ORIGIN OF SPECIES

Learning Module: The Origin of Species - Concepts and Mechanisms

Pre-Test: In your own understanding, What is the origin of species?

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Objectives

 Understand the concept of speciation

 Distinguish between macroevolution
 Grasp the Biological Species Concept
 Learn about reproductive isolation
 Identify and explain the various reproductive barriers
 Recognize the limitations of the Biological Species Concept
 Be aware of alternative concepts for defining species
 Explain the two main patterns of speciation
 Recognize adaptive radiation
 Understand that macroevolutionary changes

Overview: The "Mystery of Mysteries"

 The origin of new species is referred to as the "Mystery of Mysteries".

 Speciation, the origin of new species, is the focal point of evolutionary theory.
 The appearance of new species is the source of biological diversity.
 Evolutionary theory needs to explain not only how populations evolve but also how new
species originate.
 Macroevolution refers to evolutionary change that occurs above the species level.
 Darwin explored the Galápagos Islands and found plants and animals unique to those
 islands. This uniqueness highlights the outcome of speciation.

Two Basic Patterns of Evolutionary Change

 Cladogenesis (from the Greek clados, 'branch')
describes the branching of evolutionary
lineages, whereby an ancestral species can give
rise to two or more descendant species.

Anagenesis (from the Greek ana, 'up', referring

to directional change) describes the
evolutionary change in a feature within a
lineage over time.

The Biological Species Concept

 The word "Species" comes from Latin, meaning "kind" or "appearance".

 The Biological Species Concept is a key idea that emphasises reproductive isolation.
 According to this concept, a species is defined as a population or group of
populations.
 Members of a species have the potential to interbreed in nature.
 They must be able to produce viable, fertile offspring.
 Crucially, they are unable to produce viable, fertile offspring with members of other
populations.

For example, the eastern meadowlark and western meadowlark look similar but are
distinct biological species because their differing songs and behaviours prevent
interbreeding in the wild.
 In contrast, all humans (Homo sapiens) belong to a single biological species because we
have the capacity to interbreed, despite our diverse appearances.

Reproductive Isolation: Barriers to Interbreeding

 Reproductive isolation is the existence of biological factors that impede members of

two species from producing viable, fertile hybrids.
 These biological factors are essentially a combination of various reproductive
barriers.
 Reproductive barriers are categorized based on when they act:
o Prezygotic barriers impede mating between species or hinder the fertilization of
eggs if mating is attempted. They act before the formation of a hybrid zygote.
Examples include:
1. Habitat isolation: Species live in different habitats and rarely encounter
each other.
2. Temporal isolation: Species breed at different times of day or different
seasons.
3. Behavioural isolation: Differences in courtship rituals or other
behaviours prevent mate recognition between species. For instance,
different mating calls in four species of leopard frogs act as a behavioural
barrier.
4. Mechanical isolation: Mating is attempted but prevented by
morphological differences.
5. Gametic isolation: Sperm of one species cannot fertilise the eggs of
another.
o Postzygotic barriers occur after hybrid zygote formation and often prevent the
hybrid from developing into a viable, fertile adult. Examples include:
1. Reduced hybrid viability: Hybrid zygotes fail to develop or survive. As
seen with the leopard frogs, hybrids are inviable.
2. Reduced hybrid fertility: Hybrids are viable but are infertile and cannot
reproduce. Examples include the Tigon (male tiger x female lion) and the
Liger (male lion x female tiger), which are results of mating in captivity
and produce infertile offspring.
3. Hybrid breakdown: First-generation hybrids are fertile, but subsequent
generations lose fertility.
Limitations of the Biological Species Concept

 The biological species concept is useful but cannot be applied to all organisms.
 It is not applicable to asexual organisms, as they do not interbreed.
 It cannot be used for fossils, as reproductive potential cannot be assessed.
 It is also difficult to apply to organisms about which little is known regarding their
reproduction.

Other Definitions of Species

Due to the limitations of the biological species concept, other definitions are also used:

 The morphological species concept defines a species based on its body shape, size, and
other structural features.
 The paleontological species concept focuses on morphologically distinct species
known only from the fossil record.
 The ecological species concept views a species in terms of its ecological niche – how it
interacts with its environment.
 The phylogenetic species concept defines a species as a group of organisms with a
unique genetic history.

Patterns of Speciation: With or Without Geographic Separation

 Speciation, the formation of new species, can occur in two main ways relative to the
geographic distribution of the populations involved.

These two ways are Allopatric speciation and Sympatric speciation.

Sympatric Speciation ("Same Country")

 In sympatric speciation, speciation takes place in geographically overlapping

populations.
 This means a new species emerges within the geographical range of its parent species,
isolated by a reproductive barrier without physical separation.
Allopatric Speciation ("Other Country")

 In allopatric speciation, a new species forms while geographically isolated from its
parent population.
 This happens when a population is divided into two or more subpopulations by a
geographic barrier.
 The geographic barrier interrupts or reduces gene flow between the separated
populations.
 Once separated, one or both populations may undergo evolutionary change due to
different selective pressures, genetic drift, etc..
 To confirm that allopatric speciation has occurred, reproductive isolation must have
been established between the separated populations. This means that even if the
geographic barrier were removed, they could no longer interbreed successfully.

