Network Layer Protocols and IP

Addressing
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 Foreword
⚫ Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) is the core protocol suite in the TCP/IP protocol
suite. It works at the network layer in the TCP/IP protocol stack and this layer
corresponds to the network layer in the Open System Interconnection Reference
Model (OSI RM).
⚫ The network layer provides connectionless data transmission services. A network
does not need to establish a connection before sending data packets. Each IP data
packet is sent separately.
⚫ This presentation describes the basic concepts of IPv4 addresses, subnetting,
network IP address planning, and basic IP address configuration.

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 Objectives
⚫ On completion of this course, you will be able:
 Describe main protocols at the network layer.
 Describe the concepts and classification of IPv4 addresses and special IPv4 addresses.
 Calculate IP networks and subnets.
 Use the IP network address planning method.

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 Contents
1. Network Layer Protocols

2. Introduction to IPv4 Addresses

3. Subnetting

4. ICMP

5. IPv4 Address Configuration and Basic Application

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 Network Layer Protocols
⚫ The network layer is often called the IP layer. Network layer protocols include Internet
Control Message Protocol (ICMP) and Internet Packet Exchange (IPX), in addition to IP.

Application Layer

Transport layer

Network layer IP addressing and

................................... ICMP IPX
routing
IP
Data link layer

Physical Layer

Equivalent TCP/IP model

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•
 Internet Protocol
⚫ IP is short for the Internet Protocol. IP is the name of a protocol file with small content. It
defines and describes the format of IP packets.
⚫ The frequently mentioned IP refers to any content related directly or indirectly to the
Internet Protocol, instead of the Internet Protocol itself.

Function Version

• Provides logical addresses for

devices at the network layer. • IP Version 4 (IPv4)
• Is responsible for addressing and • IP Version 6 (IPv6)
forwarding data packets.

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• IP has two versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 packets prevail on the Internet, and the
Internet is undergoing the transition to IPv6. Unless otherwise specified, IP addresses
mentioned in this presentation refer to IPv4 addresses.

▫ IPv4 is the core protocol in the TCP/IP protocol suite. It works at the network
layer in the TCP/IP protocol stack and this layer corresponds to the network layer
in the Open System Interconnection Reference Model (OSI RM).

▫ IPv6, also called IP Next Generation (IPng), is the second-generation standard

protocol of network layer protocols. Designed by the Internet Engineering Task
Force (IETF), IPv6 is an upgraded version of IPv4.
 Data Encapsulation
Application Layer Data PDU

Transport layer Data Segment

Network layer Data Packet

Data link layer Data Frame

Physical Layer Bit

Ethernet IP TCP Ethernet

User data
header header header tail

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• Application data can be transmitted to the destination end over the network only after
being processed at each layer of the TCP/IP protocol suite. Each layer uses protocol
data units (PDUs) to exchange information with another layer. PDUs at different layers
contain different information. Therefore, PDUs at each layer have a particular name.

▫ For example, after a TCP header is added to the upper-layer data in a PDU at the
transport layer, the PDU is called a segment. The data segment is transmitted to
the network layer. After an IP header is added to the PDU at the network layer,
the PDU is called a packet. The data packet is transmitted to the data link layer.
After the data link layer header and tailer are encapsulated into the PDU, the
PDU becomes a frame. Ultimately, the frame is converted into bits and
transmitted through network media.

▫ The process in which data is delivered following the protocol suite from top to
bottom and is added with headers and tails is called encapsulation.

• This presentation describes how to encapsulate data at the network layer. If data is
encapsulated with IP, the packets are called IP packets.
 IPv4 Packet Format

Ethernet IP TCP
User data Ethernet tail
header header header

Header Type of
Version Total Length
Length Service
Identification Flags Fragment Offset
Fixed size:
20 bytes TTL Protocol Header Checksum

Source IP Address

Destination IP Address
Optional size:
Options Padding
0–40 bytes

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• The IP packet header contains the following information:

▫ Version: 4 bits long. Value 4 indicates IPv4. Value 6 indicates IPv6.

▫ Header Length: 4 bits long, indicating the size of a header. If the Option field is
not carried, the length is 20 bytes. The maximum length is 60 bytes.

▫ Type of Service: 8 bits long, indicating a service type. This field takes effect only
when the QoS differentiated service (DiffServ) is required.

▫ Total Length: 16 bits long. It indicates the total length of an IP data packet.

▫ Identification: 16 bits long. This field is used for fragment reassembly.

▫ Flags: 3 bits long.

▫ Fragment Offset: 13 bits long. This field is used for fragment reassembly.

▫ Time to Live: 8 bits long.

Page 8 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

▫ Protocol: 8 bits long. It indicates a next-layer protocol. This field identifies the
protocol used by the data carried in the data packet so that the IP layer of the
destination host sends the data to the process mapped to the Protocol field.

▪ Common values are as follows:

− 1: ICMP, Internet Control Message Protocol

− 2: IGMP, Internet Group Management Protocol

− 6: TCP, Transmission Control Protocol

− 17: UDP, User Datagram Protocol

▫ Header Checksum: 16 bits long.

▫ Source IP Address: 32 bits long. It indicates a source IP address.

▫ Destination IP Address: 32 bits long. It indicates a destination IP address.

