waves 40-300 GHz
Band of 27-40 GHz
11 EHF 30-300 GHz

Requires very small ones

USAT type antennas, the
Band K 18-27 GHz most used
Need for small antennas
The Band 12-18 GHz of type VSAT
Band X 8-12 GHz

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1st use for the

Band C 4-8 GHz commerce
10 SHF 3-30 GHz
Band S 2-4 GHz mobile networks, UMTS, 4G
Band L 1-2 GHz
9 UHF 300 MHz - 3 GHz
8 VHF 30-300 MHZ
7 HF 3-30 MHZ
6 MF 300 KHz-3 MHZ
5 LF 30-300 KHz
4 VLF 3-30 KHz

Acronyms
EHF Extremely High Frequency
SHF Super High Frequency
UHF Ultra High Frequency
VHF Very High Frequency
HF High Frequency
MF Medium Frequency
LF Low Frequency
VLF Very Low Frequency

1.4 Topology of satellite networks

Two topologies appear, star and meshed.

Satellite Satellite

Earth Earth

Star Mailed

I- Fig. 2: The star and mesh topology

II - [Link] techniques

[Link]
The principle of transmission by radio waves is used:

Modulating the frequency means varying one or more of its parameters such as amplitudeof, frequency,
Phase based on the representative signal of the information to be transmitted can be done in two ways:
- continuous signal modulation (all values are possible), that is to say analog type transmission
discrete modulationof the signal (only predefined values are possible), that is to say transmission of type
digital

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Sender

modem

Frequency
intermediate

Frequency
bearer

Frequency
carrier

Frequency
intermediate

demodulate
ur

Receiver

Fig. 3: Communication via radio waves

2.2. Analog transmission

The analog modulation technique used by satellites is frequency modulation (FM, Frequency
Modulation). The signal to be transmitted modulates acarrier frequency means that the signal explores a range
of frequency around the carrier frequency.
Let Fs be the highest frequency of the signal to be transmitted, Fp the carrier frequency, F1 to F2 the range of
frequentthese around Fp and M the indexofmodulation. We then have the following relationship: F2–F1 = 2 * M * Fs

Schematically, we have the following representation:

2 * M * Fs

Hertz
F1 Fp F2

Fig. 4: Frequency modulation

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 Satellite networks

A spacing between carrier frequencies is necessary to avoid any interference.

Digital transmission
Phase modulation (PM) is the most widely used technique for data transmission.
satellite digital.
More specifically, the 4-state phase shift modulation is used (QPSK Quadrature Phase
Shift Keying). This modulation technique provides 4 levels per information [Link] transport what,
for a digital rate of B bits per second, implies a bandwidth of B/4 Hz (in practice, it requires B/1.8
Hz).

Example: the digital PSTN uses a digital rate of 64 kbit/s, a bandwidth B=B/1.8=38 kHz and a
spacing between the carriers of 45 kHz.

Application to satellite communications

The three frequency bands most commonly used for satellite communications are:
Band C, 4/6 GHz, 500 MHz space
Band Ku, 11/14 GHz, 500 MHz space
Band, 10/30 GHz, bandwidth of 2500 MHz

One can choose in these frequency bands the pairs of carrier frequencies. A carrier carries the
signals from the transmitter to the receiver, that is, from the Earth to the satellite or from the satellite to the Tdo it.
Exploring modulation represents the bandwidth, that is to say, the available transmission capacity.
at the level of the satellite.
Each carrier corresponds to a transponder. Therefore, we have:

Satellite

Transponder
Fp

Fp

Earth

Fig. 5: Satellite communication

The carrier is therefore the frequency reroute
the information. The concept of carrier can be summarized as follows:
B
a
n
d
Fp Spacing Fp e Bearer
between the
carriers
d
e Bearer
f
fr
é Bearer
q
u
e Bearer

c
e

Fig. 6: The concept of carrier

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III. Techniques of’access

3.1 Problematic
It is necessary to share a single resource among several users. A resource access policy is
so setting up.
In the world of satellites, it is observedand that no level 2 protocol is standardized. Moreover, the long delay
The round trip between Earth and the satellite represents the major problem.

