“SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF WASTE

COCONUT HUSK AS AGGREGATE IN CONCRETE

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the

BSCE- 4
S.Y. 2024-2025

BUDONG, GLOBEN SAM

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Introduction

Concrete is crucial for construction, with high demand for aggregate. Alternative materials like
coconut fiber are being explored for concrete production. However, disposal of agricultural
waste is challenging due to extreme exploitation. Coconut husk is a potential waste material for
partial concrete replacement due to its environmentally friendly properties. Coconut fiber, a
biodegradable, non-toxic, and superior mechanical material, is gaining popularity as a waste
material for concrete partial replacement due to its environmentally friendly properties.

Related Studies

According to Tomas Gamiron Jr. (2013), His study focuses on generating product using
agricultural waste as well develop an alternative construction material that will lessen the
social and environmental issues. It also paved the way to the recognition of using coconut shells
and fiber as substitute for aggregates in developing concrete hollow blocks. This paper presents
the result on the workability and compressive strength of concrete containing various
percentage of coconut shell content as partial aggregate replacement.

Agrawal, et. al. (2014), stated that coconut fiber addition in concrete enhances properties
like torsion, toughness, and tensile strength. Its uniform diameter distribution reduces voids and
increases concrete's toughness. Coconut fiber is often available at low prices, making concrete more
economical and environmentally friendly. However, increasing coconut fiber content beyond 3% of
cement results in decreased strength and waste. While it can be used to reinforce non-structural
components, it is not suitable for malls, bungalows, or commercial buildings.

According to Yadav and Singh (2019), CFRC specimens show a ductile behavior, causing
cracks to cease. This is due to tensile failure caused by atom and molecule dislocation in concrete.
Increased fiber content increases flexural strength, but a downward slope is observed. CFRC can
increase ultimate strength and durability, but the strength gain depends on fiber content. It is useful
in seismic zones, rural residential buildings, and as a replacement for asbestos fibers in roofing
sheets due to its higher strength and ductility.

Osama, et. al (2021), Today, it’s getting harder to find natural resources for concrete
production. Utilization of the waste materials not just helps in getting them used in concrete,
cement, and other construction materials, but also has various secondary advantages, for example,
saving in energy, decrease in landfill cost, and protecting climate from pollution. Considering this in
the development of modern structural design, utilizing waste materials instead of natural aggregate
is a good option to make concrete that is sustainable and eco-friendly. The present research aims to
find the impact of adding glass fiber into sustainable concrete made with silica fume, as a partial
replacement of cement, and coconut shell added with different ratios as a replacement of coarse
aggregate, on concrete mechanical and durability aspects. Various blends were made, with coconut
shell as a substitution of coarse aggregates with different ratios. Portland cement was substituted
with silica fume at 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% by cement weight in all concrete blends. The volume
ratios of glass fibers utilized in this study were 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5% and 2.0%. Adding glass fibers
increases concrete density to some extent and then marginally reduces the density of coconut shell
concrete. When the percentage of glass fibers increases, the compressive, flexural and split tensile
strength of coconut shell concrete also increases.

Zainul, et. al. (2020), in their research, stated that the study is to employ coconut fiber as an
aggregate in the construction of pavement blocks. Experiments were carried out to evaluate the
mechanical properties of the concrete. The results showed that increasing the fiber content
increases compression strength, but at 60% replacement, strength and fracture behavior decrease.
Concrete specimens with 40% coconut fiber showed the highest splitting tensile strength,
indicating strong cement bonding. The study concluded that coconut fiber may be used as a fine
aggregate in conventional concrete manufacturing, contributing to economic production and waste
disposal. The study collects coconut shell debris from suppliers and plantations, with an emphasis
on brown fibers. The shells are cleaned and dried in the sun to remove dirt and moisture content,
ensuring only mature brown fibers are selected.