▫ Options: a variable field.

▫ Padding: padded with all 0s.

 Data Packet Fragmentation
⚫ The process of dividing a packet into multiple fragments is called fragmentation. WHY?
⚫ The sizes of IP packets forwarded on a network may be different. If the size of an IP packet
exceeds the maximum size supported by a data link, the packet needs to be divided into
several smaller fragments before being transmitted on the link.

Header Type of
Version Total Length
Length Service
Identification Flags Fragment Offset
Host A Host B
TTL Protocol Header Checksum Data
Source IP Address
Data fragment
Destination IP Address
Options Padding

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• Identification: 16 bits long. This field carries a value assigned by a sender host and is
used for fragment reassembly.

• Flags: 3 bits long.

▫ Reserved Fragment: 0 (reserved).

▫ Don't Fragment: Value 1 indicates that fragmentation is not allowed, and value 0
indicates that fragmentation is allowed.

▫ More Fragment: Value 1 indicates that there are more segments following the
segment, and value 0 indicates that the segment is the last data segment.

• Fragment Offset: 13 bits long. This field is used for fragment reassembly. This field
indicates the relative position of a fragment in an original packet that is fragmented.
This field is used together with the More Fragment bit to help the receiver assemble
the fragments.
 Time to Live
⚫ The TTL field specifies the number of routers that a packet can pass through.
⚫ Once a packet passes through a router, the TTL is reduced by 1. If the TTL value is reduced
to 0, a data packet is discarded.

Header Type of
Version Total Length
Length Service TTL = 255 TTL = 254 TTL = 253
Identification Flags Fragment Offset
TTL Protocol Header Checksum
Source IP Address
Host A Host B
Destination IP Address
Options Padding

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• Time to Live: 8 bits long. It specifies the maximum number of routers that a packet can
pass through on a network.

▫ When packets are forwarded between network segments, loops may occur if
routes are not properly planned on network devices. As a result, packets are
infinitely looped on the network and cannot reach the destination. If a loop
occurs, all packets destined for this destination are forwarded cyclically. As the
number of such packets increases, network congestion occurs.

▫ To prevent network congestion induced by loops, a TTL field is added to the IP

packet header. The TTL value decreases by 1 each time a packet passes through
a Layer 3 device. The initial TTL value is set on the source device. After the TTL
value of a packet decreases to 0, the packet is discarded. In addition, the device
that discards the packet sends an ICMP error message to the source based on the
source IP address in the packet header. (Note: A network device can be disabled
from sending ICMP error messages to the source ends.)
 Protocol
⚫ The Protocol field in the IP packet header identifies a protocol that will continue to process
the packet.
⚫ This field identifies the protocol used by the data carried in the data packet so that the IP
layer of the destination host sends the data to the process mapped to the Protocol field.
Header Type of IP header User data
Version Total Length
Length Service
Identification Flags Fragment Offset
Protocol
TTL Protocol Header Checksum
Source IP Address 6/17 TCP/UDP
Destination IP Address
Options Padding 1 ICMP

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• After receiving and processing the packet at the network layer, the destination end
needs to determine which protocol is used to further process the packet. The Protocol
field in the IP packet header identifies the number of a protocol that will continue to
process the packet.

• The field may identify a network layer protocol (for example, ICMP of value 0x01) or
an upper-layer protocol (for example, Transmission Control Protocol [TCP] of value
0x06 or the User Datagram Protocol [UDP] of value 0x11).
 Contents
1. Network Layer Protocols

2. Introduction to IPv4 Addresses

3. Subnetting

4. ICMP

5. IPv4 Address Configuration and Basic Application

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 Concepts Address Classification Address Calculation Special Addresses IPv4 vs. IPv6

What Is an IP Address?
⚫ An IP address identifies a node (or an interface on a network device) on a network.
⚫ IP addresses are used to forward IP packets on the network.

IP Address

IP 1 IP 5
An IP address identifies a

IP 4
node on a network and is
IP 2
used to find the destination
IP 3 for data.
Data

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• On an IP network, if a user wants to connect a computer to the Internet, the user

needs to apply for an IP address for the computer. An IP address identifies a node on a
network and is used to find the destination for data. We use IP addresses to implement
global network communication.

• An IP address is an attribute of a network device interface, not an attribute of the

network device itself. To assign an IP address to a device is to assign an IP address to
an interface on the device. If a device has multiple interfaces, each interface needs at
least one IP address.

• Note: The interface that needs to use an IP address is usually the interface of a router
or computer.
 Concepts Address Classification Address Calculation Special Addresses IPv4 vs. IPv6

IP Address Notation
⚫ An IPv4 address is 32 bits long.
⚫ It is in dotted decimal notation.

Dotted decimal Decimal 192. 168. 10. 1 4 bytes

notation Binary 11000000 10101000 00001010 00000001 32 bits

27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
Power
Conversion between 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
decimal and binary
systems Bit 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

= 128 + 64 = 192
⚫ IPv4 address range is 0.0.0.0–255.255.255.255.

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• IP address notation

▫ An IP address is 32 bits long and consists of 4 bytes. It is in dotted decimal

notation, which is convenient for reading and writing.