4.2Categories
Four categories exist for satellite systems:
fixed reservation methods, FAMA (Fixed Assignment Multiple Access)
random access methods, RA (Random Access
packet reservation methods, PR (Packet Reservation)
dynamic reservation methods, DAMA (Demand Assignment Multiple Access) FAMA

Three categories stand out:

FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)

TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

FDMA
In FDMA, the bandwidth of each transponder is divided into sub-carriers and these carriers are spaced apart:
each station extracts the channels reserved for it. We have thus:

The assignment of a 36 MHz

Carrier
canal might be (1 transponder)
permanent or
assigned Carrier
dynamically if
DAMA
Emitter Receiver
Carrier

Semaphore channel for

management

Fig. 9The FDMA access technique

TDMA
We share the available time in slots assigned to the stations. Therefore, it is necessary to synchronize in
permanence of these stations by sending synchronization information (for clocks for example).
CDMA
Also called AMRC (Code Division Multiple Access), a code (Spread Spectrum) is used in some cases.
to spread the communications of the stations over the band: several codes allow the multiplexing of several
signals on the same band. Each station combines the information to be sent with its code and transmits on the
totality of the bandwidth. All signals overlap and the receiver must correlate the received signal with the
same code as that of the senderr to decrypt the message.

RA
Emerging from LANs, random access techniques have been adapted for satellite networks taking into account
of the significant propagation delay.

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The principle is simpleWe send a packet whenever we want, but if we do not receive an acknowledgment, we consider
that there was a collision and we wait a random time before re-issue the package. The problem is obviously
that a quality of service is difficult to implement in this context.
Two main techniques exist in the Random Access mode, both stemming from research initiated at
The University of Hawaii to address the issue of communication between computer equipment.
located on the different islands of the archipelago.

Hello
Application of the principle stated above, we wait for a random time (appropriately fixed) before re-emitting.
a package for which a negative acknowledgment is received.

Aloha discretized
We divide time into equal-length slices, corresponding to the transmission time of a package, which of
this must have a constant length. This way, we have collisions only on a packet and no longer on a piece.
from the packet. But it then has to synchronize the clocks of the different members of the network.

PR
The protocols with packet reservation are numerous, but the principle remains the same. it is necessary
book time slots in advance for issuing. A signaling network is dedicated to the exchange
information for the reservation.
R-aloha
Fixed time slots areThey are grouped into frames. A station must reserve a slot before transmitting.
Reservations are implicit or explicit. For example, a successful transmission implicitly means a
reservation in the same segment of the following framework. The longyour time frames are longer than the travel time
return, so that all the starting stations of a section are aware of what happened in the
same slice of the previous framework.

PUT
In PODA (Priority Oriented Demand Assignment), a frame is divided into two parts. The first part
of ahead composed of mini-slices for booking and a second part for transporting packages. A
note that access to the mini-header slices are made using atechnithat accessof the aloha type.
Ordered reservation
We differ from PODA because the mini-Header slices are assigned to the stations in a fixed manner.
Reservation in turn
In this policy, time is always divided into slices. A frame is made up of m slices, where m is
greater than n, the number of stations. The first n segments are reserved for the corresponding stations. The
m-n other slots are occupied in turn by the stations: depending on the number of packets waiting for
transmission for eachAmong them, priority is given to the busiest stations.

DAMA
Dynamic reservation protocols allocate resources based on user demand.
Priorities can be assigned to users, thus a quality of service can be implemented.
The three most important techniques are as follows.
FBA - DAMA
A FAMA protocol ensures a quality of service for a few high-priority users. The rest of the bandwidth
the passante is distributed according to a DAMA technique.
RRR
The RRR (Round Robin Reservation) scheme requires a number of stations lower than the number of slots.
necessary for the TDMA discipline. Each station has a dedicated slot. The remaining slots are
accessed according to an aloha policy.
IFFO
The IFFO (Interleaved Frame Flush Out) technique, in which the frame is divided into three parts, one for the
control of reservations, one for the blocks reserved by each station and one for random access.

