Module 2

Materials for Electronic applications

Conductors and Insulators: Introduction, principle with examples. Semiconductors: Introduction, grades of
silicon, production of electronic grade silicon, single crystal growth by Czochralski process (CZ) and Float Zone
(FZ) methods.

Polymers: Introduction, Molecular weight - Number average, Weight average and numerical problems.
Conducting polymers – synthesis and conducting mechanism of polyacetylene.
Biodegradable Polymers -Synthesis, properties and applications of polyglycolic acid and polylactic acid
Nanomaterials: Introduction, size dependent properties (surface area, optical, thermal and Electrical) synthesis of
nanomaterials-Top down and bottom-up approaches. Bottom up: sol gel process, precipitation and chemical vapour
deposition. Nanoscale materials (Graphene, carbon nanotubes and fullerenes) and their applications.
Liquid crystals (LC’s): - Introduction, classification, properties and application in Liquid Crystal Displays
(LCD’s). Properties and application of Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLED’s), and Quantum Light emitting
diodes (QLED’s).
Perovskite Materials: Introduction, properties and applications in optoelectronic devices.

Conductors are materials that allow electric charges to move freely through them, while
insulators are materials that do not allow electric charges to move easily through them.
The behaviour of conductors and insulators lies in the arrangement of the atoms and electrons in the
material. In a conductor, the outermost electrons of the atoms are loosely bound and can easily move
from one atom to another when an electric field is applied. In contrast, in an insulator, the outermost
electrons of the atoms are tightly bound and cannot move easily, which prevents the flow of electric
current.

Semiconductors
A semiconductor is a material that has electrical conductivity intermediate to that of a
conductor and an insulator. This means that semiconductors can control the flow of electricity in a
controlled manner, which makes them essential components in modern electronics.
The most common type of semiconductor is silicon, which is used to make transistors,
diodes, and other electronic devices.
The electrical conductivity of silicon can be controlled by adding small amounts of
impurities such as boron or phosphorus to form a material known as doped silicon. Doping creates
regions of excess electrons (n-type) or holes (p-type) in the silicon crystal, which can be used to
create electrical junctions.
Semiconductors have several key properties that make them useful in electronic devices.

 They have a relatively low thermal conductivity, which makes it possible to heat small
regions of the material without affecting the rest of the device.
 They are capable of withstanding high temperatures, which makes them useful in high-
temperature environments.
 They can be easily processed and manufactured into a variety of shapes and sizes, which
makes them suitable for a wide range of applications.
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Silicon for Semiconductor applications
Production of Silicon by Union Carbide Process:
Schematic representation of Union Carbide Process:

The process involves the following steps

1. Hydrogenation: Metallurgical grade silicon and tetra chlorosilane are treated with
hydrogen in fluidized bed reactor, to get trichlorosilane
3 SiCl4 + 2 H2 + Si → 4 SiHCl3
Unreacted SiCl4 is recycled for further hydrogenation, trichlorosilane separated
and purifiedby distillation.
2. Production of dichlorosilane: The purified trichlorosilane is passed through a
fixed bedcolumn filled with ‘quaternary ammonium ion exchange resins’ as
catalyst.
HSiCl3 → H2SiCl2 + SiCl4
SiCl4 is recycled for further hydrogenation.

3. Production of silane: The dichlorosilane obtained in the above step is passed

through a second fixed bed column filled with catalyst (quaternary ammonium ion
exchange resin) to get silane.

H2SiCl2 → SiH4 + 2 HSiCl3

Trichlorosilane is recycled for further production of dichlorosilane. Silane is
purified by distillation.
4. Pyrolysis of silane to get solar grade silicon: Purified silane is pyrolyzed
(pyrolysis is a thermochemical decomposition of organic material at elevated
temperatures in the absence of oxygen) onto heated silicon rods mounted in a
reactor.
SiH4 → 2 H2 + Si
The silicon obtained is solar grade silicon.
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Single Crystal growth

There are two methods of crystal growth

a. Czochralski process
b. Float zone method

It is method of crystal growth used to obtain single crystals. The Czochralski process (Cz) is
also known as “crystal pulling” or “pulling from the melt”. It is a process of growing a single
crystal from the melt of the compound on a seed crystal.
Pure silicon is taken in a quartz’s chamber and heated using RF power source in an
atmosphere.
Properly orientated single crystal of Si attached to a puller rod is lowered in to a melt. The
rod is slowly rotated and simultaneously pulled out. As the melt is pulled out, it solidifies and has
the same orientation and crystal structure as that of the seed.