• Dotted decimal notation

▫ The IP address format helps us better use and configure a network. However, a
communication device uses the binary mode to operate an IP address. Therefore,
it is necessary to be familiar with the decimal and binary conversion.

• IPv4 address range

▫ 00000000.00000000.00000000.00000000–
11111111.11111111.11111111.11111111, that is, 0.0.0.0–255.255.255.255
 Concepts Address Classification Address Calculation Special Addresses IPv4 vs. IPv6

IP Address Structure
⚫ Network part: identifies a network.
⚫ Host part: identifies a host and is used to differentiate hosts on a network.
Network part Host part

• Network mask: is used to distinguish the network part from the host part in an IP address.

192. 168. 10. 1

192.168.10.1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 IP address

255.255.255.0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Network mask

Network part Host part

Written as
192.168.10.1 255.255.255.0 = 192.168.10.1/24

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• An IPv4 address is divided into two parts:

▫ Network part (network ID): identifies a network.

▪ IP addresses do not show any geographical information. The network ID

represents the network to which a host belongs.

▪ Network devices with the same network ID are located on the same
network, regardless of their physical locations.

▫ Host part: identifies a host and is used to differentiate hosts on a network.

• A network mask is also called a subnet mask:

▫ A network mask is 32 bits long, which is also represented in dotted decimal

notation, like bits in an IP address.

▫ The network mask is not an IP address. The network mask consists of consecutive
1s followed by consecutive 0s in binary notation.

▫ Generally, the number of 1s indicates the length of a network mask. For

example, the length of mask 0.0.0.0 is 0, and the length of mask 252.0.0.0 is 6.

▫ The network mask is generally used together with the IP address. Bits of 0
correspond to host bits in the IP address. In other words, in an IP address, the
number of 1s in a network mask is the number of bits of the network ID, and the
number of 0s is the number of bits in the host ID.
 Concepts Address Classification Address Calculation Special Addresses IPv4 vs. IPv6

IP Addressing
⚫ Network part (network ID): identifies a network.
⚫ Host part: identifies a host and is used to differentiate hosts on a network.
Network part

Community A No. X, Street Y, John

Layer 2 network addressing Layer 3 network addressing

Community A (network bits)
Layer 2 network Gateway Layer 2 network

10.0.1.0/24 10.0.2.0/24

10.0.1.1/24 10.0.2.1/24

No. X, Street Y, John

(host bits)
Layer 3 network

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• A network ID indicates the network where a host is located, which is similar to the
function of "Community A in district B of City X in province Y."

• A host ID identifies a specific host interface within a network segment defined by the
network ID. The function of host ID is like a host location "No. A Street B".

• Network addressing:

▫ Layer 2 network addressing: A host interface can be found based on an IP

address.

▫ Layer 3 network addressing: A gateway is used to forward data packets between

network segments.

• Gateway:

▫ During packet forwarding, a device determines a forwarding path and an

interface connected to a destination network segment. If the destination host
and source host are on different network segments, packets are forwarded to the
gateway and then the gateway forwards the packets to the destination network
segment.

▫ A gateway receives and processes packets sent by hosts on a local network

segment and forwards the packets to the destination network segment. To
implement this function, the gateway must know the route of the destination
network segment. The IP address of the interface on the gateway connected to
the local network segment is the gateway address of the network segment.
 Concepts Address Classification Address Calculation Special Addresses IPv4 vs. IPv6

IP Address Classification (Classful Addressing)

⚫ To facilitate IP address management and networking, IP addresses are classified into the
following classes:
Class A 0NNNNNNN NNNNNNNN NNNNNNNN NNNNNNNN 0.0.0.0–127.255.255.255

Assigned to
Class B 10NNNNNN NNNNNNNN NNNNNNNN NNNNNNNN 128.0.0.0–191.255.255.255
hosts

Class C 110NNNNN NNNNNNNN NNNNNNNN NNNNNNNN 192.0.0.0–223.255.255.255

Class D 1110NNNN NNNNNNNN NNNNNNNN NNNNNNNN 224.0.0.0–239.255.255.255 Used for multicast

Class E 1111NNNN NNNNNNNN NNNNNNNN NNNNNNNN 240.0.0.0–255.255.255.255 Used for research

• Default subnet masks of classes A, B, and C

▫ Class A: 8 bits, 0.0.0.0–127.255.255.255/8
Network part
▫ Class B: 16 bits, 128.0.0.0–191.255.255.255/16
Host part
▫ Class C: 24 bits, 192.0.0.0-223.255.255.255/24

