Participatory Method

UNIT 19 CONTENT ANALYSIS

Structure
19.0 Objectives
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Historical Background of Content Analysis
19.3 Content Analysis: Concept and Meaning
19.4 Terms Used in Content Analysis
19.5 Approaches of Content Analysis
19.5.1 Conceptual Content Analysis
19.5.2 Relational Content Analysis
19.6 Procedure Involved in Content Analysis
19.6.1 Formulation of Research Question
19.6.2 Determining Materials to be Included
19.6.3 Developing Content Categories
19.6.4 Selecting Units of Analysis
19.6.5 Code the Materials
19.6.6 Analyze and Interpret the Results
19.7 Uses of Content Analysis
19.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of Content Analysis
19.8.1 Advantages
19.8.2 Disadvantages
19.9 Let Us Sum Up
19.10 Key Words
19.11 References and Suggested Books
19.12 Answers or Hints to Check Your Progress Exercises

19.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you will be able to:
• explain the concept and meaning of the content analysis;
• identify the areas of research in social sciences wherein content analysis can
be used;
• discuss the various types of content analysis;
• state the various approaches of content analysis;
• describe the various steps involved in using the content analysis;
• enable you to analyse and interpret the results; and
• discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the content analysis.

19.1 INTRODUCTION
Many research Scholars take up historical overviews of economics as an area of
research. They probe the research questions like how the different streams of
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Qualitative Methods economics like institutional economics, Neo-classical economics, behavioural
economics etc. have evolved over a period of time and how researcher’s focus
had shifted from one area to another isolating a particular paradigm change.
Sometimes a researcher aims to lay concepts and meanings from the social actors’
account of realities related to his identified research problem. They use the sources
like recorded interviews, letters, journals, newspaper stories and verbal materials.
In such situations, content analysis as data (information) analysis technique is
used by the social scientists. Much of the subject matter of social sciences
including consumer studies is in the form of verbal and nonverbal behaviour.
The exchange process in the market place and the communication of the values
of the exchange depends upon the written or spoken words. Much of consumer
research has concentrated on the characteristics, opinion, or behaviour of the
interpreter of communication messages. In media economics, issues like
monopolistic competition in TV channels, competition and diversity in newspaper
industry, effects of group ownership on daily newspaper content etc. can be probed
by content analysis alongwith other statistical techniques. Similarly content
analysis can also be used to analyse the cultural issues in cultural economics to
capture pattern form of explanation. Hence, in this unit, we will discuss the
concept of content analysis, its various types and approaches, the procedures
involved in its application, and its advantages and disadvantages. Let us begin
with historical background of content analysis followed by describing its concept
and meaning.

19.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF CONTENT

ANALYSIS
We find different approaches to analysis and comparison of texts in hermeneutic
contexts (e.g. bible interpretations) like newspaper analysis, graphological
procedures, content analysis, and the dream analysis by Freud etc. The basis of
quantitative content analysis had been laid by Lazarsfield and Lasswell in the
USA during 1920’s and 30’s. Historically, content analysis was a time consuming
process. Analysis was done either manually, or by slow mainframe computers to
analyze punch cards containing data punched by human coders. Single study
could employ thousands of these cards. Human error and time constraints made
this method impractical for large texts. However, despite its impracticality, content
analysis was utilized as research method by 1940’s. Although initially limited to
studies that examined texts for the frequency of the occurrence of identified
terms (word counts), by mid-1950’s researchers started to consider the need for
more sophisticated methods of analysis, focusing on concepts rather than simply
words, and on semantic relationships rather than just presence. The first textbook
about this method was published by Berelson in 1952. In the sixties of 20th
century, content analysis found its way into linguistics, psychology, sociology,
history, arts etc. The procedures involved in content analysis were refined by
incorporating models of communication; analysis of non-verbal aspects,
contingency analysis, computer applications. Since the middle of 20th century
objections had been raised against a superficial analysis without respecting latent
contents and contexts, working with simplifying and distorting quantification
(Kracauer, 1952). Subsequently qualitative approaches to content analysis had
been developed. Today, the use of modern computers makes content analysis
much simpler and the data less vulnerable to human error.
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 Content Analysis
19.3 CONTENT ANALYSIS: CONCEPT AND
MEANING
Content analysis is a set of procedures for collecting and organizing information
in a standardized format that allows analysts to make inferences about the
characteristics and meaning of written and other recorded materials.

