REFRIGIRATIONS AND AIR Differences between Refrigeration and Heat

CONDITIONING Pump
By the end of the sub-module unit, the trainee
should be able to:
a)Explain the principle of operation of the
refrigeration and air conditioning.
i)Refrigeration cycle
ii)Insulating materials
iii)Refrigiration loads
iv)Refrigiration capacity control
v)Air circulation
vii)Control of temperatures and humidity
ix)Temperature and Humidity transducers
x)Psychometry mixtures
2. Air conditioning.
It is the simultaneous control of temperature,
b)Describe the construction of the refrigeration
humidity, cleanliness and air motion
and air conditioning
i)Compressors
ii)Condessors PRINCIPAL OPERATION OF
iii)Evaporators REFREGIRATION
The mechanical device extracts heat from the
iv)Valves
v)Transducers space that has to be maintained at a lower
temperature and rejects it to the surrounding
c)State common refrigerants
atmosphere that is at a relatively higher
d)Describe the layout of typical refrigeration
temperature. Since the volume of the space which
and Air conditioning plants.
has to be maintained at a lower temperature is
always much lower than the environment, the space
INTRODUCTION
under consideration experiences relatively higher
Definations of Refrigiration and Air
changes than the environment where it is rejected.
Conditioning with Psychometry
TERMS USED IN REFRIGERATION
1. Refrigeration
1. Refrigerant- It is a substance used for heat
Refregiration is a process of maintaining low
transfer in refrigeration systems. It takes up
temperature in comparison to surrounding
temperature heat from inside the refrigerator cabinet and
Or releases it to outside atmosphere.
2. Sensible Heat – The heat that is used to raise
Science of providing and maintaining
or lower the temperature of a substance.
temperatures below that of the surrounding.
3. Latent Heat – is the Energy absorbed or
released when a substance changes its physical
Or
A process of removal of heat from a spaces where state.
it is unwanted and transferring the same to the 4. Evaporation – It is the process of a substance
in a liquid state changing to A gaseous state
surrounding environment where it makes little or
due to an increase in temperature and/or
no difference
pressure.
Or
Is the production of cold confinement relative to its 5. Condensation – Is the change of the physical
surroundings state of a matter from gas phase into liquid
Or phase, and is the reverse of evaporation
6. One Ton of Refrigeration – It means Cooling
Refrigeration is the process of removing heat from
by extracting heat at the rate of 50Kcal?minute
an enclosed space or from a substance and
or 3000 Kcal/hr
rejecting it elsewhere for the primary purpose of
lowering the temperature of the enclosed space or 7. Cooling media – Is a working fluid cooled by
substances and then maintaining that lower the refrigerant to transport the cooling effects
between a central plant and remote cooling
temperature.
units and terminals.
It is usually done with the aid of a mechanical
devices (eg. Pump compressor ) using a substance Applications of Refrigeration
(called Refrigerant) which absorbs heat from low
temperature (objects space ) and releases hear to i) Refrigeration’s of foodstuff in homes,
resturants and large storage warehouses
elsewhere at a high temperature.
ii)Air- Conditioning of Private homes and Public
building, Hosipitals -to provide comfortable
Heat pump – Is a refrigeration machinery which
pump heat from the surrounding into the systems conditions for people by removing heat generated
internally by people.