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• To facilitate IP address management and networking, IP addresses are classified into

the following classes:
▫ The easiest way to determine the class of an IP address is to check the most
significant bits in a network ID. Classes A, B, C, D, and E are identified by binary
digits 0, 10, 110, 1110, and 1111, respectively.
▫ Class A, B, and C addresses are unicast IP addresses (except some special
addresses). Only these addresses can be assigned to host interfaces.
▫ Class D addresses are multicast IP addresses.
▫ Class E addresses are used for special experiment purposes.
▫ This presentation only focuses on class A, B, and C addresses.
• Comparison of class A, B, and C addresses:
▫ A network using class A addresses is called a class A network. A network using
class B addresses is called a class B network. A network that uses class C
addresses is called a class C network.
▫ The network ID of a class A network is 8 bits, indicating that the number of
network IDs is small and a large number of host interfaces are supported. The
leftmost bit is fixed at 0, and the address space is 0.0.0.0–127.255.255.255.
▫ The network ID of class B network is 16 bits, which is between class A and class C
networks. The leftmost two bits are fixed at 10, and the address space is
128.0.0.0–191.255.255.255.
▫ The network ID of a class C network is 24 bits, indicating that a large number of
network IDs are supported, and the number of host interfaces is small. The
leftmost three bits are fixed at 110, and the address space is 192.0.0.0–
223.255.255.255.
• Note:
▫ A host refers to a router or a computer. In addition, the IP address of an interface
on a host is called a host IP address.
▫ Multicast address: is used to implement one-to-multiple message transmission.
 Concepts Address Classification Address Calculation Special Addresses IPv4 vs. IPv6

IP Address Types
⚫ A network range defined by a network ID is called a network segment.
⚫ Network address: identifies a network.
Example: 192.168.10.0/24

192. 168. 10. 00000000 Note

• Network and broadcast addresses
⚫ Broadcast address: a special address used to send data
cannot be directly used by devices
to all hosts on a network.
or their interfaces.
Example: 192.168.10.255/24
• Number of available addresses on a
192. 168. 10. 11111111
network segment is 2n – 2 (n is the
⚫ Available addresses: IP addresses that can be allocated number of bits in the host part).
to device interfaces on a network.
Example: 192.168.10.1/24
192. 168. 10. 00000001

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• Network address

▫ The network ID is X, and each bit in the host ID is 0.

▫ It cannot be assigned to a host interface.

• Broadcast address

▫ The network ID is X, and each bit in the host ID is 1.

▫ It cannot be assigned to a host interface.

• Available address

▫ It is also called a host address. It can be assigned to a host interface.

• The number of available IP addresses on a network segment is calculated using the

following method:

▫ Given that the host part of a network segment is n bits, the number of IP
addresses is 2n, and the number of available IP addresses is 2n – 2 (one network
address and one broadcast address).
 Concepts Address Classification Address Calculation Special Addresses IPv4 vs. IPv6

IP Address Calculation
⚫ Example: What are the network address, broadcast address, and number of available
addresses of class B address 172.16.10.1/16?
172. 16. 00001010. 00000001

IP address
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

Network mask
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
The network address is obtained,
with all host bits set to 0s.
Network address 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 172.16.0.0
The broadcast address is obtained,
with all host bits set to 1s.
Broadcast address 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 172.16.255.255

Number of IP 216 = 65536

addresses
Quiz
Number of available Example: What are the network address,
216 – 2 = 65534
addresses broadcast address, and number of available
Range of available 172.16.0.1–172.16.255.254 addresses of class A address 10.128.20.10/8?
addresses

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• Network address: After the host part of this address is set to all 0s, the obtained result
is the network address of the network segment where the IP address is located.

• Broadcast address: After the host part of this address is set to all 1s, the obtained
result is the broadcast address used on the network where the IP address is located.

• Number of IP addresses: 2n, where n indicates the number of host bits.

• Number of available IP addresses: 2n – 2, where n indicates the number of host bits.

• Answers to the quiz:

▫ Network address: 10.0.0.0/8

▫ Broadcast address: 10.255.255.255

▫ Number of addresses: 224

▫ Number of available addresses: 224 – 2

▫ Range of available addresses: 10.0.0.1–10.255.255.254

 Concepts Address Classification Address Calculation Special Addresses IPv4 vs. IPv6

Private IP Addresses
⚫ Public IP address: An IP address is assigned by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), and
this address allocation mode ensures that each IP address is unique on the Internet. Such an IP address
is a public IP address.
⚫ Private IP address: In practice, some networks do not need to connect to the Internet. For example, on
a network of a lab in a college, IP addresses of devices need to avoid conflicting with each other only
within the same network. In the IP address space, some IP addresses of class A, B, and C addresses are
reserved for the preceding situations. These IP addresses are called private IP addresses.
 Class A: 10.0.0.0–10.255.255.255
192.168.1.0/24
10.0.0.0/8
 Class B: 172.16.0.0–172.31.255.255
Implemented using network
Internet address translation (NAT)
 Class C: 192.168.0.0–192.168.255.255
10.0.0.0/8 192.168.1.0/24

Connecting a private network to the Internet

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• Private IP addresses are used to relieve the problem of IP address shortage. Private
addresses are used on internal networks and hosts, and cannot be used on the public
network.

▫ Public IP address: A network device connected to the Internet must have a public
IP address allocated by the IANA.

▫ Private IP address: The use of a private IP address allows a network to be

expanded more freely, because a same private IP address can be repeatedly used
on different private networks.

• Connecting a private network to the Internet: A private network is not allowed to

connect to the Internet because it uses a private IP address. Driven by requirements,
many private networks also need to connect to the Internet to implement
communication between private networks and the Internet, and between private
networks through the Internet. The interconnection between the private network and
Internet must be implemented using the NAT technology.