Polyploidy

Is the presence of extra sets of chromosomes in cells due to accidents during cell division
and has caused the evolution of some plant species.

Two types of polypoidy (Autopolypoid and Allopolypoid)

Autopolyploid

 Is an individual that has more than two chromosome sets, all derived from a single
species.

Allopolypoid
 Is a species with multiple sets of chromosomes derived from different species.
Adaptive Radiation
Is the evolution of diversely
adapted species
from a common ancestor
upon introduction
to new environmental
opportunities.

Evidence of Evolution

1. Fossil Record
 It shows how organisms have changed overtime
 It provides evidence that living organism have evolved.
 The fossil record is a compilation of all known fossils along with their temporal
and spatial locations, which offer evidences of previous life on Earth.

2. Geographic Distribution
 Refers to how different species are spread out across the Earth. It helps
scientists understand how organisms evolved from common ancestors based
on where they are found.
 Related species are often found in neighboring areas, suggesting a common
ancestor.

3. Homologous Body Structure

 Body parts with the same structure but different functions.
 These structures come from a shared ancestor, showing how species have
diverged over time.
 Homologous structures are result of species that adapt to various habitats
while maintaining the same basic body plan.
 Homology
 It refers to the similarity in body structure of different species, however, they have
different function and purpose.
 Even though they are used for different purposes, they share the same basic
structure.

Types of Evolution in Similar Environments

1. Convergent Evolution
 When unrelated species inherit identical characteristics due to comparable habitats or
difficulties, this is known
 Convergent evolution happens when unrelated species inherit identical traits because they
live in similar environment pressures or selective forces.
 Refers to the process by which unrelated species develop similar traits.
 It explains how analogous structures arise.

For example, wings of bats and wings of insects. Both wings are used for flying but bats
and insects evolved wings independently.
Convergent evolution = different ancestry, similar traits.
 2. Analogous Structure
 Analogous structure are the traits in different species that serve similar functions
but they evolved differently.
 Features of different species that are similar in function but not necessarily in
structure and which do not derive from a common ancestral feature.
 Refer to the traits themselves (e.g., wings, fins).
 They are the result of convergent evolution.

Despite coming from distinct evolutionary lineages, marsupial and placental mammals are
instances of homologous species that emerged through convergent evolution and adapted to
similar ecological roles.

1. Marsupial Mammals:
 Marsupial give birth to underdeveloped young that complete their development or
in a pouch.
 Due to their short gestation period, marsupials give birth to immature offspring.
These young then crawl inside the marsupium, the mother's pouch, where they
will continue to grow.
 The pouch provides a safe and protected environment for the young to develop
and mature.
.2. Placental Mammals:
 Placental mammals develop their fetuses within the mother’s uterus.
 Placentals are the most diverse and widespread group of mammals, found on all
continents.
 Placental mammals generally give birth to more developed young, with a longer gestation
period and more complex maternal care.
The Tempo of Speciation
 Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge introduced the term “punctuated equilibrium” as a
way to explain evolutionary patterns where long periods of little or no change are
interrupted by sudden changes.

1. Gradualism Model
 The gradualism model explains that species slowly change
over time, developing different traits as they adapt to their
environments.

 It suggests that evolutionary changes happen in small steps,

leading to gradual divergence from a shared ancestor.

 According to gradualism, evolution is a continuous and

steady process where species accumulate differences little
by little.

2. The Punctuated Equilibrium Model

 Model proposes that species remain relatively unchanged for

long periods, with evolutionary changes happening in short,
rapid bursts.

 According to the punctuated equilibrium hypothesis, the

majority of evolutionary change occurs when a new species
initially splits off, followed by extended intervals of little to
no change.

EVOLUTION OF THE GENES THAT CONTROL DDVELOPMENT

 Genes that program development
- These are genes that play crucial roles in controlling the growth, patterning, and
formation of an organism from a single cell (zygote) to a complex adult.

CHANGES IN RATE AND TIMING

  Heterochrony
- This refers to an evolutionary change in the rate or timing of developmental
events. It can lead to changes in the size and shape of an organism relative to its
ancestors.