72 | P a g e BY: ODIPO 0729692775

Industrial Air Conditioning -This refers to humidity of about 65% is maintained for comfort
providing at least a partial measure of comfort for condition.
workers in hostile environments and controlling air
conditions so that they are favourable to h)Air Conditioning of Vehicles
Processing some objects or materials. Some For comfortable journey, planes, trains, ships,
examples of industrial air conditioning are the buses are air conditioned. In many of these
following: vehicles the major contributor to the cooling load is
the heat from solar radiation and in case of public
a)Spot Heating -In a cold weather it may be more transportation, heat from people.
practical to warm a confined zone where a worker
is located. One such approach is through the use of i)Food Storage and Distribution
an infrared heater. When its surfaces are heated to a Many meats, fish, fruits Dairy products,and
high temperature by means of a burner or by vegetables are perishable and their storage life can
electricity, they radiate heat to the affected area. be extended by refrigeration.
k)To liquefy gases like oxygen, nitrogen, propane
b)Environmental Laboratories and methane for examples.
The role of air conditioning may vary from one l)In Oil refineries, chemical plants, and
laboratory to the other. Low temperatures of about petrochemical plants, refrigeration is used to
– 40oC may be maintained to test certain equipment maintain certain process at their required low
at low temperatures, and in another, a high temperatures.
temperature and humidity may be required to study m)Metal workers use refrigeration to temper steel
behaviour of animals in tropical climates. and cutlery.
n)In transporting temperature-sensitive food
c)Printing stuffs and other materials by trucks.
In printing industries, control of humidity is a
must. In some printing processes the paper is run Examples of Refrigerants
through several different passes, and air i. Ammonia (Boiling point -−330 𝐶
conditioning must be maintained to provide proper ii. Freon 12 (R -12) (Boiling points
registration. If the humidity is not properly −300 𝐶
maintained the problems of static electricity, iii. Freon 12 (R-22)(Boiling point −400 𝐶
curling or buckling of paper or the failure of the iv. Dry Ice 𝐶𝑂2 (Boiling point −730 𝐶
ink to dry arise. v. CFC (Chlorofluorocarbon)
vi. HCFC (Hydrofluorocarbons)
d)Textiles -Like paper, textiles are sensitive to Currently Most widely used Refrigerants
changes in humidity and to a lesser extent changes - R-134a (𝐶𝐻2 𝐹𝐹𝐶𝐹3 ) , boiling Point −330 𝐶
in temperature. - R-410a (50% 𝐶𝐻2 /50%CHFCF,Boiling point
In modern textile plants, yarn moves at very high −330 𝐶
speeds and any changes in flexibility and strength
of the yarn because of the change in humidity and Properties of Refrigerants
temperature will thus affect the production. i)Non-Corrosive and should not react with parts of
the system
e)Precision Parts and Clean Rooms ii)Non-poisonous and non irritant
In manufacturing of precision metal parts air iii)Safe
conditioning helps to (a) keep the temperature iv)High Heat of Vaporization
uniform so that the metal will not expand and v) Moderate Density in Liquid form
contract, (b) maintain a humidity so that rust is vii) high Density in gaseous form.
prevented and (c) filter the air to minimize dust. viii) It should be non-flammable
viii)Should be chemically stable
f)Photographic Products ix) Should have no odour or smell
Raw photographic materials deteriorate fast in x) Should be easily and reliably detectable in case
high humidity and temperatures. Other materials of leakage
used in coating film also require a careful control
of temperature. Therefore, photographic- TYPES OF REFRIGERANTS AND USAGE
products industry is a large user of refrigeration
and air conditioning. APPLICATION REFRIGERANTS
Refrigerator 𝑅12 , 𝑅22 (CFC)
g)Computer Rooms Food Freezers 𝑅12 𝑅12 𝑅502 (HCFC in
In computer rooms, air conditioning controls gaseous state)
temperature, humidity and cleanliness of the air. Air Conditioning 𝑅12
Some electronic components operate in a faulty
Frzen Food 𝑅22 (Dry ice (
manner if they become too hot. One means of
Delivery System 𝑅744)
preventing such localized high temperature is to
maintain the air temperature in the computer room Ice Plant Solid Carbon Dioxide (
in the range of 20 to 23 0C and at A relative 𝑅744) Ammonia (
𝑅717)

73 | P a g e BY: ODIPO 0729692775

 e)Evaporator
ESSENTIAL PARTS OF A SIMPLE VAPOUR
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM In the evaporator the refrigerant absorbs the heat
i. Compressor from the object to be cooled and itself gets heated
ii)Condenser up. The heat absorbed is the latent heat of
iii)Receiver vaporisation of the liquid refrigerants and
iv) Expansion Valves therefore the refrigerant undergoes a change of
v)Evaporation state. i.e from liquid to vapour without change in
temperature. The vapour refrigerants then returns to
the compressor.