• Note: Network Address Translation (NAT) is used to translate addresses between

private and public IP address realms.
 Concepts Address Classification Address Calculation Special Addresses IPv4 vs. IPv6

Special IP Addresses
⚫ Some IP addresses in the IP address space are of special meanings and functions.
⚫ For example:

Special IP Address Address Scope Function

It can be used as a destination address and traffic destined
Limited broadcast address 255.255.255.255 for it is sent to all hosts on the network segment to which
the address belongs. (Its usage is restricted by a gateway).
It is an address of any network.
Any IP address 0.0.0.0 Addresses in this block refer to source hosts on "this"
network.
Loopback address 127.0.0.0/8 It is used to test the software system of a test device.
If a host fails to automatically obtain an IP address, the host
Link-local address 169.254.0.0/24 can use an IP address in this address block for temporary
communication.

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• 255.255.255.255
▫ This address is called a limited broadcast address and can be used as the
destination IP address of an IP packet.
▫ After receiving an IP packet whose destination IP address is a limited broadcast
address, the router stops forwarding the IP packet.
• 0.0.0.0
▫ If this address is used as a network address, it means the network address of any
network. If this address is used as the IP address of a host interface, it is the IP
address of a source host interface on "this" network.
▫ For example, if a host interface does not obtain its IP address during startup, the
host interface can send a DHCP Request message with the destination IP address
set to a limited broadcast address and the source IP address set to 0.0.0.0 to the
network. The DHCP server is expected to allocate an available IP address to the
host interface after receiving the DHCP Request message.
• 127.0.0.0/8
▫ This address is called a Loopback address and can be used as the destination IP
address of an IP packet. It is used to test the software system of a test device.
▫ The IP packets that are generated by a device and whose destination IP address
is set to a Loopback address cannot leave the device itself.
• 169.254.0.0/16
▫ If a network device is configured to automatically obtain an IP address but no
DHCP server is available on the network, the device uses an IP address in the
169.254.0.0/16 network segment for temporary communication.
• Note: The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is used to dynamically
allocate network configuration parameters, such as IP addresses.
 Concepts Address Classification Address Calculation Special Addresses IPv4 vs. IPv6

IPv4 vs. IPv6

⚫ IPv4 addresses managed by the IANA were exhausted in 2011. As the last public IPv4
address was allocated and more and more users and devices access the public network, IPv4
addresses were exhausted. This is the biggest driving force for IPv6 to replace IPv4.

IPv4 IPv6
• Address length: 32 bits • Address length: 128 bits
• Address types: unicast address, broadcast • Address types: unicast address, multicast
address, and multicast address address, and anycast address
• Characteristics: • Characteristics:
▫ IPv4 address depletion ▫ Unlimited number of addresses
▫ Inappropriate packet header design ▫ Simplified packet header
▫ ARP dependency-induced flooding ▫ Automatic IPv6 address allocation
▫ ... ▫ ...

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 Contents
1. Network Layer Protocols

2. Introduction to IPv4 Addresses

3. Subnetting

4. ICMP

5. IPv4 Address Configuration and Basic Application

Page 24 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.
 Why Subnetting?
172.16.1.0
172.16.4.0

172.16.0.1 172.16.0.2 172.16.0.253 172.16.0.254

172.16.3.0
...

172.16.0.0

216 = 65536 IP addresses

172.16.2.0
• A class B address is used for a broadcast • A network number is divided into multiple
domain, wasting addresses. subnets, and each subnet is allocated to a
• The broadcast domain is too large. Once separate broadcast domain.
broadcast occurs, an internal network is • In this way, the broadcast domain is smaller,
overloaded. and the network planning is more reasonable.
• IP addresses are properly used.

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• Classful addressing is too rigid and the granularity of address division is too large. As a
result, a large number of host IDs cannot be fully used, wasting IP addresses.

• Therefore, subnetting can be used to reduce address waste through the variable length
subnet mask (VLSM) technology. A large classful network is divided into several small
subnets, which makes the use of IP addresses more scientific.
 Subnetting - Analyzing the Original
Network Segment
⚫ Example: 192.168.10.0/24

192.168.10.1
IP address 192. 168. 10. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Default
255. 255. 255. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 One class C network:
subnet mask

... 192.168.10.0/24
192.168.10.255
Default subnet mask:
IP address 192. 168. 10. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
255.255.255.0
Default
255. 255. 255. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
subnet mask
Network part Host part

Network address: 192.168.10.0

Broadcast address: 192.168.10.255
Total IP addresses: 28 = 256
Available IP addresses: 28 – 2 = 254

Page 26 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

• Assume that a class C network segment is 192.168.10.0. By default, the network mask
is 24 bits, including 24 network bits and 8 host bits.

• As calculated, there are 256 IP addresses on the network.

 Subnetting - Taking Bits from the Host Part
⚫ Bits can be taken from the host part to create subnets.
Take 1 bit from the host part.

IP address 192. 168. 10. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

New mask 255. 255. 255. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Two subnets:

... Subnet 1: 192.168.10.0/25

Subnet 2: 192.168.10.128/25
IP address 192. 168. 10. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
New mask: 255.255.255.128
New mask 255. 255. 255. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Network part Host part

Subnet bits

Total IP addresses: 27 = 128

• Variable length subnet mask (VLSM) Available IP addresses: 27 – 2 = 126

Page 27 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

• Now, for the original 24-bit network part, a host bit is taken to increase the network
part to 25 bits. The host part is reduced to 7 bits. The taken 1 bit is a subnet bit. In this
case, the network mask becomes 25 bits, that is, 255.255.255.128, or /25.