Crucho et. al. (2022), in their research, stated that the Construction and demolition waste
(CDW) and coconut husk are frequently discharged into landfills, creating an environmental
problem. However, the CDW can be used to obtain good-quality recycled aggregates (RA), and the
coconut husk can be processed into coconut fiber (CF). These materials can be used in the
construction of cement bound granular mixtures (CBGM) to be applied as base and sub-base layers
of road pavements. Such a large-scale application would bring value to these materials and reduce
the extraction of non-renewable natural resources. In this work, the mechanical performance of
CBGM with RA and CF reinforcement was evaluated and compared with a conventional CBGM with
natural aggregate (NA). The mechanical performance was assessed through the immediate bearing
index (IBI), unconfined compressive strength (UCS), indirect tensile strength (ITS), and flexural
strength (FLS) tests. The results of the experimental program allow the conclusion that the CBGM
with RA present similar performance to the CBGM with NA. Furthermore, the use of CF effectively
reinforced the integrity of the CBGM specimens at post-test, indicating potential gains in durability
after cracking occurrence.

Andales, et. al. (2019), the study found that coconut coir and bamboo fiber cement-bonded
boards have medium-weight density, with densities of 1.64g/cm3, 1.56g/cm3, and 1.62g/cm3,
respectively. Mix Design 2 with 2.2% bamboo fiber had the highest water absorption percentage of
9.3%. The higher the bamboo fiber content, the higher the thickness swelling. Mix Design 1 with
1.3% bamboo fiber performed best in a nail head pull-through capacity test, with a 223.88kg load
resistance. Mix Design 3 with 3.2% bamboo fiber had the highest modulus of rupture, attributed to
the exceptional tensile strength of coconut coir and bamboo fibers.

According to Malay, et al. (2019), One of the most popular buildings and infrastructure
materials is concrete hollow block (CHB). It is created by hydrating a mixture of Portland cement,
aggregate, and water, which solidifies into rectangular in shape solid blocks. On the contrary, the
removal of traditional coarse aggregates causes significant environmental contamination and
damages the surrounding area. Consequently, one of the goals of the building sector has been to
discover a workable material that's comparable to standard aggregate. Agricultural waste is one
potential manifestation of this, which can be addressed by recycling unused materials. The coconut
is one possible source of substance.

According to Bernardo et. al. (2024), To address the said biowaste disposal
problem, and environmental implications of the growing construction industry, this
study evaluated the potential of utilizing coconut shell ash (CSA) and coconut shell
granules (CSG) in concrete production as alternatives to cement and sand, being
the conventional aggregates, respectively. Additionally, coconut coir (CC) was
incorporated as fiber reinforcements in concrete. The experiment consisted of 15
mix designs using different proportions of CSA and CSG, ranging from 0% to 20%,
and CC fiber reinforcements, ranging from 0% to 2%. The tests conducted on fresh
concrete involved measuring its slump and unit weight, while the 28-day cured
samples were tested for compressive and tensile strengths. Results showed that
high concentrations of CSA, CSG and CC, when combined in the concrete mix,
leads to poor workability; on the other hand, the modified mixes generally had
lower unit weights than the conventional concrete. These are associated to the
higher absorption rate, but lower density of the said agri-wastes than the
conventional aggregates.

According to John Manaloto (2023), This paper introduces the usage of agricultural wastes
namely the coconut shell as a substitute to coarse aggregates. Context of concrete mix and how
standard design measures are enacted. The research incorporated the crushed coconut shell into
the concrete mixture as an aggregate. The physical properties of coconut shells as well as the
components of concrete were presented. The compressive strength, slump test, concrete density,
and air content were also presented. The slump test and compressive strength test were conducted
in accordance with ASTM C143 and ASTM C39 respectively. Results show that workability of
concrete is slightly affected at increasing replacement of coconut shells. Integration of coconut
shells caused a 24% concrete strength reduction for every 20% coconut shell replacement at 28
days strength

Benito et. al. (2023), Using coconut shell aggregates (CSA) in concrete benefits agricultural
waste management and reduces the demand for mineral resources. Several studies have found that
concrete containing CSA can achieve strengths that are comparable to regular concrete. The
purpose of the present work is to evaluate the concrete’s durability-related properties to
supplement these earlier findings. Cylindrical specimens were prepared with a constant water–
cement ratio of 0.50 and CSA content ranging from 0% to 50% (at 10% increment) by volume of the
total coarse aggregates. The specimens were cured for 28 days and then tested for density, surface
hardness, electrical resistivity and water sorptivity. The surface hardness was measured to
describe the concrete resistance to surface wearing, while the resistivity and sorptivity were
evaluated to describe the material’s resistance to fluid penetration.