Content analysis is a multipurpose research method developed specifically for

investigating a broad spectrum of problems in which the content of communication
serves as the basis of inference. Content analysis covers both the content of the
material and its structure. Content refers to the specific topics or themes in the
material. Structure refers to form. Whether an article is prominently featured on
the first page of a newspaper or buried in the middle section is a structural question.
Careful reading of the written materials is necessary for all kinds of researches
in social sciences. But content analysis is something different from careful reading
of written materials in many ways.

According to Berelson, content analysis is a research technique for the objective,

systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication.
The term content analysis is used here to mean the scientific analysis of
communication messages. The method being “scientific” catholic in nature,
requires that the analysis be rigorous and systematic. According to Paisley, content
analysis is a phase of information processing in which communication content is
transformed through objective and systematic application of categorization rules
into data that can be summarized and compared.

This definition underlines the point that content analysis is a systematic technique
for analyzing message content and message handling. It is a tool for observing
and analyzing the overt communication behaviour of selected communicators.

Content analysis , while certainly a method of analysis, is more than that, it is a

method of observation. Instead of observing people’s behaviour directly, or asking
them to respond to scales or interviewing them, the investigator takes the
communications that people have produced and asks questions of the
communication ( Kerlinger, 1968, p.544).

Content analysis refers to any procedure for answering the relative extent to
which specified references, attitudes or themes permeate a given message or
document ( Stone, 1964).

Neuendorf defines content analysis as “ the systematic, objective, quantitative

analysis of message characteristics”.

Based on the above definitions, the following characteristics of content analysis

emerge: objectivity, systematic and generality.

Objectivity: To have objectivity, the analysis must be carried out on the basis of
explicitly formulated rules which will enable two or more investigators to obtain
the same results from the same documents. This requirement of objectivity gives
scientific standing to content analysis and differentiates it from literary crtiticism.

Systematic: In a systematic analysis, the inclusion and exclusion of content or

categories is done according to consistently applied criteria of selection. This
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Qualitative Methods requirement is meant to eliminate elements in the content which do not fit in the
analyst’s thesis.

Generality: By generality, we mean that the findings must have theoretical

relevance, purely descriptive information about content, unrelated to other
attributes of content or to the characteristics of communicator or recipient of the
message, is of little scientific value.

Thus, content analysis can be defined as a research technique for collecting and
organizing information in a standardized format for making inference
systematically and objectively about the characteristics of message.

19.4 TERMS USED IN CONTENT ANALYSIS

The following concepts and terms are frequently used in content analysis. Let us
understand these terms.

Manifest Content Analysis: It involves simply counting words, phrases, or

“surface” features of the text itself. It provides reliable quantitative data that can
easily be analyzed using inferential statistics.

Latent Content Analysis: It involves interpreting the underlying meaning of

the text. Latent analysis is different to manifest analysis because researcher must
have a clearly stated idea about what is being measured. The value of the latent
content analysis actually depends upon the researcher’s ability to expose
previously marked themes, messages and cultural values within the text. This
analysis is widely used in qualitative content analysis.

Content Units: There are two types of content units i.e. the unit of analysis and
unit of observation. The unit of analysis concerns the general idea or phenomenon
being studied. The unit of observation concerns the specific item measured at an
individual level.

Coding: Coding is the process whereby raw data are systematically transformed
and aggregated into units which permit precise description of relevant content
characteristics. There are two methods of coding: (i) deductive measurement,
(ii) inductive measurement.

Deductive Measurement: It requires the development of specific coding

categories before a researcher starts a content analysis. Deductive measurement
is useful with an established set of coding categories or if a clear hypothesis or
research question exists at the outset of the analysis.

Inductive Measurement: This method supports the practice of emergent coding,

which means that the basic research question or hypothesis for a formal content
analysis emerges from the units of observation. It entails creating coding categories
during the analysis process. Emergent coding is useful in exploratory content
analysis.