Components

1. Furnace: It includes fused silicon crucible (SiO2), a graphite susceptor or pulling rod, a
rotation mechanism (clockwise), heating element and power supply.
2. A crystal pulling mechanism: It includes a seed holder and a rotation mechanism in the
counter clockwise direction.
3. Ambient control: It is very important in growth system that there must not be any oxygen
inside the system. The graphite susceptor and graphite heater will react with oxygen to
form CO2 which should not react with Si. Therefore, oxygen should be removed completely
from the chamber and is filled with Argon. It includes gas source, a flow control & an
exhaust system.
4. Control system: A puller has microprocessor-based control system to control the process
parameters such as temperatures, crystal diameter, pull rate & rotation speed.

Working

1. Pieces of EGS (Electronic Grade Silicon) are placed in crucible along with a small amount
of doped silicon & melted. The melt temperature is stabilized at just above the silicon
melting point (14170C)
2. A small single crystal seed suitably oriented is attached to the puller rod and is suspended
over the crucible.
 3. For growth the seed is lowered into the melt until its end is molten.
4. It is now slowly withdrawn resulting in a single crystal which grows by progressive fusing
at the liquid – solid interface.
5. The crystal orientation of the seed will determine the orientation of the resulting pulled
crystal.
6. the chamber is filled with inert gas and dopant gas. The amount of dopant placed in a
crucible will determine the doping concentration in the resulting crystal.
7. The silicon atoms from the melt bond to the atoms in the seed, lattice plane by lattice plane
forming a single crystal as the seed is pulled upwards.
8. The diameter is controlled by the pull rate. Fast pulling results in smaller diameter crystal.
9. The seed & crucible are rotated in opposite direction to promote more uniform growth.

Float zone method

Float-zone silicon is a high-purity alternative to crystals grown by the Czochralski process.
 The basic idea in float zone (FZ) crystal growth is to move a liquid zone through the material.
If properly seeded, a single crystal may result.
 The production takes place under vacuum or in an inert gaseous atmosphere.
 The process starts with a high-purity polycrystalline rod is held in a vertical position and is
rotated.
 With a radio frequency the rod is partially melted. The seed is brought up from below to make
contact with the drop of melt formed at the tip of the poly rod.
 FZ crystals are doped by adding the doping gas phosphine (PH 3) or diborane (B2H6) to the
inert gas for n- and p-type, respectively.
 Unlike CZ growth, the silicon molten Zone is not in contact with any substances except
ambient gas, which may only contain doping gas.
 Therefore FZ silicon can easily achieve much higher purity and higher resistivity.
 After the heating coils move over the whole polysilicon rod, it converts to a single crystal
silicon ingot.

Advantages:
1. When extremely high purity silicon is required the growth technique of choice is float-zone
method.
2. There is no need for a crucible and so there is lower melt contamination, especially oxygen
and carbon which cannot be avoided in CZ crystal growth.
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Polymers
 Polymer is defined as a macromolecule formed by the repeated linking of several simple units
(monomers) through covalent bonds.
 The properties of polymers are different from that of the monomers from which it is formed.
 Polymers have high molecular weight (Ranging from 10,000 to 1,00,000). The chemical
process by which monomers are converted in to polymers is known as polymerization. To
convert monomer in to polymer, small quantity of chemicals known as initiators are needed.
Temperature and pressure should be maintained.

Ethylene monomer Polyethylene

Molecular weight of polymers:

When a monomer (monomers) polymerizes to form polymer, a number of polymer
chains starts growing at any instant, but all of them do not get terminated after growing to the
same size. Thus each polymer chain is having different molecular weight or a group of polymer
chains having similar molecular weight and another group of polymer chains with different
molecular weight. Hence, the molecular weight of polymers are expressed statistically as
‘average molecular weight’.
The two most common and experimentally verifiable methods of averaging are called
‘number average’ and ‘weight or mass average’.

Number average molecular weight

where n1 is the number of polymer chains with molecular weight M1

n2 is the number of polymer chains with molecular weight M2
n3 is the number of polymer chains with molecular weight M3

= ∑niMi
∑ni

Mass Average Molecular weight

Problems on Number average and Mass average

Conducting Polymers
An organic polymer having electrical conductance of the order of a conductor isknown
as conducting polymer.
An organic polymer can be converted in to a conducting polymer if it has
1) Linear structure,
2) Extensive conjugation in polymeric backbone.
The conducting polymers are synthesized by doping, during doping charged species are
introduced in to the organic polymer having Pi-electrons on its backbone.
Examples: Polyacetylene, Polyaniline

Conduction mechanism in Polyacetylene

Polyacetylene consists of a long chain of carbon atoms with alternating single and
double bonds between them. Polyacetylene synthesized from acetylene is converted intoa conducting
polymer by doping.

