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Structured Programming

information technology (Kenyatta University)

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MOMBASA TECHNICAL TRAINING

INSTITUTE

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION AND

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING

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P.O. BOX 81220, TEL 041-2226458, MOMBASA

STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING..........................................................................................................5
DEFINITION OF TERMS........................................................................................................................5
INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING..................................................................7
HISTORY OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES...................................................................................7
Low-Level Programming Languages....................................................................................................7
High-Level Programming Languages...................................................................................................8
Compiled Languages VS Interpreted Languages.....................................................................................9
Compiled Languages...................................................................................................................................9
Interpreted Languages..............................................................................................................................10
Comparison of Compiled and Interpreted Languages..........................................................................10
Criteria for Selecting a Programming Language...................................................................................10
PROGRAMMING PARADIGMS..............................................................................................................11
SOFTWARE CONSIDERATIONS.........................................................................................................12
ADVANTAGES of C LANGUAGE.......................................................................................................12
PROGRAM DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT......................................................................................13
PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT CYCLE.................................................................................................13
STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING DESIGN CONCEPTS..................................................................14
PROGRAM DESIGN TOOLS................................................................................................................15
3. PROGRAM STRUCTURE..................................................................................................................21
STRUCTURE OF A C PROGRAM........................................................................................................21
SOURCE CODE FILES..........................................................................................................................24
STEP BY STEP CREATION AND EXECUTION OF A C PROGRAM...............................................24
C DATA TYPES......................................................................................................................................25
VARIABLES...........................................................................................................................................27
CONSTANTS..........................................................................................................................................30
TYPE CASTING.....................................................................................................................................30
C PROGRAMMING OPERATORS.......................................................................................................30
ARITHMETIC OPERATORS............................................................................................................31
INCREMENT AND DECREMENT OPERATORS – Unary Operators............................................31
ASSIGNMENT OPERATORS – Binary Operators............................................................................32
RELATIONAL OPERATORS - Binary Operators.............................................................................32
LOGICAL OPERATORS - Binary Operators.....................................................................................33
CONDITIONAL OPERATOR – Ternary Operators...........................................................................33
PRECEDENCE OF OPERATORS.........................................................................................................34
ASSOCIATIVITY OF OPERATORS.....................................................................................................35
CONTROL STRUCTURES.....................................................................................................................37
IMPORTANCE OF CONTROL STRUCTURES...................................................................................37
TYPES OF CONTROL STRUCTURES................................................................................................37
SELECTION STRUCTURES.................................................................................................................38
(a) THE IF SELECTION STRUCTURE.................................................................................................38
(b)THE IF/ELSE.....................................................................................................................................39
(c) THE IF...ELSE IF...ELSE STATEMENT...........................................................................................39
(d)NESTED IF STATEMENTS..............................................................................................................40
(e) SWITCH STATEMENT.....................................................................................................................41
(f) NESTED SWITCH STATEMENTS..................................................................................................43
REPETITION/ITERATIVE/LOOP STRUCTURES..............................................................................44
(a) WHILE LOOP IN C...........................................................................................................................44
(b)FOR LOOP IN C................................................................................................................................45
(c) DO...WHILE LOOP IN C – Post Test Loop......................................................................................47
(d)NESTED LOOPS IN C......................................................................................................................48

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LOOP CONTROL STATEMENTS.........................................................................................................50