Coding Scheme: Every analysis begins with an existing coding scheme. Coding
scheme is another phrase of coding categories and coding book, within which all
instances of the content are analyzed or noted. Every coding scheme consist of
the following statements.
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Master Code Book: It provides the coders with explicit instructions and defines Content Analysis
each word/ phrase/ aspect to be analyzed. It explains how to use code sheet.

Code Sheet: Code sheet provides the coders with a form on which they note
every instance of every word/ phrase/ aspect being analyzed. The code sheet lists
all the coding categories.

Coding Dictionary: It is used with computer based content analysis. A set of

words/ phrases, part of speech …. That is used as the basis for a search text.

Check Your Progress 1

1) Identify the areas of research in economics wherein content analysis can be
used.
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2) What is the distinction between manifest content analysis and latent content
analysis?
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19.5 APPROACHES OF CONTENT ANALYSIS

Instead of being a single technique, content analysis is a collection of different
approaches to the analysis of texts or more generally of messages of any kind.
Important approaches frequently used in Social Sciences are discussed below:

19.5.1 Conceptual Content Analysis

Traditionally, content analysis has most often been thought in terms of conceptual
analysis. In conceptual analysis, a concept is chosen for examination and the
analysis involves quantifying and tallying its presence. It is also known as thematic
analysis. The focus here is on looking at the occurrence of selected terms within
a text or texts, although the terms may be implicit as well as explicit. While
explicit terms obviously are easy to identify, coding for implicit terms and deciding
their level of implication is complicated by the need to base judgments on a
somewhat subjective system.

19.5.2 Relational Content Analysis

Relational content analysis, like conceptual analysis, begins with the act of
identifying concepts present in a given text or set of texts. However, relational
analysis seeks to go beyond presence by exploring the relationships between the
concepts identified. Relational analysis has also been termed semantic analysis.
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Qualitative Methods In other words, the focus of relational analysis is to look for semantic, or
meaningful relationships. Individual concepts, in and of themselves, are viewed
as having no inherent meaning. Carley (1992) asserts that concepts are ‘ideational
kernels.’ These kernels can be thought of as symbols which acquire meaning
through their connections to other symbol. Relational content analysis approach
can be of three types:

i) Affect extraction: This approach provides an emotional evaluation of

concepts explicit in a text. It is problematic because emotion may vary across
time and populations. Nevertheless, when extended, it can be a potent means
of exploring the emotional/psychological state of the speaker and/or writer.

ii) Proximity analysis: This approach, on the other hand, is concerned with
the co-occurrence of explicit concepts in the text. In this procedure, the text
is defined as a string of words. A given length of words, called a window, is
determined. The window is then scanned across a text to check for the co-
occurrence of concepts. The result is the creation of a concept determined
by the concept matrix. In other words, a matrix, or a group of interrelated,
co-occurring concepts, might suggest a certain overall meaning.

iii) Cognitive mapping: This approach is one that allows for further analysis of
the results from the two previous approaches. It attempts to take the above
processes one step further by representing these relationships visually for
comparison. Whereas affective and proximal analysis function primarily
within the preserved order of the text, cognitive mapping attempts to create
a model of the overall meaning of the text. This can be represented as a
graphic map that represents the relationship between concepts. In this manner,
cognitive mapping lends itself to the comparison of semantic connections
across texts. This is known as map analysis which allows for comparisons to
explore “how meanings and definitions shift across people and time”.

19.6 PROCEDURE INVOLVED IN CONTENT

ANALYSIS
The various steps involved in content analysis are: (i) Formulation of research
questions, (ii) Determining materials to be included, (iii) Developing content
categories, (iv) Selecting and Finalizing units of analysis, (v) Code the materials,
(vi) Analyze and interpret the results. These are discussed below:

19.6.1 Formulation of Research Questions

Content analysis begins with a specific statement of the objectives or research
questions. The objective of content analysis is to convert recorded “raw”
phenomenon into data, which can be treated essentially in a scientific manner so
that body of knowledge may be built up. Objectives are precisely worded questions
that investigator/s is/are trying to answer. By making a clear statement of the
research question, the researcher can ensure that the analysis focuses on those
aspects of content which are relevant for the research. The question should be
based on a clear understanding of research needs and the available data. Therefore,
the selection of the topic should be such that can be answered by analyzing the
appropriate communication content.