There are two types of doping process

Oxidative doping and Reductive doping for conducting polyacetylene production.
1. Oxidative doping (p-doping)Mechanism of conduction
 Using a suitable oxidizing agents like iodine in CCl4 an electron is removed fromthe
polymer pi-back bone to form a delocalized radical ion called polaron.
 Upon second oxidation of the chain, it forms bipolaron.
 Finally, the radical recombines to yield two charge carriers on the chain. The positive
charge sites on the polymer chains are compensated by anions I 3- of the oxidizing
agent.
The delocalized positive charges on the chain are mobile and are the current carriers for
conduction.

Reductive doping (n-doping)

In n-doping the polymer is partially reduced by a suitable reducing agent like sodium naphthalide
in tetra hydro furan to create negatively charged sites on the polymer backbone. These negatively
charged sites are responsible for the conduction.
Mechanism of conduction:
 The addition of an electron to the polymer backbone by sing a reducing agent generatesa
polaron.
 On second reduction creates a bipolaron.
  Recombination of radicals yields two charged(-ve) sites which are mobile and is
responsible for conduction.
 The negativecharge is compensated by cation (Na+) formed by the reducing agent.
The delocalized negative charges on the chain are mobile and are the current carriers for
conduction.

Biodegradable polymers
Biodegradable polymers are the polymers which get degraded into simpler molecules like
carbon dioxide, water, nitrogen, etc under aerobic or anaerobic environment by the action of
microorganisms or enzymes
Examples for biodegradable polymers
a. Polyglycolic acid
b. Polylactic acid

Synthesis, properties and applications of polyglycolic acid

Polyglycolic acid is a biocompatible and biodegradable polymer

Synthesis:
Polyglycolic acid is synthesized from the polymerization of an oligomer formed from the
polycondensation of glycolic acid
Properties
 It has excellent biodegradability
 Tg is in between 35-40oC and melting point is 225-230oC
 It is 45-55% crystallinity and hence insoluble in water and also insoluble in almost all organic
solvent because of its high molecular weight.
 Has excellent gas barrier properties.
 It has high initial tensile strength and can smoothly pass-through tissues.

Applications:
 As Suture threads:
One of the novel applications of PGA is its use as a suture thread in medical field because of
its high initial tensile strength, its ability to smoothly pass through the tissues and its natural
biodegradability. The PGA coated by N-laurin and L-lysine multifilaments are extremely
smooth, soft and safe for knotting. It is naturally degraded in the body by hydrolysis and
absorbed as monomers.
 High molecular weight PGA is used in food packaging applications.
 Used as an interlayer between layers of polyethylene terephthalate to provide improved
protection for perishable foods, carbonated beverages and foods that lose freshness on
prolonged exposure to air.

Polylactic acid
PLA is also a biodegradable polymer.
Synthesis.
PLA is synthesized by direct condensation of lactic acid and also by ring opening of
lactide(LA)

Properties:
 It is a semicrystalline thermoplastic in nature.
 Tg is in between 60-65oC and melting point is in between 175-178oC.
 It is hydrophobic in nature.
 It is soluble in organic solvents.
 PLA objects can be easily fabricated by injection moulding, extrusion, casting and 3D printing.
Uses:
 Is extensively used in 3D printing or objects.
 Used in drug delivery purposes due to its bio-compatibility and biodegradability.
 Used in a large variety of consumer products such as disposable tableware, cutlery and other
kitchen applications.
 Used in making compost bags and in food packaging.
 In the form of fibers, it is used for netting and in disposable garments.
 Nano Materials
Introduction
The term ‘nano’ comes from a Greak word meaning ‘dwarf’ or extremely small. One nano meter
is 10-9 meter, i.e., 1 nm = 10 -9 m. Any material of size (one dimensional, two Dimensional, or
three dimensional) between 1nm to100 nm is known as nano material.
Materials engineered to such a small scale are often referred to as ‘engineered nano materials’.