According to Racaza and Cabahug (2016), To address the increasing amount of municipal
and urban wastes brought about by tough and heavy biodegradable wastes from popular
consumption of young coconut water and meat in municipal and urban centers in the country, a
study is conducted to utilize these waste materials into ash to substitute cement for concrete
production. Wasted young coconut husks with their shells were collected and burnt at 600 0C to
produce ashes that were tested for its physical and chemical characteristics. The ash was mixed
with fine aggregates and water to six design mixtures using Young coconut husk ash (YCHA) at
20%, 40%, 60% 80% and 100% as partial replacement of ordinary Portland cement. Specimens
without YCHA (0%) are also prepared to serve as the control specimens of this study. The study
provided an encouraging implication on the use of young coconut husk ash as partial cement
replacement to up to 60% by weight in which mortar produced are acceptable for certain type of
construction applications.

Acceoding to Johnry Christian Ogot (2015), Philippines was the 2 nd largest producer of
coconut in the world. This massive production of coconut corresponds to a large amount of coconut
agricultural waste and the utilization rate of these were insufficient to cover the agricultural waste
production of coconut shell. Hence the study of incorporating coconut shell as coarse aggregate was
conducted. The compressive strengths, workability, and density classification of concrete, with
Coconut Shell Aggregate (CSA) as coarse aggregate, was studied with varying partial volume
replacements: 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50%. A mix proportion of 1: 1.6 :0.7 was used as a
base mix proportion for the control sample group (0%). A constant water to cement of 0.5. Tests
were carried out to determine the compressive strength, density, and workability of the concrete.
Together, eighteen samples were tested. It was observed at 10% volume replacement yields
compressive strength containing coconut shell as coarse aggregate that passes the minimum
compressive strength requirement for ACI lightweight concrete.

Bheel et. al. (2021), In recent years, there has been great concern about introducing new
supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) in place of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) in
concrete. The aim of this study is to check the behavior of coconut shell ash (CSA) with various
proportions in concrete. Coconut shell is available in abundant quantity in local agricultural fields
and considered as waste product. On the other hand, cement production emits a lot of toxic gases in
the atmosphere which causes environmental pollution and greenhouse gases. Thus, CSA might be
utilized as a cementitious material in concrete for sustainable development. This review article
provides a detailed overview of the fresh and mechanical properties of various research studies. It
is found that by incorporating the 10% of CSA into concrete results in the improvement of
mechanical properties of concrete such as compressive, split tensile strength and flexural strength
of concrete after every curing day respectively. Moreover, the modulus of elasticity enhanced while
using 10% of CSA in concrete and the workability of fresh concrete was declined as the percentage
of CSA increases. In addition to that, the use of CSA in concrete can reduce the total carbon foot
print while reducing the overall cost of concrete manufacturing.

Ranatunga et. al. (2023), Concrete is a major construction material with a significant
environmental impact. Among other materials, coconut shell ash could be used as a partial
replacement of cement to produce sustainable concrete. This study aimed to investigate the use of
coconut shell ash as a partial cement replacement to reduce the environmental impact whilst
achieving the predefined structural performance of concrete. The fresh, hardened and
microstructural properties were investigated, and a life cycle assessment within the product stage
was conducted in this study. When considering 15%, 20%, 25% and 30% replacement level
concrete mixes, compressive strength was 27.31 MPa, 26.94 MPa, 25.60 MPa and 21.40 MPa at 28
days and environmental impact reduction in global warming potential were over 10%, 15%, 20%
and 25% respectively. Based on the structural performance and environmental impact, 20% was
the optimal replacement level. Therefore, cement can be replaced by coconut shell ash up to 20% to
achieve the average target compressive strength as 25 MPa by reducing the environmental impact
in global warming potential over 15%.

Itam et. al. (2023), Cement is often used as a construction material in building development.
Coconut shell, on the other hand is a waste material that is the byproduct from the agricultural
industry. Coconut is vastly found and utilized in most tropical countries due to the versatility of its
usage. Albeit coconut shells can be used in lots of different ways, it has yet been used fully by the
people. This research focuses on determining the proper percentage of partial replacement of
coconut shell ash for cement in concrete. Since cement is a non-renewable material, a potential and
cheaper alternative is needed to future replace the use of cement once it depletes in supply or
increases in size. The characteristics of coconut shell ash (CSA) and its fresh and hardened behavior
in cement and concrete will also be focused on. Methodology adopted for this research includes
tests such as slump test, compressive strength test, consistency test, and fineness test. All tests were
conducted within a period of 45 days and from the results gathered, it was found that 5 % of
coconut shell ash as a partial replacement of cement produce the best results. Results show that the
strength of the concrete will decrease when more percentage of coconut shell ash is added into the
concrete mix. Therefore, the partial replacement of 5 % of coconut shell ash in concrete is the most
suitable.