IV. Existing Systems

4.1 Narrowband satellite systems

This is the first generation of satellites. Originally, they were used for telephone communications or the
broadcasting of television programs. More and more, data transmission is also a service.
proposed.
Data transmission occurs in the 12 spectra.-14 GHz in TDMA.

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4.2 Eutelsat and Intelsat

Two international organizations are dedicated to services between fixed stations: Intelsat and Eutelsat. Intelsat has
summerlaunchedin 1964 and now groups more than one hundred twenty member countries. Its objective is to organize, to
coordinate and offer a very high bandwidth to its members, in order to achieve
telephone communications, television channel broadcasts, and integrated services for large.
companies. Intelsat was founded by telecommunications operators and has set up a whole system for their benefit.
satellite network. For many years, Intelsat had complete control over all the
satellite communications. He began to lose this monopoly in the 1980s, when the Europeans
launched Eutelsat to coordinate satellite communications in Europe and that other organizations
national or international, such as Panamsat, have begun to offer similar services with
slightly different techniques. The field of VSAT is also part of Eutelsat's prerogatives.

Wavelengths
The following wavelengths, concerning the use of narrowband satellites, were defined in 1987 by
the WARC (World Administrative Radio Conference) :
1,530-1,544 GHz for communications from the satellite to terrestrial mobiles and boats
1,544-1,545 GHz for communications from the satellite to distressed mobiles
1,545-1,599 GHz for communications from satellites to aeronautical mobiles
1,626-1,645 GHz for communications of terrestrial mobiles and boats to satellites
1,645-1,646 GHz for distress mobile communications to the satellite
1,646-1,660 GHz for aeronautical mobile communications to the satellite
Antennas
The antennas depend on the type of service sought. Three main developments are:
Inmarsat A antennas, one meter in diameter
Inmarsat C antennas, with a diameter significantly smaller than 1 m, but fixed, that is to say, non-foldable,
for data communications that can reach 600 Kbit/s
Inmarsat M antennas, with a diameter of less than 1 m, enabling telephony with a compression to
6.4 Kbit/s and data up to 2.4 Kbit/s

Utilization
Business communications between different points of the same company began to develop in
early 80s. It was necessary for this to have small diameter antennas at acceptable costs for the
users. The real start took place with the use of VSAT, which saw growth in the early 90s,
both in Europe and in the United States.

4.3 Broadband Satellite Systems

The current evolution pushes towards:
the transport ofmultimedia applications.
the development of VSATs and USATs is the reason for the proliferation of antennas on our rooftops and
balconies
The use of the satellite is thus extending to the transport of very high-quality video channels.
The number of satellites in orbit for the broadcasting of television channels continues to grow.
Many standards have been created, such as DSS (Direct Satellite System)
Competition with cable networks is becoming increasingly strong, with the latter benefiting from a more
high bandwidth, which allows them high-speed services, particularly for television to
the request

4.4 Constellations
The purpose of constellations is to enable communications at any time and everywhere with...
terminals the size of mobile phones.
The major problem in multimedia communications concerns the quality of service that
applications need. This quality of service is easily provided in a circuit mode, but the poor
the use of bandwidth is unacceptable in expensive systems such as constellations of
satellites. The network set up on the constellation uses a packet transfer technique, through
ATM switch or IP router, the ATM transfer method has been chosen by most operators of
constellations, but the question remains open with the arrival of new IP concepts such as giga routers.
capable of transmitting several gigabits per second, the new routing techniques depend on the
QoS, ... Moreover, there isthere is a strong likelihood that the satellite world has also turned to intensive use of
IP protocol.