(a) BREAK STATEMENT IN C..............................................................................................................50
(b)CONTINUE STATEMENT IN C.......................................................................................................50
(c) THE COMMA OPERATOR..............................................................................................................51
(d)GOTO STATEMENT IN C................................................................................................................51
(e) THE RETURN STATEMENT...........................................................................................................52
THE INFINITE LOOP............................................................................................................................53
SUBPROGRAMS IN C.............................................................................................................................54
TYPES OF FUNCTIONS.......................................................................................................................54
LIBRARY FUNCTION.......................................................................................................................54
USER DEFINED FUNCTION...........................................................................................................55
DEFINING A FUNCTION.....................................................................................................................56
FUNCTION DECLARATIONS..............................................................................................................57
CALLING A FUNCTION.......................................................................................................................57
FUNCTION ARGUMENTS...................................................................................................................59
TYPES OF VARIABLES........................................................................................................................59
LOCAL VARIABLES.........................................................................................................................59
GLOBAL VARIABLES......................................................................................................................59
DATA STRUCTURES...............................................................................................................................62
ARRAYS.................................................................................................................................................63
DECLARING ARRAYS.....................................................................................................................63
INITIALIZING ARRAYS...................................................................................................................64
ACCESSING ARRAY ELEMENTS...................................................................................................64
SORT TECHNIQUES.........................................................................................................................65
SEARCHING ARRAYS.....................................................................................................................71
POINTERS..............................................................................................................................................73
C STRINGS.............................................................................................................................................75
Dynamic allocation..................................................................................................................................78
Linked lists..............................................................................................................................................79
Structures.................................................................................................................................................81
Defining a Structure................................................................................................................................82
Accessing Structure Members.................................................................................................................83
typedef.....................................................................................................................................................83
QUEUES.................................................................................................................................................85
STACKS..................................................................................................................................................85
FILE HANDLING / DATA FILES..........................................................................................................86
OPENING FILES....................................................................................................................................86
CLOSING A FILE...................................................................................................................................87
WRITING A FILE...................................................................................................................................87
READING A FILE..................................................................................................................................88
BINARY I/O FUNCTIONS....................................................................................................................89
ERROR HANDLING AND DEBUGGING............................................................................................92
Types of Errors........................................................................................................................................92
Syntactic Errors...................................................................................................................................92
Execution Errors..................................................................................................................................92
Logical Errors......................................................................................................................................93
DEBUGGING TECHNIQUES...............................................................................................................93
Error Isolation......................................................................................................................................93
Tracing.................................................................................................................................................93
Watch Values.......................................................................................................................................94
Breakpoints..........................................................................................................................................94
Stepping...............................................................................................................................................94
SOFTWARE DOCUMENTATION.........................................................................................................95

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INTERNAL DOCUMENTATION..........................................................................................................95
EXTERNAL DOCUMENTATION.........................................................................................................96
PROCESS DOCUMENTATION........................................................................................................96
PRODUCT DOCUMENTATION.......................................................................................................96

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STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING

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DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. HEADER FILE - A header file is a file with extension .h which contains C function declarations
to be shared between several source files. A header file is used in a program by including it with
the use of the preprocessing directive #include, which comes along with the compiler.
#include<stdio.h>

2. EXPRESSION – These are statements that return a value. Expressions combine variables and
constants to create new values or logical conditions which are either true or false e.g.
x + y, x <= y etc

3. KEYWORD - A keyword is a reserved word in C. Reserved words may not be used as constants
or variables or any other identifier names. Examples include auto, else, Long, switch, typedef
,break etc

4. IDENTIFIER - A C identifier is a name used to identify a variable, function, or any other user-
defined item. An identifier starts with a letter A to Z or a to z or an underscore _ followed by zero
or more letters, underscores, and digits (0 to 9). C does not allow punctuation characters such as
@, $, and % within identifiers.

5. COMMENT - These are non-executable program statements meant to enhance program

readability and maintenance- they document the program.

6. FUNCTION - A function is a group of statements, enclosed within curly braces, which together
perform a task.

7. STATEMENT- Statements are expressions, assignments, function calls, or control flow

statements which make up C programs. Statements are terminated using a semicolon.

8. SOURCE CODE – Program instructions in their original form. C source code files have an
extension .c

9. OBJECT CODE – Code produced by a compiler from source code and exists in machine
readable language.

10. EXECUTABLE FILE – Refers to a file in a format that a computer can directly execute and is
created by a compiler.

11. STANDARD LIBRARY – Refers to a collection of precompiled functions/routines that a

program can use. The routines are stored in object format and contain descriptions of functions to
perform I/O, string manipulations, mathematics etc.