According to Sekar and Gunasekaran (2019), Coconut fiber was used in coconut shell
concrete (CSC) and its durability properties were studied. The properties include: water
absorption, volume of permeable pore voids, rapid chloride penetration test, sorptivity and
resistance at elevated temperature. For comparison purpose, these properties were also studied on
conventional concrete (CC) with coconut fibers. Three different curing conditions viz. full water
immersion, site curing and air-dry conditions were employed except for temperature resistance
study in which only full water immersion was used. Test results show that the durability properties
were better in full water immersion condition in case of CC mixes and in site curing condition in
case of CSC mixes. Temperature resistance tests gave a minimum guarantee of both CC and CSC
mixes without and with coconut fibers for 2 h resistance and hence they were deemed safe for
construction.

Sofri et. al. (2023), Most previous researchers have undertaken studies aimed at improving
the sustainability and environmental impact of road pavement, particularly hot mix asphalt, also
known as asphaltic concrete, by substituting natural aggregates with waste products. This
investigation comprehensively examined the aggregate properties, bitumen properties, and
Marshall test properties. In line with sustainability goals, bitumen grades 80/100 PEN and ACW14
were utilized. To assess the sustainability benefits of using coconut shells (CS) in the wearing
course design, bitumen compositions ranging from 4.5%, 5.0%, and 5.5%, as well as various mix
designs with varying per-centages of coconut shell, were employed. The investigation generated
parameter determination data for CS 3%, CS 6%, and CS 9%, allowing for a comparison of their
mechanical and physical properties, with an emphasis on sustainability and environmental factors.
In this context, it's worth noting that CS demonstrated significant sustainability advantages, with an
Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) of 0.69%, far lower than the 19.10% observed for traditional
aggregate. Furthermore, CS exhibited higher water absorption at 35.36%. Notably, CS 3% in 4.5%
bitumen content emerged as the most sustainable partial replacement option, boasting a stiffness
value of 4461.44 N/mm, indicative of superior strength and performance. Consequently, this study
successfully achieved the goal of identifying the characteristic ACW14, incorporating coconut shell
as a sustainable and environmentally friendly alternative in hot mix asphalt, aligning with sustain-
ability objectives in the field of road construction and pavement materials.

Mailyan et. al. (2023), One of the most promising ways to solve the problem of reducing the
rate of depletion of natural non-renewable components of concrete is their complete or partial
replacement with renewable plant counterparts that are industrial and agricultural waste. The
research significance of this article lies in the determination at the micro- and macro-levels of the
principles of the relationship between the composition, the process of structure formation and the
formation of properties of concrete based on coconut shells (CSs), as well as the substantiation at
the micro- and macro-levels of the effectiveness of such a solution from the point of view of
fundamental and applied materials science. The aim of this study was to solve the problem of
substantiating the feasibility of concrete consisting of a mineral cement–sand matrix and aggregate
in the form of crushed CS, as well as finding a rational combination of components and studying the
structure and characteristics of concrete. Test samples were manufactured with a partial
substitution of natural coarse aggregate with CS in an amount from 0% to 30% in increments of 5%
by volume. The following main characteristics have been studied: density, compressive strength,
bending strength and prism strength. The study used regulatory testing and scanning electron
microscopy. The density of concrete decreased to 9.1% with increasing the CS content to 30%. The
highest values for the strength characteristics and coefficient of construction quality (CCQ) were
recorded for concretes containing 5% CS: compressive strength—38.0 MPa, prism strength—28.9
MPa, bending strength—6.1 MPa and CCQ—0.01731 MPa × m3/kg. The increase in compressive
strength was 4.1%, prismatic strength—4.0%, bending strength—3.4% and CCQ—6.1% compared
with concrete without CS. Increasing the CS content from 10% to 30% inevitably led to a significant
drop in the strength characteristics (up to 42%) compared with concrete without CS. Analysis of the
microstructure of concrete containing CS instead of part of the natural coarse aggregate revealed
that the cement paste penetrates into the pores of the CS, thereby creating good adhesion of this
aggregate to the cement–sand matrix.