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In general content analysis can be used to answer “ What” but not “ Why” question. Content Analysis
It helps analysts to describe or summarize the content of written material , the
attitudes or perceptions of its writers, or its effects on the audience. For example,
if analysts want to assess the effects of different women empowerment programmes
on the lives of younger and middle aged women in rural and urban area. Content
analysis of open–ended interview / responses could be used to identify their
outlook, attitudes and security about their life.

19.6.2 Determining Materials to be Included

The next step of content analysis is to decide relevant communication content to
answer the research question and to determine the time period to be covered.
Content analysis can be used to study any recorded materials as long as the
information is available to be reanalyzed for reliability checks. It is used most
frequently to analyze written materials to study any recorded communication
including TV programmes, movies, photographs, regulations, other public
documents, workplaces, case studies, reports, answer to survey questions,
newspapers, news release, books, Journals article, letters etc. Speeches and
discussions can also be analyzed.

Sampling: Sampling is necessary if the population is too extensive to be analyzed.

Thus a sample should be selected from the population in order to make valid
conclusion and generalization about a population. Simple random sampling,
interval sampling, cluster sampling and multistage sampling techniques are used
in content analysis.

19.6.3 Developing Content Categories

Content analysis is no better than its categories., since they reflect the formulated
thinking , hypotheses, and the purpose of the study. Categories provide structure
for grouping and recording units. Developing the category system to classify the
text is the heart of content analysis. Berelson (1952) has emphasized the
importance of formulating coding categories by quoting that “ content analysis
stands or falls by its categories. Particular studies have been productive to the
extent that categories were clearly formulated and well adequate to the problem
and to the content”.
To be useful, every content category must be thoroughly defined, indicating what
type of material be and not to be included. Chadwick et.al. (1984) have also
emphasized the following three characteristics of content categories i.e. (i)
Categories should be exhaustive so that all relevant items in the material being
studied can be placed within a category. (ii) It should be mutually exclusive so
that no item can be coded in more than one category. (iii) Thirdly categories
should be independent so that recording of unit’s category assignment is not
affected by the category assignment of other recording units.
Category format: Categories can be conceptualized in many ways. Some
common category formats are grouping, scales, and matrices. Structured category
format increase coding efficiency especially when the number of categories are
large. Scales provide the rank ordering information. Matrices are useful formats
when analysts seek more information about issues than simply whether they are
present or absent.

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Qualitative Methods 19.6.4 Selecting Units of Analysis
Once the categories have been identified, the analyst would be interested in
determining the unit of content for classification under the content categories
and the system of enumeration for the same. The unit of analysis is the smallest
unit of content that is coded under the content category. The unit of analysis vary
with the nature and objective of the analysis. Thus, the unit of analysis might be
a single word, a theme, a letter, a symbol, a news story, a short story, a character
or an entire article etc. There are two kinds of unit of analysis : Recording unit
and Context unit.

The Recording Unit is the specific segment of content in which the occurance
of a referene /fact is counted or the unit can be broken down so that reference/
facts can be placed in different categories.

The Context Unit is the larger body of the content that may be searched to
characterize the recording unit. Context units set limits on the portion of written
material that is to be examined for categories of words or statements. A recording
unit is the specific segment of context unit in written material that is placed in a
category. For example, if the coding unit is the word, then the context unit may
be the sentence or the pargraph in which the word appears and characterizes the
recording unit.

Word: The smallest unit generally used in the content analysis as a unit is a
word. Lasswell(1952) calls word as a symbol and may include word compounds
e,g, phrases as well as single word. In this type of research one might study the
relative occurrence of key symbols or value laden terms until the content has
been systematically examined relevant to the hypotheses of the study.

Theme: The theme is a single assertion about a subject. The theme is among the
most useful units of content analysis because issues, values, beliefs, and attitudes
are usually discussed in this form.

Character: Character may be defined as a use of fictional or historical character

as the recording unit is also employed.