12. SIGNED INTEGER – This is an integer that can hold either positive or negative numbers.

13. COMPILER – This is a program that translates source code into object code.

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14. PREPROCESSOR COMMAND - The C preprocessor modifies a source file before handing it
over to the compiler for instance by including header files with #include as I #include <stdio.h>

15. LINKER/Binder/Link Editor – This is a program that combines object modules to form an
executable program. The linker combines the object code, the start up code and the code for
library routines used in the program (all in machine language) into a single file- the executable
file.

16. OPERATOR - A symbol that represents a specific action. For example, a plus sign (+) is an
operator that represents addition. The basic mathematic operators are + addition, - subtraction,*
multiplication,/ division

17. OPERAND - Operands are the objects that are manipulated by operators in expressions. For
example, in the expression 5 + x, x and 5 are operands and + is an operator. All expressions have
at least one operand.

18. EXPRESSION – This is a statement that returns a value. For example, when you add two
numbers together or test to see whether one value is equal to another.

19. VARIABLE - A variable is a memory location whose value can change during program
execution. Variable declaration must have a type, which defines what values that variable can
hold.

20. Data type – The data type of a variable etc determines the size and layout of the variable's
memory; the range of values that can be stored within that memory; and the set of operations that
can be applied to the variable.

21. CONSTANT - a constant is a value that never changes during program execution.

22. WHITESPACE - A line containing only whitespace, possibly with a comment, is known as a
blank line, and a C compiler totally ignores it.
Whitespace is the term used in C to describe blanks, tabs, newline characters and comments.
Whitespace separates one part of a statement from another and enables the compiler to identify
where one element in a statement, such as int, ends and the next element begins. Therefore, in the
following statement:
int age;

There must be at least one whitespace character (usually a space) between int and age for the
compiler to be able to distinguish them. On the other hand, in the following statement

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING

Programming means to convert problem solutions into instructions for the computer. It also refers to
the process of developing and implementing various sets of instructions to enable a computer to do a
certain task.

Structured programming is also known as modular programming is an approach to writing

programs that are easier to test, debug, modify and maintain by enforcing a modular approach which
breaks a large complex program into sub-programs.

A programming language is a vocabulary and set of grammatical rules designed for instructing a
computer to perform specific tasks.

HISTORY OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

Low-Level Programming Languages

First-Generation Programming Languages – Machine Language

These languages were introduced in the 1940s and had the following characteristics:

 Instructions were entered directly in binary format (1s and 0s) and therefore they were tedious
and error prone. Programmers had to design their code by hand then transfer it to a computer
using a punch card, punch tape or flicking switches.
 Instructions were executed directly by a computer's central processing unit (CPU) i.e. they
were executed very fast.
 Memory management eg calculation of numerical addresses was done manually.
 Programs were very difficult to edit and debug.
 Used to code simple programs only.

Second-Generation Programming Languages (2GL) –Assembly Languages

They were introduced to mitigate the error prone and excessively difficult nature of binary
programming.

 Introduced in the 1950s

 Improved on first generation by providing human readable source code which must be
assembled into machine code (binary instructions) before it can be executed by a CPU. By
using codes resembling English, programming became much easier. The use of these
mnemonic codes such as LDA for load and STA for store means the code is easier to read
and write.
 Specific to platform architecture i.e. 2GL source code is not portable across processors or
processing environments.
 Designed to support logical structure and debugging.

To convert an assembly code program into object code to run on a computer requires an Assembler
and each line of assembly can be replaced by the equivalent line of object (machine) code:

Assembly Code Machine Code

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Such languages are sometimes still used for kernels and device drivers, i.e. the core of the operating
system and for specific machine parts. More often, such languages are used in areas of intense
processing, like graphics programming, when the code needs to be optimized for performance.

Almost every CPU architecture has a companion assembly language. Most commonly used assembly
languages today are Autocoder for IBM mainframe systems, Linoreum, MACRO -11,etc.

High-Level Programming Languages

Third-Generation Languages (3GL)

Third generation languages are the primary languages used in general purpose programming today.
They each vary quite widely in terms of their particular abstractions and syntax. However, they all
share great enhancements in logical structure over assembly languages.