Properties of nano materials (size dependent)

The properties of nano materials are significantly different from those of atoms or molecules
or bulk materials. A bulk material possesses constant physical properties regardless of its
size, but at the nano scale it is not often the case. Nano material exhibit size dependent
properties.
Due to the small dimensions of nano materials they have high surface to volume ratio.
 Material may change optical, electrical, physical, chemical or biological properties at
nanoscale level
 Boiling temperature changes
 Gravitational forces become negligible
 Electromagnetic forces become dominant
 Make material stronger, more durable
 Makes chemical and biological reactions easier
 Can attach enzymes, metal ions, etc. to nanomaterials for more effective use and
delivery

1. Thermal properties:
For nano materials, the atoms or molecules in solid phase possess fewer nearest neighbors
or bonds. Therefore, the number of bonds need to be broken per atom during melting is
less in nano material than in bulk material. Hence, the melting temperature and boiling
temperatures decreases.

2. Surface area:
When the material in the bulk form is divided in to nano form, the particle size decreases
and surface area increases. In a particle with 10 nm diameter only 20 percentage of all
atoms forming the surface, whereas in a particle of 1 nm diameter this figure can reach
more than 90 percentage.
Hence Nano Materials have very high surface/volume ratio compared to bulk material of
the same mass.
3. Electrical properties:
a. Electrical properties (example: conductivity) depends on the free
movements ofelectrons.
b. Any crystalline imperfections or defects increases the resistance and
decreases theconductance.
c. Surface scattering of electrons decreases its velocity of movements and
decreases theconductivity.
 d. In nano scale there is very less/no imperfection or defects therefore
conductance increases very much when compared to the conductance of
its own bulk.
e. Some metal nano wires may become semiconducting, and ceramic and
magnetic nano particle become conducting.
4. Optical properties:
f. The effect of reduced size has the most profound effect on the energies of
valenceband and conduction band.
g. The energy gap between the valence band and the conduction band widens as
the particle size decreases. The optical emission and absorption occur when the
transitionof electrons occur between these two states.
h. Semiconductors and many metals show large changes in optical properties
such ascolour as a function of particle size.
i. For example: gold sphere of particle size >20 nm exhibit purple colour, 10-
20 nmsized exhibit red colour, 2-5 nm sized exhibit yellow colour.
5. Mechanical properties:
j. Imperfections in bulk materials, such as dislocations often develop internal
stressesand hence reducing the mechanical strength.
k. The smaller the cross-section of a material, the less is the probability of
findingdislocations in it, hence shows enhanced mechanical strength.
l. For example: copper is malleable and ductile as bulk copper, whereas
nano sizedcopper (below 50 nm) is considered as a super hard material.

Synthesis of nano materials

There are two general approaches to the synthesis of nano materials and the
fabrication of nano structures: Top-Down approach and Bottom-Up approach.
Bottom-Up approach

- Sol-gel process
- Precipitation process
- Chemical Vapour Condensation process.

Sol-Gel Process:

 The ‘sol’ is a colloidal solution made of solid particles dispersed in a liquid phase.
 The ‘gel’ is a colloidal solution made of liquid particle dispersed in a solid phase.
 In sol-gel process a sol (or precursor solution) is converted into a gel (three
dimensional polymer) and then to a solid nano material.
 The sol-gel process can be characterized by a series of distinct steps like preparation
of sol (precursor solution), formation of gel phase, ageing of the gel, drying of the gel,
dehydration, and densification & decomposition.

Preparation of sol (precursor solution):

 Metal alkoxides (M-O-R) and then water is added.
The precursor undergoes a series of hydrolysis and polymerization reaction to form asol.
 Addition of water leads to hydrolysis in which alkoxide (-O-R) is replaced with
hydroxyl(-O-H) liquid.
M-O-R + H2O → M-O-H + R-O-H
 1. Formation of gel phase:
 Gel formation results in a dramatic increase in viscosity of the
solution. M-O-H + M-O-R → M-O-M [or M-(OH)-M] + R-O-H

 Aging of the gel (syneresis):

 The reaction mixture is allowed to continue poly-condensation reaction until the gel
transforms into a solid mass, accompanied by contraction of the gel network and
expulsion of the solvent.

2. Drying of the gel:

 If the solvent is extracted under supercritical or near super critical conditions
such asrapid drying, the nano material formed is called a Aerogel.

 If solvent is extracted under controlled conditions like slow thermal

evaporation, thenano material formed is called a Xerogel.

3. Dehydration (Calcination):
 During dehydration the surface-bound M-O-H groups are removed,
therebystabilizingthe gel against rehydration.
 This is normally achieved by calcining at temperature upto 800°C.
4. Densification and decomposition:
 On heating above 800°C, the pores of the gel network are collapsed, and
organic contaminants are volatilized, resulting in the formation of dense, stable
nano material.
 By sol-gel process dense nano materials, nano material powder, and thin film
coatednano materials can be prepared.

