Error Correction Code: Study,

Challenges, and Applications

V. Vydehi, A. Lishitha, G. Pranathi, N. V. Satyanarayana,

and Durgesh Nandan

1 Introduction

Several localized burst errors are proposed. Various types of codes present in this have
been used to make better the codes developed by Larsson in size, which makes the
decoding and encoding process more complex, i.e., in a slight decrease value. Similar
to the Larsson codes, the developed codes are also asymptotically best possible. At
the point when the number of errors to be rectified is fixed and the length of the error
to be revised, it increases in like manner with the code length. Other than the Larsson
codes, the suggested codes of the errors are minimized when the number of errors
to be accurate and the correctable burst span are both fixed [15].
In this system of digital audio broadcasting (DAB), the CD quality multi-
directional audio is proposed and checked for the frequency modulation band. The
strategy implemented is a hybrid in-band on-channel (HIBOC) system, where the
digital broadcast is in unison with the analog frequency modulation broadcast. This
stage is a change to a digital structure. We apply a convolutional code which is added
to an error identifying block code [5].

V. Vydehi · A. Lishitha · G. Pranathi · N. V. Satyanarayana

Department of ECE, Aditya Engineering College, Surampalem, Andhra Pradesh, India
e-mail: [email protected]
A. Lishitha
e-mail: [email protected]
G. Pranathi
e-mail: [email protected]
N. V. Satyanarayana
e-mail: [email protected]
Durgesh Nandan (B)
Accendere Knowledge Management Services Pvt. Ltd, CL Educate Ltd., New Delhi, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 321

K. S. Sherpa et al. (eds.), Advances in Smart Grid and Renewable Energy,
Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering 691,
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322 V. Vydehi et al.

Some of the standard video codes like H.263 contain variable length codes
(VLC’S). H.263 is a discrete cosine transform (PCT) which is a coded bitstream
that produces a single-bit error because of the use of variable length codes. These are
used for compressing and decompressing the given data with zero errors and also it
can transmit lossless information. We can also use Huffman for further compression.
The decoding process does not start until the synchronization point is reached. In
case there is a failure of bringing together between the encoder and decoder states,
there is a possibility of error generation [12].
During the data broadcast storage, the accepted data is not the equivalent as the
transmitted data, which gives the result in the noise and interference. This goes ahead
to a data transmission error. To avoid this problem, we will use some check methods in
the data transmission process. These methods can be parity check, cyclic redundancy
checks (CRC), etc. The multiple bit errors can be corrected using cyclic redundancy
check codes [22]. In order to avoid errors, we can do a backup to a message so that
the receiver can check the continuity of the delivered message, by this the data can
be recovered. Error detection proposals are of two types, i.e., systematic and non-
systematic. In the systematic method, the unique data is sent through a transmitter
along with the fixed number of check bits. It shows an error at the receiver end
of the transmitted data and the received data bits do not match with each other
[19]. Reliability is the one that is considered for space applications. In an electronic
system, memory plays a major role in storing data. They are basically used in the
electronic systems which are integrated on a chip. They can be used for specific
space applications. They occupy a larger portion in the circuit area. There is also
a radiation effect on other components which varies the message [14]. Traditional
single-cell upsets (SCUs) have a vast impact on multiple cell upsets (MCU) which
has parallel errors in more than one cell. When code length increases, the burst error
also increases [4, 21]. The multiple cell upsets (MCU) problems which are occurred
in space applications have to be considered to identify the fault tolerance methods.
It is because of the aggressive environment formed due to the high-energy cosmic
particles [2, 9, 10, 20].
In this paper, a detailed study of error correction codes is done. Literature review
has been made in this Sect. 2. The design approach has been explored in Sect. 3.
Results based on prior publications are given in Sect. 4. Various applications have
been analyzed in Sect. 5. Finally, conclusions have been done in Sect. 6.