 Introduced in the 1950s

 Designed around ease of use for the programmer (Programmer friendly)
 Driven by desire for reduction in bugs,
 Increases in code reuse
 Based on natural language
 Often designed with structured programming in mind
 The languages are architecture independent e.g. C, Java etc.

Examples:

Most Modern General Purpose Languages such as C, C++, C#, Java, Basic, COBOL, Lisp and ML.

Fourth Generation Languages

Fourth-generation programming languages are high-level languages built around database systems.
They are generally used in commercial environments.
 Improves on 3GL and their development methods with higher abstraction and statement
power, to reduce errors and increase development speed by reducing programming
effort. They result in a reduction in the cost of software development.
 A 4GL is designed with a specific purpose in mind. For example languages to query databases
(SQL), languages to make reports (Oracle Reports) etc.
 4GL are more oriented towards problem solving and systems engineering.

Examples: Progress 4GL, PL/SQL, Oracle Reports, Revolution language etc

Fifth Generation Languages

Improves on the previous generations by skipping algorithm writing and instead provide
constraints/conditions as the basis for program development.

While 4GL are designed to build specific programs, 5GL are designed to make the computer solve a
given problem without the programmer. The programmer only needs to worry about what problems
need to be solved and only inputs a set of logical constraints, with no specified algorithm, and the
Artificial Intelligence (AI)-based compiler builds the program based on these constraints

Examples: Prolog, OPS5, Mercury

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Low-Level Languages VS High-Level Languages

Low-level languages such as machine language and assembly language are closer to the hardware
than are the high-level programming languages, which are closer to human languages.
Low-level languages are converted to machine code without using a compiler or interpreter, and the
resulting code runs directly on the processor. A program written in a low-level language runs very
quickly, and with a very small memory footprint; an equivalent program in a high-level language
will be more heavyweight. Low-level languages are simple, but are considered difficult to use, due to
the numerous technical details which must be remembered.

High-level languages are closer to human languages and further from machine languages.

The main advantage of high-level languages over low-level languages is that they are easier to read,
write, and maintain. Ultimately, programs written in a high-level language must be translated into
machine language by a compiler or interpreter.

The first high-level programming languages were designed in the 1950s. Now there are dozens of
different languages, including Ada, Algol, BASIC, COBOL, C, C++, FORTRAN, LISP, Pascal, and
Prolog.

Compiled Languages VS Interpreted Languages

Compiled Languages
A program written in a compiled language is first translated to machine language by another program
called a compiler and outputs equivalent machine language to another file (the executable file). The
compiler parses/interprets each statement in the program and outputs an equivalent sequence of
machine or assembly instructions.

Interpreted Languages
A program written in an interpreted language is never translated to machine language. Instead, the
program is interpreted and executed by another program called an interpreter.

Like a compiler, an interpreter parses each statement in the source program, but instead of translating
it to machine language, it simply executes the statement as soon as it determines its meaning.

Comparison of Compiled and Interpreted Languages

Since a compiled program is translated in advance, compiled programs have the following advantages:

 They execute very fast, since they are executed natively (directly) by the CPU.
All of the expensive parsing of the source code is done before the program begins executing,
and need only be done once. After that, the machine language produced by the compiler runs
with no further need for the source code.

 There is no need to have a compiler on every computer that runs the executable. The compiler
need only be present on the developer's computer, and the executables produced can be run on
any computer with the same architecture and operating system.

Programs written in interpreted languages have the following disadvantages:

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 They run far slower than the same program written in a compiled language. This is due to the
fact that an interpreted program is being parsed while it is executing.

 The interpreter must be installed on every computer that runs the program.

The main advantage that is often cited for interpreted programs is that you don't have to wait for it to
compile before you can test it. For this reason, interpreters are sometimes used during the
development of a program, when a programmer wants to add small sections at a time and test them
quickly. In addition, interpreters are often used in education because they allow students to program
interactively.