To maintain continuous communication with a ground station, its mobility must be managed.
Just like in the satellite world, the area covered by the satellite is divided into cells. Each cell
corresponds to a frequency of the satellite's antenna.
Two handover systems oppose each other:

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Inthe first, the antenna remains fixed on the satellite and the coverage area scrolls underneaththe satellite. This is called
EMC system (Earth Mobile Cell)
The second system advocates for a mobile antenna that points towards a fixed cell on the surface of the Earth.
When the area is no longer visible, it is up to the next satellite in the constellation to take [Link] relay. We are talking here about
EFC (Earth Fixed Cell)

V. Use of satellite networks

5.1 The main uses of satellite networks are as follows:
Public communications: telephony between continents for example
Communications outsupply: systemof UPS for example
Communications of television programs (great success)
Mobile communications (strong competition from terrestrial systems)
Maritime communications
Aviation communications

5.2 Diffusion
The transmission of data via satellite networks relies in particular on a setand specifications
intended to code, transmit and encrypt different types of communications, namely DVB. The appendix
This aims to present this set of specifications.

5.3 The Transmission

Well, now that we have coded and multiplexed our various services, we just need to transmit them.
to the spectators.
One of the main characteristics of digital broadcasting channels is that they can undergo
great damage without it being visible. But when you surpass a certain threshold, the service disruption
it is brutal and total. It's all or nothing.
DVB has defined a number of mechanisms to protect information. Part of it is common to all
transmission modes and others are specific to the transmission medium.

5.4 The BER

Three transmission routes are possible:

the satellite,
the cable,
the terrestrial broadcasting network.
It is also important to keep in mind two imperatives:
we must use the existing channels (the width of the channel is imposed),
Digital television requires a qualified transmission of QEF (Quasi Error Free = almost
without error).
To implement this second constraint, it is important to introduce a new concept: the BER (Bit Error Rate) or
BER (Bit Error Rate).
There is no need for a long explanation to understand that the modulations used will be chosen from
a very attentive manner depending on the type of transmission channel and a repertoire of correction techniques
an error will be set up.

5.5 Characteristics of channels

Satellite: channel width is frequently equal to 36 MHz. A signal from a satellite undergoes attenuation.
of more than 200dB. We therefore receive a very weak and noisy signal.
Cablevery narrow channel width, 8 MHz (let's remind that the output rate from the multiplexer is about 40
MBit/s). On the other hand, it is a very protected environment.
Terrestrial networkvery narrow channel width, 8 MHz. The chosen system must be insensitive to phenomena
of echoes.
Note: the width of the channels is equal to that of the analog channels that are being converted gradually.
to digital.

5.5 Satellite and QPSK

Satellite transmission requires powerful correction codes and modulation that is least sensitive.
possible phase and amplitude distortions.
Indeed, the transmission is extremely noisy, and the transponder tubes operate in saturation, it is
Not a chance of working with modulated information in amplitude.

Principle:

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The choice was therefore made for a QPSK (Quaternary Phase Shift Keying) modulation or modulation at
phase shift with 4 states). It is actually a combination of two amplitude modulations with carrier.
suppressed. The two carriers, called I and Q, are, of course, phase-shifted by 90°.

5.6 Cable and QAM

On the cable, the issue is different. It's a well-protected environment but with a reduced bandwidth. Therefore, we will...
choose a modulation with maximum efficiency, that is to say transporting a maximum of bits per symbol.
We will use a QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) modulation composed of two modulations.
of amplitude with carrier suppressed in quadrature like for QPSK.

5.7 Terrestrial and COFDM

Transmitting a digital train via radio frequency is no small feat, and that is why
it is the technology that took the longest to emerge.
It is the one from DAB (Digital Audio Broadcasting) that has been adapted for digital television.

COFDM: Coded Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex

The challenge raised is that upon receipt we should be able to find the transmitted symbols independently of the
multiple paths (reflections, echoes, antenna receiving two different transmitters, Doppler effect in the case of the
mobile reception) borrowed from the issuer(s).
This designation (OFDM) is justified by the fact that transmission is ensured using frequency multiplexing.
of orthogonal subcarriers, separated by a guard interval.

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