• Subnet bit: The value can be 0 or 1. Two new subnets are obtained.

• As calculated, there are 128 IP addresses on the network.

 Subnetting - Calculating the Subnet
Network Address
⚫ The network address is obtained, with all host bits set to 0s.

192.168.10.0 192. 168. 10. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

New mask /25 255. 255. 255. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Network part Host part

Subnet 1's 192.168.10.0

network address
192. 168. 10. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Subnet 2's 192.168.10.128

network address
192. 168. 10. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Page 28 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

• Calculate a network address, with all host bits set to 0s.

▫ If the subnet bit is 0, the network address is 192.168.10.0.

▫ If the subnet bit is 1, the network address is 192.168.10.128.

 Subnetting - Calculating the Subnet
Broadcast Address
⚫ The broadcast address is obtained, with all host bits set to 1s.

192.168.10.0 192. 168. 10. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

New mask /25 255. 255. 255. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Network part Host part

Subnet 1's 192.168.10.0

network address
192. 168. 10. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Subnet 1's 192.168.10.127
broadcast address
192. 168. 10. 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Subnet 2's 192.168.10.128

network address
192. 168. 10. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Subnet 2's 192.168.10.255
broadcast address
192. 168. 10. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Page 29 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

• Calculate a broadcast address, with all host bits set to 1s.

▫ If the subnet bit is 0, the broadcast address is 192.168.10.127.

▫ If the subnet bit is 1, the broadcast address is 192.168.10.255.

 Practice: Computing Subnets (1)
• Question: An existing class C network segment
is 192.168.1.0/24. Use the VLSM to allocate IP
addresses to three subnets.
10 hosts

... 5 hosts
• Answer: (Use a network with 10 hosts as an example.)
Step 1: Calculate the number of host bits to be taken.
2n – 2 ≥ 10
n ≥ 4, host bits

... Step 2: Take bits from the host part.

... Take 4 bits from the host part.

8 hosts IP address 192. 168. 1. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Subnet mask 255. 255. 255. 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0

Subnet bits Number of subnets:

24 = 16 subnets

Page 30 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

• In actual network planning, the subnet with more hosts is planned first.
 Practice: Computing Subnets (2)
• Question: An existing class C network segment
is 192.168.1.0/24. Use the VLSM to allocate IP
192.168.1.0/28
addresses to three subnets.
10 hosts

... 5 hosts • Answer: (Use a network with 10 hosts as an example.)

Step 3: Calculate subnet network addresses.

IP address 192. 168. 1. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

New mask 255. 255. 255. 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
Network address
...
... Subnet 1 192. 168. 1. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 192.168.1.0

Subnet 2 192 168. 1. 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 192.168.1.16

8 hosts
Subnet 3 192. 168. 1. 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 192.168.1.32

…
Subnet 16 192. 168. 1. 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 192.168.1.240

Page 31 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

• Subnet network addresses are:

▫ 192.168.1.0

▫ 192.168.1.16

▫ 192.168.1.32

▫ 192.168.1.48

▫ 192.168.1.64

▫ 192.168.1.80

▫ 192.168.1.96

▫ 192.168.1.112

▫ 192.168.1.128

▫ 192.168.1.144

▫ 192.168.1.160

▫ 192.168.1.176

▫ 192.168.1.192

▫ 192.168.1.208

▫ 192.168.1.224

▫ 192.168.1.240
 Contents
1. Network Layer Protocols

2. Introduction to IPv4 Addresses

3. Subnetting

4. ICMP

5. IPv4 Address Configuration and Basic Application

Page 32 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.
 ICMP
⚫ The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is an auxiliary protocol of the IP protocol.

Ethernet IP
• ICMP is used to transmit error and control ICMP message Ethernet tail
header header
information between network devices. It
Type Code Checksum
plays an important role in collecting network
ICMP message content
information, diagnosing and rectifying
network faults. Type Code Description
0 0 Echo Reply

Message 3 0 Network Unreachable

3 1 Host Unreachable
Message
Host A 3 2 Protocol Unreachable

3 3 Port Unreachable
5 0 Redirect
8 0 Echo Request

Page 33 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

• To improve the efficiency of IP data packet forwarding and success rate of packet
exchanges, ICMP is used at the network layer. ICMP allows hosts and devices to report
errors during packet transmission.
• ICMP message:
▫ ICMP messages are encapsulated in IP packets. Value 1 in the Protocol field of
the IP packet header indicates ICMP.
▫ Explanation of fields:
▪ The format of an ICMP message depends on the Type and Code fields. The
Type field indicates a message type, and the Code field contains a
parameter mapped to the message type.
▪ The Checksum field is used to check whether a message is complete.
▪ A message contains a 32-bit variable field. This field is not used and is
usually set to 0.
− In an ICMP Redirect message, this field indicates the IP address of a
gateway. A host redirects packets to the specified gateway that is
assigned this IP address.
− In an Echo Request message, this field contains an identifier and a
sequence number. The source associates the received Echo Reply
message with the Echo Request message sent by the local end based
on the identifiers and sequence numbers carried in the messages.
Especially, when the source sends multiple Echo Request messages to
the destination, each Echo Reply message must carry the same
identifier and sequence number as those carried in the Echo Request
message.
 ICMP Redirection
⚫ ICMP Redirect messages are a type of ICMP control message. When a router detects that a
host uses a non-optimal route in a specific scenario, the router sends an ICMP Redirect
message to the host, requesting the host to change the route.