Item: The item is the whole natural unit employed by procedures of symbolic
material. It may be the entire speech, radio programme, letter to the editors, or
news story.

Space and Time Measures: Some studies have classified content by physical
division such as column inch, the line or paragraph, the minutes or the foot film.

Finalizing units of analysis: In content analysis, the counting or quantification

of the units is performed by using three methods of enumeration : 1) Frequency,
2) Intensity or Direction, and Space/ Time.

Frequency: Frequency simply means counting whether or not something occurs

and how often (how many times).

Direction: Direction is nothing but the direction of messages in the content

along some continuam e,g, positive, negative, supporting or opposed.

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Intensity: Intensity is the strength or power of a message in a direction. For Content Analysis
example, the characteristic of forgetfulness can be minor (e.g. not remembering
to take the keys when leaving home, taking time to recall the name of someone
whom you have not seen in years) or major (e.g. not remembering your name,
not recognizing your children).

Space: A researcher can record the size of the text messages or the amount of
space or volume allocated to it. Space in written text is measured by counting
words, sentences, paragraphs, or space on a page (e.g. square inches) for video
or audio text. Space can also be measured by the amount of time allotted.

To explain the differences among the above described quantification levels and
how they relate to constructing categories, let us give a hypothetical example of
‘Importance of FDI in public sector organizations’. The analyst has a major source
of information as newspaper, articles, public documents, transcripts of interview
with political leaders, and public officials. For each issue of each newspaper in
the sample, the analysts add together number of column inches from all news
articles/editorials to find he total number of space for each position in addition
to the coding, the name , location, and date of each newspaper. The analyst who
use this level of quantification have to assure that the differences they find in
amounts of space are valid indicators of relative emphasis or importance. At the
next level of quantification, the analyst can code the frequency of recording
units by tallying the number of times each issues or statements occurs in the text.
At the third level of quantification, analyst provide code for intensity. Frequencies
are counted but each coded statement or issues is also adjusted by a weight that
measures related intensity.

19.6.5 Code the Materials

Coding the unit of analysis into content category is called coding. Defining
categories and preparing coding schedule for analysis and coding of the content
are almost simultaneous steps. Material can be coded either manually or by
computers, depending on the sources available and format of the material. After
deciding how the material will be coded, the analyst writes the instructions for
coding. According to Kripendorff (1980), the guidelines for coding instructions
include definition of recording units and procedures for identifying theme,
descriptions of variables and categories, outline of cognitive procedures used in
placing data in categories, and instructions for using and administering data sheets.

Pre-testing: Pretesting is an important step before actual coding begins. It involves

coding a small portion of the material to be analyzed. A pretest enables the analyst
to determine whether (1) the categories are clearly specified and meet the necessary
requirement, (2) the coding instructions are adequate and, (3) the coders are
suitable for coding. These are determined on the basis of reliability among coders
band consistency in individual coding decision. If analyst find that material can
be coded with high reliability then actual coding begins.

19.6.6 Analyzing and Interpreting the Results

The main objective of content analysis is to analyze the collected information
with regard to the proposed objective of the analysis. The analysis involves
summarizing the coded data, discovering patterns and relationships within the
data, testing hypotheses about the patterns and relationship to assess the validity
of the analysis. 29
Qualitative Methods The absolute and relative frequencies are most commonly used for summarizing
the data. Absolute frequency might be the number of times statements or issues
are found in the sample. A relative frequency might be represented by a percentage
of the sample size.

Another way of analyzing content analysis is to examine relations among variables

by cross tabulating the cooccurrence of variables. Other techniques for discovering
patterns of relationship in data include contingency analysis, cluster analysis
and factor analysis.

One important development in analyzing content analysis of the data is the use
of computer. Computer programme like “General Inquirer” can identify within a
body of text , those words and phrases that belong to specified categories (Stone
et.al., 1996). Other computer programme like SPSS, Atlas titi, Minitab etc. are
also very useful in both quantitative and qualitative content analysis.

Whatever the technique used, a final and important task is to assess the validity
of the result by relating them to other data that are known to reasonably valid.
The inference a researcher can or cannot make on the basis of research is critical
in content analysis. Content analysis describes what is in the text. It cannot reveal
the intentions of those who created the text or the effects that messages in the
text have on those who receive them.