2 Literature Work

Mardjuadi et al. [15] general concepts on encoder and decoder have been explained
here. It involves wide applications in mobile communications and storage areas [15].
Chen and Sundberg [5] Viterbi algorithm will increase the standard of the received
signal by reducing the chances of error mitigation flags [5]. (Khan et al. [12]) A
bit-by-bit correction has been suggested. The decoding time rises accordingly using
the increase in channel bit error rate (BER) [12]. (Chen et al. [6]) Comparing to
Error Correction Code: Study, Challenges, and Applications 323

various broadband methods, the presented LNA has some of the benefits like less
complexity of the design, high-frequency noise is small, power dissipation is also
little, and size is small [6]. (Zhang [22]) A CRC codes with the principle of error
correction and code realization process; whereas, the simulation shows the several
bits error correction method can develop the BER and FER [22].
Mavis et al. [16] contributions that are made by the number of bits upset by a
singly element strike are also used to find the aware vital volume and a block-based
architecture have been well explained [16]. (Chye et al. [17]) Different feedback
resistive technique was implemented. The wideband and low-power applications are
also implemented here [17].
Correas et al. [7] various tools have been used based on TCAD and SPICE simu-
lation. Different techniques have been implemented [7]. In 2012, the realization
techniques for error correction and detection are explained. The several bits of error
identification and correction by way of the Reed–Muller algorithm technique will
get better the BER and PER efficiently [19]. In [13]. Two error correction coding
(ECC) schemes are used here. The channel coding will enhance the strength of spatial
image watermarks beside JPEG DCT-supported compression. HECC error detecting
code executes according to the pixel correct probabilities of VECC. (Sadia et al. [1])
In space applications, DDR memory is used for storing information. It is subjected
to unlike errors, and these are sourced by several outside influences as solar emis-
sions, electromagnetic emissions, space noise, and extreme temperature in space.
This will destroy the memory stored in the DDR memory. Techniques of error detec-
tion will permit checks and useful in correction of these errors, and reconstruction of
the original data is done due to error correction techniques. This technique enables
the dependable escape of digital data compared to an undependable communication
channel. A comparative analysis of various error detection and correction schemes
for space applications is explained [1]. Marzieh and Hossein [18] have presented the
mixer without network. A reduction or noise penalty has been explained. However, in
the existence of the network, the mixer displays up to 25 and 7 dB progresses in IIP2
and IIP3, correspondingly. The bandwidth, gain, and noise-figure are too developed
[18].
Fang and Anthony [8] in this, the errors are given alpha particles and warm
neutrons. In any case, the relative event of single-occasion upsets is finished up at
first by the defenseless area of the channel of bit cell transistors. It indicates that Fin-
FET displays a significant decrease in MCU probabilities [8]. Li et al. [14] disclose
to us that the gear sizes with the cell interim separation will diminish and the quantity
of influenced bits can without much of a stretch reach out to more than three pieces.
It would not require any additional equality check bits assessed with a three-piece
BEC code [14]. (Kato [11]) Single-occasion upsets prompted by various cell charge
ages are examined and SRAM by directing laser illumination tests. The quantity of
bomb bits and its physical topology has been breaking down plainly [11].
Joaquín in 2018 is presented in Matrix codes, which will use Hamming codes
as well as parity, verify within a bidimensional design to accurate and identify
some patterns of MCUs. Detection and correction capabilities are maintained and
324 V. Vydehi et al.

also improved. The drop in memory power use is present because of the very low
redundancy of our codes here [3, 9].

3 Design Approach

We have different codes starting from BERGER CODE (known as parity code).
Many complicated codes are present like Hamming code, Hadamard code, Golas
code, Reed–Solomen code, Reed–Muller code, and multi-dimensional codes like
Matrix codes. During the space applications, error correction codes require to be
checked to a far extent. If a single-bit error is present, it can be corrected and the
Hamming code is used for correcting the 2-bit error; whereas, the Hadamard code
is used for correcting the 3-bit error. The Reed–Solomon code is used to check the
multiple errors, and Reed–Muller code is used in vast critical applications. Based on
Hamming codes, we developed Matrix code. Figure 1 shows the block diagram, and
the recursive backtracking algorithm is used to find the algorithm [9].
The off-base data will at present contain some incorrect MBs (in any event one
wherein the blunder happened) that are nearly finished with dark qualities during the
procedure of bit-by-bit interpreting. With any standard mistake camouflage system,
these MBs will be truly hidden. Two essential methodologies are available for mistake
disguise: spatial and fleeting. Pixels of missing MBs are recreated utilizing the neigh-
boring spatial data. In as opposed to this transient addition, a lost MB is recuperated
from that of the past edge moved by an expected movement vector [12].
Single blunder amendment code and twofold mistake redress codes are not solid
for space applications. In this way, we are utilizing Reed code, this can be avionics,
aerospace, data storage, military, and telecommunication. Reed–Solomon codes are
used in correcting errors in many systems including:

Fig. 1 Encoding and decoding process

Error Correction Code: Study, Challenges, and Applications 325

Fig. 2 Block diagram of digital data encoder

• Devices utilized for putting away incorporates tape, compact disk, DVD,
standardized tags, and so forth.
• Also utilized in wireless or versatile interchanges (counting cell phones,
microwave joins, and so on).
• In satellite correspondences.
A typical system is shown in Fig. 2.
The Reed–Solomon encoder will take a computerized information square and
incorporate an extra “repetitive bits”. Mistakes are available during stockpiling or
transmission for a few explanations behind (e.g. clam or impedance, scratches on a
CD, and so on). The Reed–Solomon decoder checks each square and endeavors to
address blunders and remake the sent data. The sort number and blunders that can
be rectified rely upon the Reed–Solomon code qualities. Reiteration codes, parity bit
codes, checksums codes, cyclic excess check codes, cryptographic hash capacities
codes, automatic recurrent solicitation codes, and forward error rectification codes
are compared here [19]. In light of time intricacy, mistake revision and identifica-
tion, capacities, space unpredictability, bit overhead, and code rate are examined. It
incorporates a correlation of Hamming, Hadamard, Golay, Repetition, Berger, single
parity, four-dimensional parity, BCH, and Reed–Solomon codes. It is reasoned that
4D equality codes are most appropriate for DDR recollections in space applica-
tions since they are simpler to actualize and have the most elevated code rate to bit
overhead proportion [1]. The fundamental piece of the code plan algorithm and the
advancement part of the code structure algorithm are explicitly utilized in this chal-
lenge. Dependability assumes a key job in space applications. If one mistake can be
amended or identified, it must comply with these standards. The first is correctable
restriction which implies the comparing disorder vector ought to be one of a kind
in the arrangement of the disorders, and the subsequent one is detectable restriction
which implies the relating disorder vector is nonzero. The code design technique is
mainly demonstrated by two methods; there is error space satisfiability and the other
one is unique syndrome satisfiability [14].
There are four different categories present in the transmission of bit rate, and they
are Fail, Pass, Refail, and Repass. In second or later cycles if there are any fail bits,
then it comes under the fail category. If any kind of bits changes to pass, then it comes
underpass category. If any bits change to fail after going through the pass category,
326 V. Vydehi et al.

Table 1 Comparison of few error correction codes in terms of redundancy

Code Code bit count Percentage redundancy Correction capability and burst error
identification
Matrix 16 100 A single-bit error is corrected to
complete extent, and two-bit burst
error is also detected
Sec-Daed 5 31.5 A single-bit error is corrected to
complete, extent and two-bit burst
error is also detected
CLC 24 150 A single-bit and two-bit burst error
are also detected, and a two-bit burst
error is also detected
Redundancy = No. code bits/No. data bits × 100

then it comes under the Refail category. If any bits change to pass after going through
the fail category, then it comes under the Repass category [11] (Table 1).

4 Result

After going through this paper, we can have a clear idea that various codes are
considered in this process. Out of this, we can say that in error correction, codes
during space applications are mainly due to radiation effects, thus resulting in the error
information. These can be corrected by using different error codes or consideration of
an algorithm. Different parameters like area, power, and delay were also considered.

5 Applications

The Matrix and CLC codes offer more power compared to FUEC–DAEC. In this
paper, we found that the encoder circuits are quicker and the decoder circuits are more
complex. Various parameters like delay, power, and area are taken into consideration
[9]. Multiple cell upsets are mostly seen in space applications due to space radiations.
Various simulation tools can be applied in solving this like TCAD and SPICE tools.
Multiple upsets issue can be decoded by using these tools [7]. The Reed–Muller code
has more significance in decoding. This will allow us to transmit the information
to the longer distances. The best error control performance will be selected based
on the characteristics of the communication channel. Generally, in these channel
models include memoryless models where errors occur randomly and with a certain
probability and dynamic models where errors occur primarily in bursts [19].
Error Correction Code: Study, Challenges, and Applications 327

6 Conclusion

After comparing different error correction codes, we can conclude that the modified
matrix code called column line code (CLC) is based on the extended Hamming
code that can be widely used in space applications. In flexible unequal error control
(FUEC), these symbols are an enhancement of the famous unequal error control
(UEC) codes. Multiple laser analysis has proved the crucial nature of the MWCPU
instrument and the relative position between the center of charge generation and
internal nodes are also the reason for the occurrence of the upsets. It results, that
produces charges over multiple cells will turn on the MWCPU machinery, directing
to scrupulous MCU topologies.

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