Advantages of sol-gel process:

 Simple and inexpensive equipments
 Relatively low processing temperature
 Excellent stoichiometry control
 Ease of compositional modification
 Ease of introducing various functional groups
Precipitation process:
 This method relies on the precipitation of nanometer-sized particles within a
continuous fluid solvent.
 An inorganic metal salts such as chloride, nitrate, sulphate, etc., is dissolved in water.
 Metal cations exist in the solution in the form of metal hydrate species, for example
Al(H2O)3+ or Fe(H2O)63+.
 These hydrates are treated with basic solutions such as NaOH or NH4OH.
 These precipitated hydrolyzed species is filtered, washed, dried and calcined in order
to obtain the final nanomaterials product.
 The method is relatively simple and widely used for production of single and multi-
components oxide nano-powders using optimized reactions and reaction conditions.

Example: CuO nanoparticle synthesis

 CuO nanoparticles were synthesized by precipitation method using copper nitrate
(Cu(NO3)2.3H2O) precursor.
 First the precursor was dissolved in deionized water.
 NaOH solution was slowly dropped under vigorous stirring until pH reached to
14.
 The precipitates obtained were repeatedly washed by deionized water for several
times till pH reached 7.
 Subsequently, the washed precipitates were dried at 80 °C for 16 h.
 Finally, the precipitates were calcined at 500 °C for 4 h.
 The morphology was studied by scanning electron microscope (SEM).
 Chemical properties were investigated by Fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy.

Chemical vapour condensation process:

 In this method a mixture of gas reactants is delivered into a reaction chamber.
 Inside the chamber, carrier gas and precursor vapours react to produce nano particle in
vapour state at optimum temperature.
 The nano particles formed in the reactor are passed to a condenser.
 In the condenser vapours condense to form solid nano particles.
 A schematic representation of chemical vapour condensation process is given below:

 Precursor can be solid, liquid or gas under ambient conditions, but delivered to reactor
 as Vapours.
 This process allows the formation of doped or multi-component nano particles by use
of multiple precursors.

Nano scale materials:

Some of the important nano scale materials are nano crystals or nano clusters, fullerenes,
carbon nano tubes, nano wires, nano rods, dendrimers and nano composites.

Nano crystals or Nano clusters:

 These are fragments of solid comprising of particles having at least one dimension
smaller than 100 nm, and composed of atoms in either a single- or poly-crystalline
arrangement.
 Examples: fullerenes, metal clusters such as (Na)n, etc.

Fullerenes:
 Fullerenes are nano material consisting of only carbon atoms connected to each other
(closed carbon structure).
 Fullerenes are made by heating of graphite in an electric arc in the presence of
inert gases such as helium or argon.
 The fullerene family consists of C60, C70, C76, C84, C240, C540 and so on.
 The fullerene with C60 is called Buckminsterfullerene.
 A Buckminsterfullerene consist of 20 hexagons and 12 pentagons.
 An Hexagon is fused with other hexagons or pentagon, but a pentagon is fused only
with hexagon.
 In Buckminsterfullerene all the carbon atoms are equal and they are sp2 hybridized.
 Each carbon atom forms three sigma bonds with other three carbon atoms. The
remaining electron on each carbon atom is highly delocalized, which, in turn, give
aromatic character to the molecule.
 Spherical fullerenes are also called ‘Bucky balls’ in short.

Properties and application:

 Each fullerene C60 molecule can absorb more than 100 photons in a
nanosecond. Hence it is used as optics for electrophotographical imaging, optical
fibers, etc.
 Each fullerene C60 molecule can absorb large number of hydrogen atoms.
Hence it is used as hydrogen storage material in batteries.
 Fullerene is electron deficient and scavenge electrons and free radicals.Hence
used in rejuvenating creams.
 Fullerene are strong drug adsorbents. Hence it is used as drug delivery system.

 Fullerene has lubricating property. Hence they are used as dry lubricants in
coating application.
  Fullerene has antiviral property. It has the ability to suppress the replication of the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Hence it used in drug development.
 In electronics: molecular switches, diodes, transistors, etc.
 In military: optical and microwave absorption coatings to prevent aircraft and missiles
from radar detection.
 Fullerenes are chemically reactive and can be added to polymers to create new
material with specific physical and mechanical properties.