An evaporator consists of coils of pipe in which the

liquid-vapour. refrigerant at low pressure and
temperature is evaporated and changed into vapour
refrigerant at low pressure and temperature.

Thermostatic Control
To avoid continuous running of electric motor.
(Motor required to run the compressor) and
Unnessary work of Comprssion.

a)Compressor Thermostatic control is used to senses the set

The low pressure and temperature vapour interior temperature and stops the motor from
refrigerant from evaporator is drawn into the running and when the temperature rises again, the
compressor through the inlet or suction valve A, motor restarts and the compressor start working
where it is compressed to a high pressure and again.
temperature. This high pressure and temperature
vapour refrigerant is discharged into the condenser NOTE: Compressor is the most expensive part of
through the delivery or discharge valve B. the refrigeration cycle and its repair is difficult.
An inefficient or defective compressor is generally
b)Condenser replaced with a new one.
The condenser or cooler consists of coils of pipe in
which the high pressure and temperature vapour The Two main phases of Refrigeration
refrigerant is cooled and condensed. The A refrigerant usually works in two, phase
refrigerant, while passing through the condenser, conditions:
gives up its latent heat to the surrounding 1. Liquid and Gas –eg Vapour compression
condensing medium which is normally air or water. refrigeration systems
It condenses to cold liquid state but at high 2. Single –phase eg – Air Cycle refrigeration
pressure. This high pressure colder refrigerant
then passes through the expansion valve. The Refrigeration Cycle

c)Receiver -The condensed liquid refrigerant from

the condenser is stored in a vessel known as
receiver from where it is supplied to the evaporator
through the expansion valve or refrigerant control
valve.
d)Expansion Valve

The expansion valve cools down the refrigerant to

a low temperature and also reduces the pressure.

It is also called throttle valve or refrigerant control

valve. It allows the liquid refrigerant under high
pressure and temperature to pass at a controlled rate Types of Refrigeration systems
after reducing its pressure and temperature. Some 1. Vapour Compression refrigeration systems
of the liquid refrigerant evaporates as it passes 2. Vapour Absorption Refrigeration Systems
through the expansion valve, but the greater portion 3. Vapour ejection Refrigeration Systems
is vaporized in the evaporator at the low pressure 4. Air cycle Refrigeration
5) Vortex Tube refrigeration
and temperature
6) Thermo-Electric refrigeration
The cool refrigerant is now ready to absorb heat 7. Magnetic Refrigeration’s
from the hot objects while passes through the 8) Cascade Systems
evaporator. 9) Cryogenics

74 | P a g e BY: ODIPO 0729692775

VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION a low pressure is maintained, the refrigerant is able
SYSTEMS to boil at a low temperature. So, the liquid absorbs
heat from the cold reservoir and evaporates. The
a)Vapour Compression refrigeration system refrigerant leaves the evaporator as low
/cycle temperature, low pressure gas and is taken into the
Vapour Compression cycle is an improved type of
compressor again, back at the beginning of the
air refrigeration cycle in which a suitable working
substance, termed as refrigerants, is used. The cycle.
refrigerants generally used for this purpose are: Below is a typical single stage vapour compression
a) Ammonia (𝑁𝐻3 )
refrigeration
b) Carbon dioxide (𝐶𝑂3 )
c) Sulphur-dioxide( 𝑆𝑂3 )