Criteria for Selecting a Programming Language

The following criteria can be used for language selection:

 Ease of learning the language

 Programming experience and Language Familiarity
 Whether it is compiled or interpreted.
 The general execution speed of the language
 Whether it is proprietary or open source – Cost consideration.
 Whether it is portable across different hardware and operating systems or not.
 GUI requirements - If a GUI is required then it can take up a lot of time and code. For
example, creating a GUI in C++ will be more complex than creating a GUI in Visual Basic.
 Time available for Project development - High level languages such as Visual Basic make pr-
ogramming both easier and faster.

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PROGRAMMING PARADIGMS
A programming paradigm is a fundamental style of computer programming, a way of building the
structure and elements of computer programs. There are four main paradigms:

a) Unstructured Programming

In unstructured programs, the statements are executed in sequence (one after the other) as written.
This type of programming uses the GoTo statement which allows control to be passed to any other
section in the program. When a GoTo statement is executed, the sequence continues from the target of
the GoTo. Thus, to understand how a program works, you have to execute it. This often makes it
difficult to understand the logic of such a program.

b) Structured Programming
Structured programming is a disciplined approach to writing programs that are clearer than
unstructured programs, easier to test and debug and easier to modify.
Structured programming frequently employs a top-down design model, in which developers break
the overall program structure into separate subsections. A defined function or set of similar
functions is coded in a separate module or sub-module, which means that code can be loaded into
memory more efficiently and that modules can be reused in other programs. After a module has
been tested individually, it is then integrated with other modules into the overall program structure.

Program flow follows a simple hierarchical model that employs looping constructs such as "for,"
"repeat," and "while."

Use of the "GoTo" statement is discouraged.

Examples of structured programming languages include:

 C
 Pascal
 Fortran
 Cobol
 ALGOL
 Ada
 dBASE etc.

c) Object-oriented programming (OOP)

This is a programming paradigm that represents concepts as "objects" that have data fields (attributes
that describe the object) and associated procedures known as methods. Objects, which are usually
instances of classes, are used to interact with one another to design applications and computer
programs. Rather than treat data and procedures separately, OOP packages them into “objects”.
In addition, programmers can create relationships between objects. For example, objects can inherit
characteristics from other objects.
One of the principal advantages of object-oriented programming techniques over procedural
programming techniques is that they enable programmers to create modules that do not need to be
changed when a new type of object is added. A programmer can simply create a new object that
inherits many of its features from existing objects.

d) Visual Programming

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A visual programming language uses a visual representation (such as graphics, drawings, animation or
icons, partially or completely). A visual language manipulates visual information or supports visual
interaction, or allows programming with visual expressions.

A VPL allows programming with visual expressions, spatial arrangements of text and graphic
symbols, used either as elements of syntax or secondary notation. An example of visual programming
languages is Microsoft Visual Basic which was derived from BASIC and enables the rapid application
development (RAD) of graphical user interface (GUI) applications.
Programming in VB is a combination of visually arranging components or controls on a form,
specifying attributes and actions for those components, and writing additional lines of code for more
functionality.

e) Internet Based Programming

This is programming oriented to the development of internet applications using languages and tools
such as PHP, ASP, Perl, JavaScript, HTML, Java etc.

SOFTWARE CONSIDERATIONS
Before you can start programming in C, you will need a text editor such as a plain text Notepad Editor
though it does not offer code completion or debugging. Many programmers prefer and recommend
using an Integrated Development Environment (IDE) instead of a text editor on which to code,
compile and test their programs.
Memory requirements
Disk space required

ADVANTAGES of C LANGUAGE
1. C is a modular language: we can split the C program into a number of
modules instead of repeating the same logic statements (sequentially). It
allows reusability of modules.
2. General purpose programming language: C can be used to implement
any kind of applications such as math’s oriented, graphics, business
oriented applications and system software.
3. C is highly Portable: we can compile or execute C program in any
operating system (UNIX, dos, windows).
4. Powerful and efficient programming language: C is a very efficient
and powerful programming language; it is best used for data structures
and designing system software. It is efficient in that it is modular thus
makes efficient use of memory and system resources.

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CHAPTER 2

PROGRAM DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

Program/System design is the process of defining the software structure (components/ modules,
interfaces, and data) to satisfy/realize specified requirements.
Program development refers to all the activities and processes involved between the conception of
the desired software through to the final manifestation of the software, in a planned and structured
process.

PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

This refers to the stages that form the framework for planning and controlling the creation of an
information system. Several approaches to program development have been devised and the System
Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is one of the most popular. The SDLC is a methodology that aims
at producing a high quality system that meets or exceeds customer expectations, reaches
completion within times and cost estimates, works efficiently and is inexpensive to maintain
and cost-effective to enhance.

1) Problem statement and feasibility study: The fundamental process of understanding why a
system should be built and determining how the project team will go about building it. It
involves
a. Technical feasibility study: can the system be built
b. Economic feasibility study: will the system provide business value, and what are the
risks?
c. Organizational feasibility study: if built, will the system be used, accepted by the
users etc.
2) Systems analysis/requirements definition: this phase identifies the users of the system and
what the system will do or is expected to do. It involves
a. Analysis of the old system
b. Requirements gathering. Various tools for collecting information are used. These
include interviews, questionnaires, observation of the users of the old system etc.
c. Development of the new system proposal document.
3) Systems design: describes how the system will operate, in terms of hardware, software,
network infrastructure, user interface, forms and reports that will be used, the specific
programs, databases and files that will be needed. Design phase steps include;
a. Design strategy: method of development: in-house, outsourced, or purchased
b. Architecture design – hardware , software, internet infrastructure, and user interface
c. Database and file specification
d. Program design: defines the program that needs to be done and exactly what each
module will do.
4) System Implementation: The real code is written at this stage.
5) Integration and testing: Brings all the pieces of the project together into a special testing
environment, then checks for errors and interoperability.
6) Acceptance, installation, deployment: The final stage of initial development, where the
software is put into use(deployed) and runs actual business.
7) Maintenance: What happens during the rest of the software's life: changes, correction,
additions, and moves to a different computing platforms etc. This step, perhaps most
important of all, goes on seemingly forever.
The SDLC is a cycle i.e. iterative in that a new requirement might initiate the whole process
again.

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STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING DESIGN CONCEPTS

1. TOP-DOWN DESIGN
A top-down approach (also known as stepwise design or deductive reasoning, and in many cases
used as a synonym of analysis or decomposition) is essentially the breaking down of a system to
gain insight into its compositional sub-systems. In a top-down approach an overview of the system
is formulated, specifying but not detailing any first-level subsystems. Each subsystem is then
refined in yet greater detail, sometimes in many additional subsystem levels, until the entire
specification is reduced to base elements. Top- down approach starts with the big picture. It breaks
down from there into smaller segments.
Top-down design (also called “Modular programming " and "stepwise refinement") therefore, is a
software design technique that emphasizes separating the functionality of a program into
independent modules such that each module is designed to execute only one aspect of the desired
functionality.

ADVANTAGES OF MODULAR PROGRAMMING

 Allows a problem to be split in stages and for a team of programmers to work on the
different modules thereby reducing program development time.
 Program modification and debugging is easier since changes can be isolated to specific
modules.
 Modules can be tested and debugged independently.
 Since a module performs a specific and well defined task, it is possible to develop and place
commonly used modules in a user library so that they can be accessed by different
programs. This is also called code reuse. (E.g. Validation, Uppercase, Text color etc.)
 If a programmer cannot continue through the entire project, it is easier for another
programmer to continue working on self-contained modules.

2. BOTTOM-UP DESIGN
A bottom-up approach (also known as inductive reasoning, and in many cases used as a synonym
of synthesis) is the piecing together of systems to give rise to larger systems, thus making the
original systems sub-systems of the emergent system. In a bottom-up approach the individual base
elements of the system are first specified in great detail. These elements are then linked together to
form larger subsystems, which then in turn are linked, sometimes in many levels, until a complete
top-level system is formed.
With this approach, there is more user and business awareness of the product. Benefits are also
realized in the early phases of development.

3. DATA DRIVEN DESIGN

Data driven design is a design model where the data itself controls the flow of the program and not
the program logic. It is a model where you control the flow by offering different data sets to the
program where the program logic is some generic form of flow or of state-changes.
4. MONOLITHIC DESIGN
The monolithic design philosophy is that the application is responsible not just for a particular task,
but can perform every step needed to complete a particular function
A monolithic application describes a software application which is designed without modularity.