Server A Internet
20.0.0.1/24

20.0.0.2/24

RTA RTB
10.0.0.200/24 10.0.0.100/24
3 1

2 ICMP Redirect message

IP address: 10.0.0.1/24
Host A Default gateway: 10.0.0.100

Page 34 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

• ICMP redirection process:

1. Host A wants to send packets to server A. Host A sends packets to the default
gateway address that is assigned to the gateway RTB.

2. After receiving the packet, RTB checks packet information and finds that the
packet should be forwarded to RTA. RTA is the other gateway on the same
network segment as the source host. This forwarding path through RTA is better
than that through RTB. Therefore, RTB sends an ICMP Redirect message to the
host, instructing the host to send the packet to RTA.

3. After receiving the ICMP Redirect message, the host sends a packet to RTA. Then
RTA forwards the packet to server A.
 ICMP Error Detection
⚫ ICMP Echo messages are used to check network connectivity between the source and
destination and provide other information, such as the round-trip time.

[RTA]ping 20.0.0.2
Echo Request
PING 20.0.0.2: 56 data bytes, press CTRL_C to break
10.0.0.0/24 20.0.0.0/24 Reply from 20.0.0.2: bytes=56 Sequence=1 ttl=254 time=70 ms
.1 .2 .1 .2 Reply from 20.0.0.2: bytes=56 Sequence=2 ttl=254 time=30 ms
RTA RTB Server A Reply from 20.0.0.2: bytes=56 Sequence=3 ttl=254 time=30 ms
Echo Reply Reply from 20.0.0.2: bytes=56 Sequence=4 ttl=254 time=40 ms
Reply from 20.0.0.2: bytes=56 Sequence=5 ttl=254 time=30 ms

--- 20.0.0.2 ping statistics ---

Function: Ping
5 packet(s) transmitted
Ping is a command used on network devices, Windows OS, Unix 5 packet(s) received
OS, and Linux OS. Ping is a small and useful application based on 0.00% packet loss
the ICMP protocol. round-trip min/avg/max = 30/40/70 ms
A ping tests the reachability of a destination node.

Page 35 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

• A typical ICMP application is ping. Ping is a common tool used to check network
connectivity and collect other related information. Different parameters can be
specified in a ping command, such as the size of ICMP messages, number of ICMP
messages sent at a time, and the timeout period for waiting for a reply. Devices
construct ICMP messages based on the parameters and perform ping tests.
 ICMP Error Report
⚫ ICMP defines various error messages for diagnosing network connectivity problems. The source can
determine the cause for a data transmission failure based on the received error messages. For example,
after a network device receives a packet, it cannot access the network where the destination device
resides, the network device automatically sends an ICMP Destination Unreachable message to the
source. Data packet [RTA]tracert 20.0.0.2

10.0.0.0/24 20.0.0.0/24 traceroute to 20.0.0.2(20.0.0.2), max hops: 30 ,packet length:

.1 .2 .1 .2 40,press CTRL_C
RTA RTB Server A to break

Destination Unreachable message

1 10.0.0.2 80 ms 10 ms 10 ms
Function: Tracert
Tracert checks the reachability of each hop on a forwarding path 2 20.0.0.2 30 ms 30 ms 20 ms

based on the TTL value carried in the packet header.

Tracert is an effective method to detect packet loss and delay on a
network and helps administrators discover routing loops on the
network.
Page 36 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

• ICMP defines various error messages for diagnosing network connectivity problems.
The source can determine the cause for a data transmission failure based on the
received error messages.

▫ If a loop occurs on the network, packets are looped on the network, and the TTL
times out, the network device sends a TTL timeout message to the sender device.

▫ If the destination is unreachable, the intermediate network device sends an ICMP

Destination Unreachable message to the sender device. There are a variety of
cases for unreachable destination. If the network device cannot find the
destination network, the network device sends an ICMP Destination Network
Unreachable message. If the network device cannot find the destination host on
the destination network, the network device sends an ICMP Destination Host
Unreachable message.

• Tracert is a typical ICMP application. Tracert checks the reachability of each hop on a
forwarding path based on the TTL value carried in the packet header. In a tracert test
for a path to a specific destination address, the source first sets the TTL value in a
packet to 1 before sending the packet. After the packet reaches the first node, the TTL
times out. Therefore, the first node sends an ICMP TTL Timeout message carrying a
timestamp to the source. Then, the source sets the TTL value in a packet to 2 before
sending the packet. After the packet reaches the second node, the TTL times out. The
second node also returns an ICMP TTL Timeout message. The process repeats until the
packet reaches the destination. In this way, the source end can trace each node
through which the packet passes based on the information in the returned packet, and
calculate the round-trip time based on timestamps.
 Contents
1. Network Layer Protocols

2. Introduction to IPv4 Addresses

3. Subnetting

4. ICMP

5. IPv4 Address Configuration and Basic Application

Page 37 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.
 Basic IP Address Configuration Commands
1. Enter the interface view.