Check Your Progress 2

1) State the different sources of content analysis.
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2) Which methods are used to quantify the units of analysis?
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3) Briefly describes the different steps involved in the process of content
analysis.
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 Content Analysis
19.7 USES OF CONTENT ANALYSIS
Content analysis is a scientific, objective, systematic, quantitative and generalizable
description of the communication content. This method can be used to understand
a wide range of themes such as social change, cultural symbols, changing trends
in the theoretical content of different disciplines, changes in mass media content,
nature of news coverage of social issues, election issues as reflected in mass
media. Content analysis can be used to examine anything that you see around
you.

It is used in several mass media and literature to cultural studies, psychology,

economics, political science, gender, age issues, as well as many other fields
where inquiry is made. Written documents, pictures, videos, can also be used for
content analysis.

In consumer behaviour and marketing, content analysis has been used to study
the following questions (Cited in Kassarjian, 1977).
1) What are product and company images of selected consumer goods as
reflected in the mass media. ( Stone, Dunphy & Bernstein, 1966).
2) Which of the several decision making models ,for example conmpensatory,
lexicographic, risk etc. are used by magazine and television advertisers
(Wright and Barbour, 1975).
3) What is the ease of readability of various marketing, advertising and consumer
research Journals. ( Lacho, Stearns, & Villere, 1975).
4) What are the changing values in society as reflected in the analysis of mass
periodical fiction (Johns-Heine, & Gerth, 1949)

The above example indicates the wide applicability of content analysis. Many
researchers have explored changes in women’s role, sexual behaviour and health
and violence by analyzing the content in television and movies messages (Olson,
1994).

Application of Content Analysis: An Illustration

A Research Study entitled “Gandhi’s Constructive Programme: A Study
of Its Contemporary Relevance”: Undertaken by Ms. Raunak Ahmad,
Research Scholar, (Gandhi and Peace Studies) IGNOU, New Delhi for
award of the Ph.D Degree.

The main objectives of the study were to:

(i) find out the gaps in the value and principles of social work profession and
its applicability in the Indian social setup, (ii) examine the perception of
social work students in India towards Gandhian principles of Constructive
Programme, (iii) study the relevance of principles of Gandhian Constructive
Programme from the perspective of students of social work discipline in
India and (iv) to pin point the importance of Gandhian Constructive
Programme to strengthen the indigenous base of contemporary social work
education.

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Qualitative Methods
Research Methodology: Keeping in view the objectives and issues to be
probed in the study, the method of content analysis was considered appropriate
to conduct the study. The study was undertaken for an in-depth and systematic
analysis into the convolution of the phenomenon of Gandhi’s Constructive
Programme and its contemporary relevance.
In order to interrogate the values and principles of social work profession
and its subsequent applicability in Indian social setup, a detailed study of the
comprehensive MSW (Master of Social Work) syllabus of seven central
universities was undertaken. These seven universities were: University of Delhi,
Jamia Millia Islamia, Pondicherry University, Mahatma Gandhi Antarrashtriya
Hindi Vishwavidyalaya, Banaras Hindu University, Central University of
Rajasthan and Maulana Azad National Urdu University. Through conceptual
content analysis, the occurrence of the selected terms in the current social work
curriculum was studied. The text in the curriculum was carefully examined
and was classified under these categories: foundation of social work, theory
and practice of group work, working with communities, social work research,
social group work, social casework and counseling, history and philosophy
of social work etc. These categories were further subcategorized for deeper
analysis. Texts depicting similar meaning were put under single category and
none of the category was repeated. The process of content analysis further
went into detail when the common foreign scholars work and common Indian
scholars works prescribed under the curriculum of universities were created
as two separate categories. It helped to present a comparative picture. Categories
were then coded and the coded data were summarized and analyzed.