Carbon nano tubes (CNTs):

 Carbon nano tubes are members of fullerene structural family.
 They have hollow structure with walls formed by one atom thick sheets of carbon,
called graphene.
 CNTs are single sheets of graphene rolled into cylinders.
 Carbon nano tubes are categorized as single walled nanotubes (SWCNTs) and
multiwalled carbon nano tubes (MWCNTs). MWCNTs consist of multi-rolled layers
of graphene.
 CNTs are generally produced by three main techniques:
 Arc discharge: In arc discharge, a vapour is created by an arc discharge
between two carbon electrodes with or without catalyst. Nanotubes self-
assemble from the resulting carbon vapour.
 Laser ablasion: In this technique, a high-power laser beam impinges on a
volume containing feed stock gas (methane or carbon monoxide) and
 Chemical vapour deposition: In this technique a suitable precursor
is made to vapourize and CNTs deposit on a seed rod.

Properties and uses of CNTs:

 CNTs are ‘wonder material’. A few important properties of CNTs are:
 100 times the tensile strength of steel
 Thermal conductivity better than all other material
 Electrical conductivity similar to copper, but with the ability to carry
much higher currents, hence used in molecular electronics.
 Enhanced chemical reactivity.
 CNT not only block the smallest particles but also kill most bacteria. Hence it is used
in water filtration.
 SWCNT efficiently absorb radiation in the near infra-red range and convert it to heat.
Hence they are used in cancer thermotherapy.
  A single strand of DNA can be bonded to a carbon nano-tube, which can
then besuccessfully inserted into a cell. Hence CNT finds biomedical
applications.
 CNTs are strongest known fibres. Hence, they are used in composite
materials andalso in fiber and fabric applications.

Graphene
 Graphene is a one-atom-thick layer of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice.
 Graphene is an allotrope (form) of carbon consisting of a single layer ofcarbon
atomsarranged in a lattice.
 It is the basic structural element of many other allotropes of carbon, such
asgraphite, diamond, charcoal, carbon nanotubes and fullerenes.
 Graphene has many uncommon properties. It is the strongest material
evertested, conducts heat and electricity efficiently, and is nearly
transparent.
 They are densely packed. Graphene’s stability is due to its tightly packedcarbon
2
atomsand a sp orbital hybridization

Properties and applications:

 Graphene has mechanical flexibility, high electrical conductivity, and

chemical stability. Hence graphene is used for flexible, stretchable
andfoldable electronics.
 An electron can move faster through graphene than through silicon.Hence,
they areused in transistors and photovoltaic cells.
 Graphene has hydrophobic nature. Hence it is used as coatingmaterial to
providewater repellent surface.
 Graphene allows water to pass through it and impervious to liquidsand
gases. Hence it used in ultrafiltration.
 Graphene with large surface area can act as support for Pt nanoparticles.
Hence it isused in fuel cells.
 Graphene has high charge density and power density. Hencegraphene is
used inmaking super capacitors.

Perovskite materials
Perovskite materials are a class of compounds that have a specific crystal structure called the
perovskite structure. They have the general chemical formula of ABX3 or ABO3, where
A= a large cation, such as a metal or a a mixture of metals
B = a smaller cation, such as a transition metal
X = halide and
O3 = oxygen.
Perovskite materials are not commonly found in nature. They are primarily synthesized in a
laboratory setting.
The synthesis of perovskite materials can be done through a variety of methods, such as
 a. solid-state reactions
b. solution-based methods,
c. vapor deposition.
Solid state reactions: The solid-state reaction method involves heating the precursors at high
temperatures to form the perovskite structure.
Solution-based method: The most common method for synthesis of perovskite materials is
through a solution-based method, which involves mixing precursors of the A, B, and O3
components in a solvent to form a solution. The solution is then heated and/or subjected to
other conditions, such as the presence of a specific pH, to promote the formation of the
perovskite crystal structure.
In vapor deposition method, the precursors are evaporated and deposited onto a substrate,
forming the perovskite film.

Properties of Perovskite materials

 Perovskite materials have a wide range of electronic and optical properties, which
make them useful in a variety of applications.
 They are also flexible and lightweight, which makes them suitable for use in portable
electronic devices and building-integrated photovoltaics.
 Perovskite materials are also used in LED lights, laser diodes, and piezoelectric
devices.
 Their piezoelectric properties make them useful in sensors, actuators, and energy
harvesting applications
 One of the most notable applications of perovskite materials is in solar cells.
Perovskite solar cells are a new type of solar cell that have been developed in recent
years. They have a high efficiency of converting sunlight into electricity, and are
much cheaper to produce than traditional silicon solar cells.