In this case,The refrigerant used does not leave the

system, but it circulate throughout the system
alternately condensing and evaporating. In
evaporating, the refrigerant absorbs its latent heat
from the solution which is used for circulating it
around the cold chamber and in condensing; it
gives out its latent heat to the circulating water of
the cooler.

b) Vapour absorption Refrigeration circle

Major components:

a)Absorber
Part 1: Compression: - in this stage, the b)Generator
refrigerant enters the compression as a gas under c)Condensor coil
low pressure and having alow temperature. Then d)Evaporator coil
the refrigerant is compressed, so the fluid leaves e)Pump
the compressor under high pressure and with a high
Absorbent – refrigerant pair is used such as, water
temperature.
as absorbent and ammonia as refrigerant.
Part 2: Condensation: The high pressure, high
temperature gas releases heat energy and condenses Below is an illustration of Vapour abortion
refrigeration cycle
inside the ‘’condenser’’ portion of the system. The
condenser is in contact with the hot reservoir of the
refrigeration system. (the gas releases heat into hot
reservoir because of the external work added to the
gas). The refrigerant leaves as a high pressure
liquid.

Part 3: Throttling or expansion Valve: The liquid

refrigerant is pushed through a throttling valve,
which causes it to expand. As a result, the
refrigerant now has low pressure and lower
temperature, while still in the liquid phase.(The
throttling valve can be either a thin slit or some sort
of plug with holes in [Link] the refrigerant is
forced through the throttle, its pressure is reduced,
causing the liquid to expand) Brief description - Ammonia gas from the
evaporator enters the absorber at appoint [Link]
Part 4: Evaporation: The low pressure, low
in absorber absorbs the Ammonia gas. This
temperature refrigerant enters the evaporator,
solution can hold a maximum of 30% ammonia.
which is in contact with the cold reservoir. Because
The pump lifts this rich solution and supplies to

75 | P a g e BY: ODIPO 0729692775

generator above where it is heated to generate Typical interior temperature range for cooler shoul
(separate) ammonia at high pressure and high be 4.4 degrees celcius to 7 degree celcious and for
temperature. This ammonia from the generator freezer should be -15 degree celcius to -23 degree
reaches condenser at point 2 and the lean ammonia celcius.
solution deposits into the separator (below) where
from by gravity it goes back to absorber. The Comparison between Vapour compression And
Condenser absorbs the latent heat of ammonia Vapour Absortion Refrigeration
vapour. As a result the ammonia converts into Vapour compression Vapour absorption
liquid and falls into the liquid receiver at 3 and refrigeration refrigeration
then enters the evaporator at point 4. Liquid Uses compressor Uses a pump
ammonia in the evaporator boils in low Energy consumption is Energy consumption is
temperature and transforms into vapour by high due to use of low
absorption of heat. This low pressure ammonia compressor
gas enters the absorber and thus completes the Suitable where no Suitable where waste
circle of refrigeration. waste heat is available heat is available
Widely used due to Not widely used
Detailed explanation: availability of electric
power
Part 1: Absorption: low pressure vapour of
ammonia from evaporator is absorbed in a weak
solution of aqua (liquid) ammonia in the absorber c)Air/Gas cycle Refrigeration System (Bell –
and thus gets converted into astron solution. Strong Coleman Refrigeration System)
solution of water and ammonia is pumped into
generator, while a weak solution returns to the Air is used as refrigerant. There is no condensation
absorber from the generator. and Evaporation in an air cycle. It works on the
reverse Brayton Cycle instead of the reverse
Part 2: Generation of high pressure Vapour: Rankine Cycle. The air cycle Machine is very
Strong solution pumped into the generator from the Common on gas turbine –powered ‘jet’ aircraft.
absorber is heated inside the generator. Ammonia
separates in the form of vapour ammonia from the
solution as absorption of ammonia in water is at a
lesser higher temperature. The weak solution is
send back to the absorber. The high pressure, high
temperature, ammonia vapours are then led to
condenser.