Main Results
1) Methods of social work such as community work, casework, group work,
social welfare management have been covered in the curriculum of all
the seven universities.
2) Majority of universities in the list are also offering social work history
and foundation as well as social work research.
3) The social action and social policy and planning being development
oriented are more meaningful in Indian context but are offered by
minimum number of universities.
4) The Gandhian ideology of social work is marginally touched in social
work curriculum of most of the universities under study.
5) 67 per cent of the suggested readings recommended in the curriculum
are of foreign scholars work.
6) The books on Gandhi, Gandhian ideology of social work written by
Gandhi are barely included in the suggested reading list of the curriculum
of these universities.
Apart from above, this study also made use of the method of content analysis
in studying the Gandhian principles of Constructive Programme. For this
purpose, the various documents introduced by Gandhi in the form of vows,
pledges, principles etc. were used. In this manner, the method helped to draw
the final set of principles of Constructive Programme which can further be
studied in the context of its relevance in social work education.
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 Content Analysis
19.8 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
CONTENT ANALYSIS
19.8.1 Advantages
The Advantages of content analysis as a research technique can be summarized
as follows:
1) The greatest advantage of content analysis is its economy in terms of time
and money. There is no requirement for a large research staff. No special
equipment is needed.
2) The methods allows the correction of errors. In content analysis, it is usually
easier to repeat a portion of the study than it is in other research method.
3) Content analysis permits the study of processes occurring over a long time.
4) Content analysis has the advantage of all unobtrusive measures that it has
any effect on the subject being studied.
5) It can present an objective account of events, themes, issues, and so forth,
that may not be immediately apparent to a reader or viewer .
6) It deals with large volume of data. Processing may be laborious but of late
computer has made it easy.

19.8.2 Disadvantages
1) It is limited to the examination of recorded communication. Such
communication may be oral, written, or graphic, but they must be in some
fashion which permits analysis.
2) Content analysis may not be as objective as it claims since the researcher
must select and record data accurately. In some instances the researcher must
make choices about how to interpret particular form of behaviour.
3) It has both advantages and disadvantages in terms of reliability and validity.
Problems of validity is unlikely unless researcher happen to be studying
communication process itself.
4) It describes, rather explains people’s behaviour. It does not tell us what
behaviour means to those involved and those watching.
5) By attempting to quantify behaviour, this method may not tell us very much
about the quality of people’s relationship,

Check Your Progress 3

1) What are the different areas where the content analysis can be used as a
research technique?
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Qualitative Methods 2) Do you think that the technique of content analysis maintain objectivity?
Give reasons.
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19.9 LET US SUM UP

Content analysis is a multipurpose research method developed specifically for
investigating a broad spectrum of problems in which the content of
communication serves as the basis of inference. Content analysis is a set of
procedures for collecting and organizing information in a standardized format
that allows analysts to make inferences about the characteristics and meaning of
written and other recorded materials. Broadly content analysis is observed in
two forms – manifested content analysis and latent content analysis. Mainly two
approaches are followed in application of content analysis: conceptual analysis
and Relational analysis. In conceptual analysis, a concept is chosen for
examination, and the analysis involves quantifying and tallying its presence.
Relational analysis also termed as semantic analysis too begins with the act of
identifying concepts present in a given text or set of texts. However, relational
analysis seeks to go beyond presence by exploring the relationships between the
concepts identified. The various steps involved in content analysis include:
objective or formulation of research question, determining materials to be included
developing content categories, selecting and finalizing units of analysis, code
the materials, and analyze and interpret the results. Content analysis can be used
to understand a wide range of themes such as social change, cultural symbols,
changing trends in the theoretical content of different disciplines, election issues
as reflected in mass media. It can be used to examine anything that you see
around you. Content analysis has several advantages and limitations.