[Huawei] interface interface-type interface-number

You can run this command to enter the view of a specified interface and configure attributes for the interface.
• interface-type interface-number: specifies the type and number of an interface. The interface type and
number can be closely next to each other or separated by a space character.

2. Configure an IP address for the interface.

[Huawei-GigabitEthernet0/0/1] ip address ip-address { mask | mask-length }

You can run this command in the interface view to assign an IP address to the interface on the network devices
to implement network interconnection.
• ip-address: specifies the IP address of an interface. The value is in dotted decimal notation.
• mask: specifies a subnet mask. The value is in dotted decimal notation.
• mask-length: specifies a mask length. The value is an integer ranging from 0 to 32.

Page 38 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.
 Case:
Configuring an IP address for an Interface
Configure an IP address for a physical interface.
192.168.1.1/24 192.168.1.2/24
[RTA] interface gigabitethernet 0/0/1
GE0/0/1 GE0/0/1
[RTA-GigabitEthernet0/0/1] ip address 192.168.1.1 255.255.255.0
Or,
RTA RTB
Loopback 0 Loopback 0 [RTA-GigabitEthernet0/0/1] ip address 192.168.1.1 24
1.1.1.1/32 2.2.2.2/32

Configure an IP address for a logical interface.

On the preceding network where the two
[RTA] interface LoopBack 0
routers are interconnected, configure IP
[RTA-LoopBack0] ip address 1.1.1.1 255.255.255.255
addresses for the interconnected physical
Or,
interfaces and logical IP addresses.
[RTA-LoopBack0] ip address 1.1.1.1 32

Page 39 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

• Physical interface: is an existing port on a network device. A physical interface can be a

service interface transmitting services or a management interface managing the
device. For example, a GE service interface and an MEth management interface are
physical interfaces.

• Logical interface: is a physically nonexistent interface that can be created using

configuration and need to transmit services. For example, a VLANIF interface and
Loopback interfaces are logical interfaces.

▫ Loopback interface: is always in the up state.

▪ Once a Loopback interface is created, its physical status and data link
protocol status always stay up, regardless of whether an IP address is
configured for the Loopback interface.

▪ The IP address of a Loopback interface can be advertised immediately after

being configured. A Loopback interface can be assigned an IP address with
a 32-bit mask, which reduces address consumption.

▪ No data link layer protocols can be encapsulated on a Loopback interface.

No negotiation at the data link layer is performed for the Loopback
interface. Therefore, the data link protocol status of the Loopback interface
is always up.

▪ The local device directly discards a packet whose destination address is not
the local IP address but the outbound interface is the local Loopback
interface.
 Network IP Address Planning
⚫ IP address planning must be considered together with the network structure, routing
protocols, traffic planning, and service rules. In addition, IP address planning should be
corresponding to the network hierarchy and performed in a top-bottom way.
⚫ In conclusion, IP address planning objectives are to achieve easy management, easy
scalability, and high utilization. Reference Planning Rules

• IP Address Planning Example Uniqueness, continuity, and scalability

Structured and service-related
Background Address Type Address Scope
Network segment of the Core node
192.168.1.0/24
R&D department
Example: Network segment of the
A company is 192.168.2.0/24
marketing department Aggregation node
assigned
192.168.0.0/16 Network segment of the
192.168.3.0/24
as a network administrative department
segment Network segment of the
address. 192.168.4.0/24 Access node
guest center
Marketing Administration Guest
Others ... R&D Dept.
Dept. Dept. center

Page 40 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

• Planning rules:

▫ Uniqueness: Each host on an IP network must have a unique IP address.

▫ Continuity: Contiguous addresses can be summarized easily in the hierarchical

networking. Route summarization reduces the size of the routing table and
speeds up route calculation and route convergence.

▫ Scalability: Addresses need to be properly reserved at each layer, ensuring the

contiguous address space for route summarization when the network is
expanded. Re-planning of addresses and routes induced by network expansion is
therefore prevented.

▫ Combination of topology and services: Address planning is combined with the

network topology and network transport service to facilitate route planning and
quality of service (QoS) deployment. Appropriate IP address planning helps you
easily determine the positions of devices and types of services once you read the
IP addresses.
 Quiz
1. (Multiple) Which class does 201.222.5.64 belong? ( )

A. Class A

B. Class B

C. Class C

D. Class D

2. (Multiple) A company is assigned a class C network segment 192.168.20.0/24. One of its departments
has 40 hosts. Which of the following subnets can be allocated? ( )

A. 192.168.20.64/26

B. 192.168.20.64/27

C. 192.168.20.128/26

D. 192.168.20.190/26

Page 41 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. C

2. AC
 Summary
⚫ To connect a PC to the Internet, apply an IP address from the Internet Service
Provider (ISP).
⚫ This presentation provides an overview of the IP protocol and describes concepts
related to IPv4 addresses and subnetting.
⚫ This presentation also describes the planning and basic configuration of IP
addresses.

Page 42 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.
 Thank You
www.huawei.com

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