Banogbanog et. al. (2024), The present study investigates the production of decorative
concrete blocks using coal fly ash and coconut husk fiber as admixtures to cement and sand. Using
the Mixture D-optimal design, the decorative concrete blocks with a volume of 3,350 cm3 were
produced by varying the amount of coal fly ash (2.33-28.33 wt.%) and coconut husk fiber (3-9 wt.
%) while using a constant amount of 10% of cement and 58.67% of sand throughout the study.
These were cured for 28 days and tested in terms of compressive strength, density, and water
absorption capacity. Results revealed that the density of the produced decorative block at optimum
conditions was 1153.27 kg/m3, which is lighter than the commercial one, which was 1165.39
kg/m3 because of the raw materials used. Meanwhile, a high water absorption capacity was
recorded at 24.79%. Furthermore, the recorded compressive strength of 0.467 MPa of the produced
block is higher than the commercial one with 0.453 MPa, which means that this can replace them,
considering its lower production cost. This study presents an innovative approach to utilizing
industrial waste materials and producing a new product that can reduce solid waste generation and
environmental pollution.

Alvarez et. al. (2023), Concrete is extremely vulnerable to crack formation. However, repair
and monitoring can be labor-intensive and costly. The investigation focused on the augmentation of
natural fiber-silica composite-containing concrete’s mechanical properties. Raw coconut husk fiber
(CHF) was used to mix with sodium metasilicate, and the synthesized coir-silica composite (CSC)
was mixed in a cementitious matrix to test its self-healing properties. The synthesized composite
(CSC) has a sheet-like morphology, whereas the silica has a rough surface morphology based on the
SEM-EDX micrographs. The presence of silica Improved the thermal stability of the raw coconut
husk fiber (CHF). Results demonstrated that both pristine condition and healed samples had
enhanced mechanical properties with the addition of the CSC material. Hence, the produced
composite embedded in concrete surpassed control specimens in terms of healing capability for
compressive and tensile strengths after damage. Finally, a synthesis method was developed to
prepare a coconut husk fiber-silica composite, demonstrating a viable upcycling route for coconut
husks waste utilization.

Lumbab et. al. (2023), Due to heightened demand for construction materials and
environmental crisis, this study presents an alternative to cement using upcycled agricultural waste
to help the construction industry and address environmental issues. The study focuses on
substituting cement in concrete hollow blocks with coconut shell ash at 0, 10, 20, and 30 percent
replacement. Four-inch width specimens are fabricated after slump test and underwent
compressive strength and water absorption tests at 7, 14, and 28 curing periods. These are some of
the insights of the study: (a) slump height of CHB with 30% substitution is the lowest at 4 mm, (b)
the 10% CSA performed well among CHB with CSA gaining 3.7454 MPa, and (c) CSA decreased the
water absorption to up to 4.6% at 20% replacement and moisture content to a value of 18.22% at
30% substitution after 28 days curing.

Sevilla et. al. (2024), Traditional building materials often rely on non-renewable resources,
raising environmental concerns. This study assesses the compressive strength of concrete mortar
cubes through fine aggregate replacement with 20%, 40%, 60%, and 80% of coconut coir fiber
(CCF) and coconut shell (CS). CCF replacements were viable up to 40% with 1768.88 psi but
showed a decline thereafter. CS and combined coconut shell and coir fiber (CSCF) replacements
consistently resulted in decreased compressive strength up to the 28th day of curing, specifically at
the 20% replacement level with a result of 1695.29 psi and 1,817 psi, respectively. However, all
replacement types generally resulted in reduced strength compared to the control specimen but
has shown potential in further concrete applications.