19.10 KEY WORDS

Objectivity : To have objectivity, the analysis must be carried
out on the basis of explicitly formulated rules
which will enable two or more investigators to
obtain the same results from the same documents.
Systematic : In a systematic analysis the inclusion and exclusion
of content or categories is done according to
consistently applied criteria of selection.
Generality : By generality, we mean that the findings must
have theoretical relevance unrelated to other
attributes of content or to the characteristics of
communicator or recipient of the message.
Manifest Content Analysis: It involves simply counting words, phrases, or
“surface” features of the text itself.
34
Latent Content Analysis : It involves interpreting the underlying meaning of Content Analysis
the text.
Unit of Analysis : The unit of analysis concerns the general idea or
phenomenon being studies.
Unit of Observation : Unit of observation concerns the specific item
measured at an individual level.
Word : The smallest unit generally used in the content
analysis as a unit.
Theme : The theme is a single assertion about a subject.
Character : Character may be defined as a use of fictional or
historical character.
Coding : Coding is the process whereby raw data are
systematically transformed and aggregated into
units which permit precise description of relevant
content characteristics.
Coding Scheme : Coding scheme is another phrase of coding
categories and coding book, within which all
instances of the content being analyzed or noted.
Master Code Book : It provides the coders with explicit instructions
and defines each word/ phrase/ aspect to be
analyzed.
Code Sheet : Code sheet provides the coders with a form on
which they note every instance of every word/
phrase/ aspect being analyzed.

19.11 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED BOOKS

Altheide, David L. (1996). Qualitative Media Analysis. Qualitative Research
Methods Vol. 38. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Barcus, F.E., (1959). Communication analysis : analysis of the research, 1900-
1958 Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois.
Berelson, B. (1952). Content Analysis in Communication Research, New York:
The Free Press
Budd, R.W., Thorp, R.K. & Donohue, L. (1967). Content Analysis of
Communications, New York: The Macmillan Co.
Carley, K. (1992). Coding choices for textual analysis: A comparison of content
analysis and map analysis. Unpublished Working Paper.
Chadwick, B.A., Bahar, H.M. & Albrecht, S.L. (1984). Content analysis. In
B.A. Chadwick et.al., Social Science Research Methods (pp. 239-257), New
de Sola Pool, I. (1959). Trends in Content Analysis. Urbana, Ill: University of
Illinois Press.
Gerbner, G., Holsti, O. R., Krippendorff, K., Paisley, W.J., and Stone, P.J., eds.
(1969). The analysis of Communications Content : Developments in Scientific
Theories and Computer Techniques, New York : Wiley. Jersey: Prentice –Hall. 35
Qualitative Methods Kerlinger, F.N. (1986). Foundations of Behavioural Research (3rd ed), New
York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Kracauer, S. (1952). The challenges of qualitative content analysis. Public
Opinion Quarterly ,16,631-642.
Krippendorff, K. (1980). Content Analysis: An introduction to its Methodology,
Lacho, K.J., Stearns, G. K., and Villere, M.F. (1975).An analysis of the reliability
of marketing journals. Combined Proceeding, American Marketing Association,
489-497. London: Sage Publications.
Mostyn, Barbara (1985). The content analysis of qualitative research data: A
dynamic approach. In Michael Brenner, Jennifer Brown & David Canter (Eds.),
The research interview, uses and approaches (pp.115-145). London: Academic
Press.
Olson, B. (1994). Sex and the soaps: A comparative content analysis of health
issues, Journalism Quarterly, 71(4): 840-850.
Paisley, W.J., (1969). Studying style as deviation from encoding norms. In The
Analysis of Communications Content : Developments in Scientific Theories and
Computer Techniques,, eds. G. Gerbner, et al., New York : Wiley, 133-146.
Stone, P. J., Dunphy, D. C.m and Bernstein, A. (1966). The analysis of product
image. In The General Inqurier : A Computer Approach to Content Analysis,
eds. P.J. Stone, et al , Cambridge , Mass : The MIT Press.
Wittkowski, Joachim (1994). Das Interview in der Psychologie. Interviewtechnik
und Codierung von Interviewmaterial. Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag.
Wright, P. And Barbour, F . (1975). The relevance of decision process model in
structuring persuasive messages.

19.12 ANSWERS OR HINTS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS EXERCISES
Check Your Progress 1
1) See Section 19.1 and Section 19.7
2) See Section 19.4
Check Your Progress 2
1) Written materials, recorded communications including TV programmes,
movies, photographs, regulations & other public documents, work places,
case studies, reports, newspapers, new press releases, books, journals, articles,
letters etc.
2) See Sub-section 19.6.4
3) See Sub-section 19.6.5 and 19.6.6
Check Your Progress 3
1) See Section 19.7
2) See Sub-section 19.8.2
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