Part 3: Condensation: High pressure hot ammonia

vapours from the generator, are condensed in the
condenser and high pressure liquid ammonia so
formed is stored in the receiver.

Part 4: Expansion: High pressure liquid ammonia

on its way to the evaporator passes through the
expansion value which reduces its pressure and
temperature.
As shown in the figure above, the low pressure air
Part 5: Evaporation: The low pressure liquid from the refrigerator (cabin) is compressed in the
refrigeration from the expansion value, while compressor from 1 to 2, to increase both pressure
passing through the evaporator, absorbs latent heat and temperature. The air is then cooled to state 3 in
and converts it into low pressure vapour ammonia. the air cooler. Its pressure is also reduced to cabin
Thus it produces a refrigerating effects in the space pressure in the turbine to state 4, as a result its
around the evaporator. From the evaporator the low temperature drops. The cold air at state 4 is
pressure ammonia goes to the absorber and this supplied to the cabin. It picks up heat as it flows
way it completes one cycle of working. through the carbine to its exist at state 1.

Reach – in refrigeration Application

a)Coolers and freezer – Capacities of such units Suitable for aircraft

are usually expressed in terms of the internal space
Advantages
volume (cubic metre) or in mass (kg) of materials
i. Air is cheap
being stored in it.
ii. Safe and non-toxic
iii. Non-flammable

76 | P a g e BY: ODIPO 0729692775

iv. Leakage of air is not a problem to refrigerant, forcing its various magnetic dipoles
v. The aircraft engine already consist of high speed to aline and putting these degrees of freedom of the
turbo compressor , hence separate compressor for refrigerant into a state of lowered entropy. A heat
cooling system is not required. This reduces the sink then absorbs the heat released by the
weight per kW cooling considerably. refrigerant due to its loss of entropy. Thermal
Processes involved in the reversed Brayton contact with the heat sink is then broken so that the
Cycle for air/Air cycle system system is insulated, and the magnetic field is
switched off. This increases the heat capacity of the
refrigerant thus decreasing its temperature below
the temperature of the heat sink. Its applications
have so far been limited to cryogenics and research.

AIR CONDITIONING
What is air conditioning?

It is the simultaneous control of temperature,

humidity, cleanliness and air motion
Complete air conditioning would mean all such
1-2 : Isentropic compression process being carried on air.
2-3: Constant pressure heat rejection at high Refrigeration plant is necessary for such air-
temperature Conditioning system
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4- 1:Constant Pressure heat addition at low TERMS USED IN AIR CONDITIONING
pressure 1. Psychrometry – The study of air and its
moisture content
2. Dry air – Atmospheric air consisting of a
d)Thermoelectric refrigeration
mixture of gases excluding its waste vapour
Thermoelectric cooling uses the Peltier effect to content
create a heat flux between the two different types 3. Moisture – the water vapour contained in air
of materials. This effect is commonly used in 4. Moist Air-Atmospheric air along with gases
camping coolers and for cooling electronic and water vapour
components small instruments. 5. Unsaturated air –The moist air which does
not contain the maximum amount of water
e) Cascade refrigeration systems vapour that it can hold at a given temperature
Cascade system consists of a series of vapour 6. Dry bulb temperature (DBT)-The
compression systems to achieve very low temperature that is shown by a normal mercury
temperature not feasible by using a single system. in glass-tube thermometer (ordinary mercury
-Used in industrial applications where quite low in glass thermometer)
7. Dew point temperature (DPT) – This is the
temperature are required.
temperature to which a given air parcel has to
-Refrigeration cycle is performed in stages be cooled to make at 100% saturated with its
-The refrigerant in the two stages does not mix actual moisture content. Or This temperature at
-Higher efficiency results but also a higher first which the water vapour turns into water
cost. droplets is called dew point temperature.
8. Wet bulb temperature(WBT) – Temperature
that is shown by mercury in glass-thermometer
when its probe is wrapped with a wet
cloth(wick)
9. Specific Humidity (SH)-Total quantity of
water vapour in the Moist air
10. Relative Humidity (HR) – It is defined as the
ratio of actual moist air content of a given
volume at a particular temperature to the
maximum amount of water vapour if the air is
saturated at the same temperature
11. Absolute Humidity – The Quantity of
Moisture content in the air.