 Allometric Growth
- The growth of different body parts occurs at different rates.
It describes the differential growth of body parts relative
to the overall growth of the organism. For instance, in
humans, the head grows much slower than the rest of the
body after birth. Changes in allometric growth patterns can
lead to significant evolutionary changes in morphology

a. Different growth rates in a human

• Head vs. Body: In a fetus, the head is disproportionately large

compared to the rest of the body. As a human grows, the body
and limbs grow at a much faster rate than the head, eventually
leading to the adult proportions where the head is a smaller
fraction of overall height. This is a classic example of negative
allometry for head growth relative to the rest of the body.
•: During childhood and adolescence, limbs grow significantly
faster than the trunk, leading to longer arms and legs relative to
body size. This is positive allometry for limb growth compared
to trunk growth.
• Brain vs. Skull: While the brain grows rapidly early in life, the growth of the surrounding skull
bones must keep pace. The brain's allometric growth slows down significantly after early
childhood, while the rest of the body continues to grow.

b. Comparison of chimpanzee and human skull

The comparison of chimpanzee and human skulls provides
excellent examples of how changes in developmental timing
and rate (heterochrony) can lead to significant evolutionary
differences.
Heterochrony is an evolutionary change in the timing or rate of developmental events leading to
changes in the size and shape of an organism.

Paedomorphosis is a type of heterochrony (change in the timing or rate of development) where

an adult organism retains juvenile features of its ancestors. It occurs when the rate of
development of a feature is slowed down, or the onset of sexual maturity is accelerated, leading
to the retention of larval or juvenile characteristics in the adult form.

1. Example: In some salamanders, paedomorphosis results in adults that retain gills and
aquatic lifestyles, features normally associated with their larval stage.

Changes in Spatial Pattern: Reshaping Body Plans

Evolutionary changes in the spatial arrangement of body parts often lead to substantial
evolutionary change and are frequently linked to the evolution of specific gene families.

 Homeotic Genes: These are master-control genes that regulate the development of
anatomical structures in various organisms, such as insects, mammals, and plants. They
determine the identity of body segments or structures. A mutation in a homeotic gene can
lead to a dramatic change in body plan, such as the growth of a leg where an antenna
should be.
 Hox Genes: A specific subset of homeotic genes found in animals. Hox genes are highly
conserved and are arranged in clusters on chromosomes. They control the development of
the body axis and the identity of segments along this axis. Their sequential expression
along the anterior-posterior axis (head to tail) dictates where limbs, organs, and other
body parts will form.
  The evolution of vertebrates from invertebrate animals was associated with
alterations in Hox genes.
Comparisons between invertebrates (like lancelets) and vertebrates show that while both
possess Hox genes, vertebrates often have duplicated sets of these genes (e.g., two or
more clusters). These duplications, followed by subsequent differentiation and changes in
gene expression, allowed for the development of more complex body plans, specialized
structures (like limbs and vertebrae), and the increased complexity characteristic of
vertebrates.

Evolution is Not Goal-Oriented

Evolution is a process driven by natural selection acting on random variation; it does not have a
predetermined direction or a final "goal" towards increasing complexity or perfection.

 The Fossil Record: The fossil record supports the

idea that evolution is not goal-oriented. While it shows
patterns of diversification and change over time, it also
reveals periods of stasis, extinctions, and shifts in
direction that are responses to environmental changes,
not movements towards an ultimate objective.
Lineages often become more specialized, but not
necessarily "more advanced" in a linear sense.

 According to the Species Selection Model: This model suggests that macroevolutionary
trends can arise from differential rates of speciation and extinction among lineages,
similar to how natural selection acts on individuals. Even with species selection, there
isn't an inherent "goal." Instead, traits that increase the likelihood of a species' long-term
persistence or proliferation will become more common across broader taxonomic groups,
but this is an outcome of selection pressures at the species level, not a pre-ordained
trajectory.
 The appearance of an evolutionary trend: An evolutionary trend (e.g., increasing body
size in a lineage, or simplification of structures) can appear over geological time.
However, this trend is usually the result of consistent natural selection pressures in a
particular environment or a "passive trend" due to physical constraints (e.g., organisms
can't get infinitely small). It does not imply a foresightful "plan" or an ultimate
destination for the entire evolutionary process. Instead, it reflects adaptive responses to
prevailing conditions, which may change over time, altering the trend.

ACTIVITY: TRUE OR FALSE

Read each statement carefully and determine if it is True (T) or False (F) based on
the provided text.

_______1. Homeotic genes are master-control genes that regulate the development of
anatomical structures.
_______2. Allometric growth describes the equal growth rates of all body parts relative
to the overall growth of the organism.
_______3. In humans, the head grows much faster than the rest of the body after birth.
_______4. Hox genes are a specific subset of homeotic genes found only in plants.
_______5. The evolution of vertebrates from invertebrates was associated with
alterations in Hox genes.
_______6. Heterochrony refers to an evolutionary change only in the rate, but not the
timing, of developmental events.
_______7. Paedomorphosis is a type of heterochrony where an adult organism retains
juvenile features of its ancestors.
_______8. According to the species selection model, evolutionary trends are always
indicative of a predetermined goal towards increasing complexity.
_______9. The fossil record reveals only patterns of diversification and change over
time, never periods of stasis or extinction.
_______10. In a human fetus, the head is disproportionately small compared to the rest of
the body.

ANSWER KEY:
1. T
2. F
3. F
4. F
5. T
6. F
7. T
8. F
9. F
10. F