Examples of the application of Perovskite materials

 CH3NH3PbI3 (also known as methylammonium lead iodide or MAPbI3) is a well-
known perovskite material that is used in solar cells.
 CsPbBr3 and CsPbCl3, which are perovskite materials that have been used in LED
lights.
 BaTiO3 is a perovskite material that has a high dielectric constant and is used in
capacitors and other electronic devices.
 LaFeO3, which is a perovskite material that has been used as a catalyst in various
chemical reactions.
 LaCoO3, which is a perovskite material that has been used as an electrocatalyst in
water splitting reactions.
 Liquid Crystals
Liquid Crystals was first observed and reported by Friedrich Reinitzer.
A liquid crystal is a thermodynamic stable phase which is in between a solid phase and liquid
phase.
• Liquid crystals possess some typical properties of a liquid such as fluidity and their
inability to support shear and formation of droplets and
• certain crystalline properties such as anisotropy of optical, electrical and magnetic
properties.
• They also possess properties not found in solids or liquids, hence liquid crystals are
unique in their properties such as being able to change colour or reflectivity when an
electric field is applied.

Phases of matter
• Normal solids on heating changes into liquids
• Some organic solids on heating show an intermediate state termed mesophase (phase
in between that of solid and liquids)
It is important to mention that liquid crystals are sensitive to temperature, light and applied
electric fields, so their applications are usually in controlled environments.

Classification of liquid crystals

The distinguishing characteristic of the liquid crystalline state is the tendency of the
molecules (mesogens) to point along a common axis, called the director
Liquid crystals are classified into
1. Thermotropic liquid crystals: Substances which exhibit liquid crystalline
phase [mesophase] by change in temperature
2. Lyotropic liquid crystals: Substances which exhibit liquid crystalline phase
[mesophase] by change in concentration of one of the
components either solvent or solute in solution.
Thermotropic Liquid crystals

Requirements for formation of mesophase ( or liquid crystal)

 it should have elongated structure.
 it should be polarized or polarizable.
 it should have a central rigid core with flexible ends.
There are three main phases of liquid crystals:
 Smetic Phase (Smetic phase A and Smetic phase C)
 Nematic Phase
 Cholestric phase
Smetic phase:
 All molecules are organized into layers.
 Forms at a lower temperature.
Smetic C phase:
- Molecules are layered and are highly oriented at an angle normal to the
layers.
- They are more oriented than semtic A phase but less oriented than solid
phase.
- Molecules are layered and oriented/tilted on an average normal to the
layers.
Nematic phase:
 Molecules exhibit preferential orientation in a particular direction.
 Long axis roughly point in the same direction.
 This phase requires the molecules to be elongated and rigid.
 Further heating causes the formation of a conventional liquid.
Cholestric phase:
Cholesteric liquid crystals are a type of liquid crystal with a unique helical structure that
gives them distinct optical properties.
 Cholesteric liquid crystals are composed of elongated molecules that have a twisted,
helical structure.
 These molecules are arranged in layers, with each layer rotating slightly relative to the
previous one.

Smetic C* phase:
Smectic C* (SmC*) liquid crystals are a type of liquid crystal that exhibits a tilted smectic
layer structure with chirality.
 1. Smectic C* liquid crystals have a layered structure in which the molecules are
oriented in parallel layers.
2. The layers are tilted with respect to one another and exhibit a chiral, or helical
structure.
3. SmC* liquid crystals exhibit a variety of interesting optical and electro-optical
properties, such as optical rotation, birefringence, and the ability to respond to electric
fields.
4. They are used in a wide range of applications, including displays, optical
communication, and sensing.
5. SmC* liquid crystals are of particular interest in the development of advanced display
technologies, such as flexible displays and 3D displays.
6. They have tilted and layered orientation like in Smetic C phase but the molecules also
have helical structure as in cholesteric phase,

One of the most common applications of liquid crystals is in liquid crystal displays (LCDs)
used in electronic devices such as smartphones, televisions, and computers.

Application of Liquid Crystals in LCD system or LCD construction

Principle.
 Two pieces of glass with polarizing films pasted on them are assembled together
with a carefully controlled gap between them
 Liquid crystal material is introduced in the gap
 The molecules adjacent to the glass will align to the polarizer, resulting in a helical
structure between the two glass plates
 As light strikes the first plate, it gets polarized
 The molecules in each layer then guide the light through the display, changing the
angle of polarization.

 When light reaches the final layer of the crystal material its plane of polarization
will have rotated 90 degrees, and now matches the plane of the top polarizing film
hence comes out through it appearing bright.
  When electric field is applied across the plates, the liquid crystal molecules untwist
and loose their property of rotating the light.
 Hence the plane of the light no longer matches the angle of the top polarizable
plate.
 Consequently, no light can pass through that area of the LCD, which makes that
area look dark.