f) Magnetic refrigeration Psychometric Parameter

In magnetic refrigeration, the refrigerant is often a a)Dry Bulb temperature
paramagnetic salt. A stron magnetic field is applied b)Wet bulb temperature

77 | P a g e BY: ODIPO 0729692775

-This system becomes most popular because of  The DC Locomotive and Motor coach
various salient advantages over other systems equipment are lighter in weight, cheaper in
particularly DC systems. initial and maintenance cost and efficient.

This system has got numerous advantages over Comparison of DC and AC Traction
dc Systems:
 The line Current for a given demand of power FACTOR DC TRAIN AC TRAIN
is reduced on account of high system voltage. Motor DC series AC series
 On account of high voltage the substations can Motor Motor
be spaced at longer distances (50 to 80 km) Performance Good Not as good as
whereas the substations are spaced at 12 to performance that used for
30km in case of 3000 V DC system and 5 to DC traction
12km in case of 1500V DC system. Starting More less
 Since the DC series motors having ideal torque
traction characteristics are employed in this Speed control The speed Wide range of
system for getting the required propelling control of DC speed control
power, therefore, this system have got the series Motor is is possible
advantages of the dc system. limited
Interference DC systems It will produce
Comparison of DC and AC system of Railway causes less more
electrification from the point of View of main interference with interference
line and suburban line railways services communication with
lines communication
Main line Railways Sub-urban Railways lines
Service Service Overhead Heavier and Lighter and
Distribution More costly less costly
Essential Essential Comparatively
Requrements of main Requrements of Substations The number of The Number of
line railway service Sub-urban Railway substations substations
service required for required in AC
i:Higher Maximum i:Rapid acceleration agiven track traction is less
speed. (𝑉𝑚 ) and retardation rates distance on DC
due to frequent traction is More
starting and stopping Weight of Cu Weight of Cu Weight of Cu
ii:Minimum Cost of ii:Motor Performance required per required per
tract electrification should not be affected track km is more track km is less
by voltage fluctuations Application Tramway,Trolley Main line
iii:Less chances of bus services
interference in the
telecommunication
lines running along the Current Collectors for overhead system
track i:Electric current collectors are used by trolleys
busses,trums, electric locomotives or EMUs to
Features which make Single phase AC System is carry electrical power from overhead lines or
preferred for main line services electrical third rails to the electrical equipment of
i:25kV Overhead systems reduces conductor the vehicles. Those for overhead wires are roof-
section and hence simplified structure design due to mounted devices; those for third are mounted on
high voltage the bogies
ii:Higher Spacing of sub-station reduces number of
sub-station and increases flexibility of selecting ii)Typically, they have one or more spring –loaded
cheaper, land Maintenance cost is less due to cheap arms that press a collector or contact shoes against
and efficient equipment of AC System. the rail or Overhead wire. As the vehicle moves,
the contact shoe slides along the wire or rail to
draw the electricity needed to run the vehicle’s
NB: motor.
 The above requirement can be fulfill by DC iii)The current collector arms are electrically
system and Hence invariably adopted for sub- conductive but mounted insulated on the vehicle’s
urban services considering following facts: roof, side or base. An insulated cable connects the
 For a similar conditions the energy collector with the switch, transformer or motor.
consumption in dc system is less as compared The steel rails of the tracks act as the electrical
with in AC system return.
iv)Electric vehicle’s that collect their current from
an overhead lines system use different forms of one
– or two –arm pantograph collector, bow collectors
86 | P a g e BY: ODIPO 0729692775