Tangadagi et. al. (2021), Many researchers have carried out works on use of various
agricultural and industrial by-products to enrich the performance and strength characteristics of
concrete. The study here reports and captures the use of coconut shell (CS) as partial replacement
to coarse aggregate (CA). CS is a naturally available abundant agricultural waste material, which can
be used as an alternate to CA. For this research, authors considered M20 grade concrete to
investigate the rheological and strength characteristics of concrete incorporating CS as an alternate
material for CA in varying percentages like 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, and 30%. The study aims
to find the optimum dosage of coconut shell that can be replaced partially in concrete to enhance
the strength characteristics and to make concrete lightweight by overcoming the disposal
challenges of agricultural waste. Total of seven mixes are considered for this investigation to
attempt CS a substitute for CA. The rheological properties like slump & compaction factor tests are
conducted for fresh properties. Similarly, strength characteristics of concrete like compressive, split
tensile and flexural strength tests are performed to measure the structural performance of CS as a
CA. Test outcomes of this investigation exhibits that, CS can be replaced up to 20% by weight of CA,
without compromising the strength characteristics and rheological properties of concrete. Use of CS
as a CA in concrete production not only contributes to performance and strength of concrete but
also solves the solid waste disposal problem and helps in conserving natural resources.
 Ejaz et. al. (2022), This review article highlights the physical, mechanical, and chemical
properties of coconut shells, and the fresh and hardened properties of the coconut shell concrete
are summarized and were compared with other types of aggregates. Furthermore, the structural
behavior in terms of flexural, shear, and torsion was also highlighted, with other properties
including shrinkage, elastic modulus, and permeability of the coconut shell concrete. Based on the
reviewed literature, concrete containing coconut shell as coarse aggregate with normal sand as fine
showed the 28-day compressive strength between 2 and 36 MPa with the dried density range of
1865 to 2300 kg/m3. Coconut shell concretes showed a 28-day modulus of rupture and splitting
tensile strength values in the ranges of 2.59 to 8.45 MPa and 0.8 to 3.70 MPa, respectively, and
these values were in the range of 5-20% of the compressive strength. The flexural behavior of CSC
was found similar to other types of lightweight concrete. There were no horizontal cracks on beams
which indicate no bond failure. Whereas, the diagonal shear failure was prominent in beams with
no shear reinforcements while flexural failure mode was seen in beams having shear
reinforcement. Under torsion, CSC beams behave like conventional concrete. Finally, future
recommendations are also suggested in this study to investigate the innovative lightweight
aggregate concrete based on the environmental and financial design factors.

Singh et. al (2018), It is very difficult to come up with another material that is as versatile as
concrete in the modern era. According to recent developments in concrete technology, it is now
feasible to oversee a range of elements and produce concrete that meets precise specifications. In
the pursuit of providing infrastructure and inexpensive housing for individuals in both rural and
urban areas, several recommendations aimed at reducing the cost of traditional building materials
have been made. Finding, creating, and utilizing alternative, non-traditional local building materials
including the potential to use some agricultural wastes as building materials has been one of the top
recommendations. Local labor and technology can be used to obtain natural reinforcing materials at
cheap cost and low energy consumption. The use of fibers to improve concrete makes it particularly
interesting for developing countries where traditional building materials are either prohibitively
priced or challenging to obtain. Thus, fiber-reinforced concrete is the concept that results from that.

Bhoj et. al. (2023), As concrete consumes a lot of natural resources, sustainable growth is
challenging. Around the world, 7.23 billion tonnes of concrete is produced annually, necessitating a
significant quantity of aggregates to meet construction demands. Therefore, it is crucial to explore
alternatives to coarse aggregates, which make up roughly 70–80% of the overall volume of the
concrete. Additionally, waste management is a global concern that is exacerbated by up to 15% due
to coconut shell trash. India ranked third in the world for coconut production in 2018, is
particularly affected by this issue. This study investigates the usage of coconut shells in place of
coarse aggregate. Owing to the high-water absorption of coconut shells, presoaked coconut shells
were replaced as coarse aggregate with 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25% in M30 grade concrete. Slump,
density, compressive strength, and microstructural characteristics were studied and evaluated. It is
observed that, due to the presence of the plain surface on one side of the coconut shell, the
workability of the concrete increased as the percentage of coconut shells increased. Because of the
lower specific gravity of coconut shells, concrete produced by 15% replacement of coarse
aggregates, reduced the density of the concrete by 7% when compared to the conventional
concrete. The 28-day compressive strength of 15% coconut shell replaced concrete showed a 24%
strength reduction compared to conventional concrete. C-S-H gel formation was evident from SEM
analysis. It is important to note that the compressive strength of coconut shell aggregate concrete at
3, 7, 14, and 28 days, decreased rapidly beyond the 15% replacement of coarse aggregates. It has
been found that concrete may be produced without impacting performance qualities when coconut
shell aggregates are used in place of natural aggregates at an optimal replacement of 15%.