LCD colour production

For an LCD monitor to produce color, each pixel on the screen has to have three sub-pixels,
each being a primary color (red, blue and green)
By taking each of the three colors, and varying the intensity of each, then blending it all
together, the color LCD has a large possible palette of colors
Liquid Crystal Display backlighting
• The illumination source in most flat panel LCDs is a backlight i.e. the light source
placed behind the first polarizing layer, that provides the light needed for the display
• Initially backlighting was done using mercury lamp and then CFL.
• Now-a-days backlighting is done using LED lamps hence are referred to as LED
monitors/TV’s, etc
• In LED display units the material used and the principle of working is the same as in
LCD but only differs with the backlighting source used.

Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs)

OLEDs, or Organic Light-Emitting Diodes, are a type of display technology that use organic
materials to emit light. Here Organic compounds are used to generate light and hence
backlighting source is not required.
Properties:
1. OLEDs are thin, lightweight, and flexible, making them ideal for use in portable devices
and flexible displays.
2. They emit light directly, so they do not require a separate backlight like LCDs, which
results in a thinner display and lower power consumption.
3. OLEDs have excellent contrast ratios and wide viewing angles, making them suitable
for use in a variety of lighting conditions.
4. They have fast response times and can be used for high-speed video applications.
5. OLEDs have the ability to produce vivid and accurate colors with high color gamut.
Applications:
1. OLEDs are used in a wide range of devices, including smartphones, tablets, laptops,
televisions, and smartwatches.
2. They are increasingly used in lighting applications, as they offer high efficiency and
long lifetimes.
3. OLEDs are used in automotive displays, where their flexibility, low power
consumption, and high contrast are particularly advantageous.
4. They are used in wearable devices, such as smartwatches and fitness trackers, due to
their thin and lightweight construction.
5. OLEDs also have potential applications in augmented and virtual reality, as their fast
response times and ability to produce bright colors can enhance the immersive
experience.
Principle of OLED Display mechanism

Where EML = electron emissive layer, ETL = electron transporting layer, HTL = hole
transporting layer
QLEDs
QLEDs are a type of display technology that use quantum dots to produce light
In a QLED, a layer of quantum dots is sandwiched between two layers of semiconducting
material. When an electric current is applied, the quantum dots emit light of a specific color.
The color of light emitted by the quantum dots can be precisely controlled by varying the size
of the dots, allowing for a wide range of colors to be produced.

Properties:
1. QLEDs offer a wide color gamut and high color accuracy, producing bright and vivid
colors.
2. They have a high luminance and contrast ratio, making them ideal for use in bright
environments.
3. QLEDs have a long lifespan and low power consumption, making them energy-
efficient and cost-effective.
4. They can be fabricated using simple and low-cost manufacturing processes.
5. QLEDs have a narrow emission spectrum, which reduces the likelihood of color shifts
over time.
Applications:
1. QLEDs are used in a variety of devices, including televisions, computer monitors, and
mobile devices, where their high color accuracy and brightness are particularly
advantageous.
2. They are increasingly used in outdoor displays, where their high brightness and contrast
make them ideal for use in bright daylight.
3. QLEDs are used in automotive displays, where their high luminance and wide color
gamut are particularly useful.
4. They are also used in lighting applications, as they offer high efficiency and long
lifetimes.
5. QLEDs have potential applications in medical imaging, as their narrow emission
spectrum and high colour accuracy can help with accurate diagnosis.
The cost of OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode) displays is generally higher than that of
QLED (Quantum Dot Light Emitting Diode) displays for a few reasons:
1. Manufacturing: The manufacturing process for OLED displays is more complex and
expensive than that of QLED displays. OLEDs require a substrate material and a layer
of organic material to be deposited and patterned, which involves more steps and
specialized equipment compared to the simpler process of depositing and patterning a
layer of quantum dots on a substrate for QLED displays.
2. Yield: OLED displays also have a lower yield compared to QLED displays, meaning
that more of the manufactured panels are likely to have defects that render them
unusable. This can increase the cost of production.
3. Lifespan: OLED displays have a shorter lifespan compared to QLED displays. While
the lifespan of OLED displays has improved over the years, they still have a tendency
to suffer from image burn-in and colour shifting over time, which can limit their
practical lifespan. QLED displays have a longer lifespan and are generally more
durable.
4. R&D Costs: OLED technology still requires research and development to improve and
optimize the production process and overcome issues such as image retention and
colour shifting. The ongoing investment in R&D can contribute to higher production
costs.