Mhaya et. al. (2022), The concern about coconut shell disposal and natural fine aggregate
depletion has prompted researchers to utilize coconut shell as aggregate in recent years. However,
the majority of the present literature has focused on utilizing coconut shell as a coarse aggregate
replacement in concrete via the traditional method. In this study, concrete incorporating coconut
shell as a fine aggregate replacement (10–100%) was evaluated using permeability and water
absorption tests in a systematic way. The response surface methodology (RSM) was first used to
design the experimental works. In addition, an artificial neural network (ANN) and genetic
expression programming (GEP) were also taken into account to mathematically predict the
permeability and water absorption. Based on both experimental and theoretical modeling, three
scenarios were observed. In the first scenario, high quality concrete was achieved when the
replacement percentage of sand by coconut shell ranged from 0% to 10%. This is because both the
permeability and water absorption were less than 1.5 × 10−11 m and 5%, respectively. In the
second scenario, an acceptable and reasonable low permeability (less than 2.7 × 10−11 m/s) and
water absorption (less than 6.7%) were also obtained when the replacement percentage increased
up to 60%. In contrast, the high content coconut shell, such as 90% and 100%, developed concrete
with a high permeability and water absorption and was defined in the third scenario. It was also
inferred that both the experimental and mathematical models (ANN, GEP, and RSM) have consistent
and accurate results. The correlation statistics indicators (R2) were greater than 0.94 and the error
was less than 0.3, indicating a strong correlation and minimum error. In conclusion, coconut shell
could act as a good alternative material to produce cleaner concrete with an optimum value of 50%
as a fine aggregate replacement.

Palacio et. al. (2020), Waste disposal is one of the issues that plague the society. Philippines
is an agricultural country due to its strategic location in the tropics. Because of this nature, the
agriculture sector tends to produce a huge amount of waste that if not disposed properly could pose
a threat to the society and to the environment. With the advancement of technology, it has been a
challenge for researchers to improve the quality of construction materials that is used in the
industry. Studies have been performed on the possibilities of incorporating agricultural wastes to
various construction materials as a form of waste diversion. In order to address the problem with
agricultural wastes as well as to improve the property of construction materials, a study on coconut
waste and eggshell waste was conducted as a constituent in concrete brick production. In this
study, the density, compressive strength as well as the water absorption of concrete bricks with
coconut charcoal powder (CCP) and eggshell powder (ESP) as replacement for fine aggregates and
cement was conducted. Different mix ratios (0%, 2.5%, 5%, 10% CCP with a constant value of 5%
ESP in each mix ratio) were carried out and the results were compared to a control sample. From
the results of the density test, the concrete bricks with 5% CCP and 5% ESP was the lightest at a
density of 1678.184 kg/m3, it also showed the least water absorption at 8.58% and exhibited the
highest compressive strength at 17.5 MPa.

According to Kanojia and Jian (2017), A large amount of waste coconut shell is generated in
India from temples and industries of coconut product and its disposal need to be addressed.
Researchers have proposed to utilize it as ingredient of concrete. This experimental investigation
was aimed to quantify the effects of replacing partially the conventional coarse aggregate by
coconut shell to produce concrete. The research work was divided into two parts. First part was
aimed to observe the effect of such replacement on compressive strength and density of concrete.
In the second part, the aim was to find out the additional quantity of cement required to
compensate for reduction in strength of concrete resulted due to this replacement. It was found
that with increasing proportion of coconut shells, there is decrement in compressive strength.
Results revealed that with 40% replacement of conventional coarse aggregate by coconut shell, 7
days compressive strength of concrete decreased by 62.6%; whereas decrease in 28 days
compressive strength was only 21.5%. 40% replacement makes the concrete lighter by 7.47%.
Further, it was revealed that for mix design of concrete of 20 N/mm2 characteristic strength, no
additional cement is required for 5% replacement and only 3.6% additional cement was required
for 10% replacement. The results confirm that although there is an increase in cost due to
additional cement requirement, the advantages being many, including efficient utilization of waste
coconut shell, reduction in natural source depletion etc, the use of coconut shell in concrete seems
to be a feasible option.