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PROGRAM DESIGN TOOLS

1. Pseudocode
Pseudocode is an informal high-level description of the operating principle of a computer program
or other algorithm and is intended for human reading rather than machine reading. pseudo-code
represents instructions

independent of any programming language. Pseudocode is a way to describe the algorithm in order
to transform the algorithm into real source code.
For example, the Pseudocode for comparing three numbers might be written:

Begin
Get first number, A and second number, B
If A is greater than B
A is the Biggest
Otherwise
B is the Biggest
End

Pseudocode cannot be compiled nor executed, and there are no real formatting or syntax rules. It is
simply one step - an important one - in producing the final code

Pseudocode to compute the area of a rectangle:

Begin
Get the length, l, and width, w
Multiply l by w to get the area
Display the area
End

2. Algorithm
This refers to an established, computational procedure for solving a problem in a finite number of
steps. Algorithms can be expressed in any language including natural languages such as English.
Algorithm means a method/ logic for solving a given problem.

Pseudocode is successively refined to get the step by step detailed algorithm that is very close to a
computer language.

An algorithm to find the larger of two numbers entered by user.

Step 1:
Start
Step 2:
Declare variables a and b.
Step 3:
Input a and b.
Step 4:
If a>b
Display a is the largest number.
Else
Display b is the largest number.
End if
Step 5: Stop

Exercise 1

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A student designed a program to accept the age of an employee and then calculate the employee’s
retirement year. If the user keys in a value below 0, the program should prompt the user for a valid
input. However, if the value keyed in is greater than 65, the system should display the message that
the employee should be retired already. Draw a flow chart to represent the logic above.
Required:
a. Write out the pseudo-code and the algorithm for the program
b. Write the program in both C and Pascal
Algorithm
Step 1:
Start
Step 2:
Declare variables retirement_year,emp_age,retirement_age,current_year
Step 3:
Read variables emp_age,retirement_age,current_year
Step 4:
if emp_age <= 0
Print “Key in a valid input”
Else if emp-age > 65
Print “Should be retired already”
Else
retirement_year=(retirement_age-employee_age)+ current_year
End if
Step 5: Display retirement_year
Step 5: Stop

Exercise 2
A program was designed to determine a student’s mean score as the average of two marks: eng and
maths. If the mean score is greater than 50, the student is given a pass and a fail if otherwise. Write
the pseudocode and algorithm for the program.

3. Flowchart
A flowchart is a type of diagram that represents an algorithm or process, showing the steps as
boxes of various kinds, and their order by connecting them with arrows. This diagrammatic
representation illustrates a solution to a given problem. Flowcharts are used in designing and
documenting complex processes or programs. Like other types of diagrams, they help to visualize
what is going on and thereby help the viewer to understand a process, and perhaps also find
flaws/errors, bottlenecks, and other less-obvious features within it.

SYMBOLS USED IN FLOWCHART

Different symbols are used for different states in flowcharts. The table below describes all the
symbols that are used in making flowchart
Symbol Purpose Description
Used to indicate the flow of logic by connecting
Flow line
symbols.

Terminal(Stop/Start) Used to represent start and end of flowchart.

Input/Output Used for input and output operation.

Used for arithmetic operations and data-

Processing
manipulations.
Used to represent the operation in which there are
Decision
two alternatives, true and false.

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Symbol Purpose Description

On-page Connector Used to join different flow lines

Used to connect flowchart portion on different

Off-page Connector
pages.
Used to add comments or clarification
Comment

Predefined Used to represent a group of statements performing

Process/Function one processing task.

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Draw flowchart to find the largest among three different numbers entered by user.

Or a flowchart to ask for a number from user and multiply with another number and print result as
follows:

Examples of flowcharts include Activity diagram, Data flow diagram and sequence diagrams etc.

Exercise 1
Draw a flow chart to represent the program described in exercise 2 above.

STRUCTURE CHARTS (module chart, hierarchy chart)

A structure chart is a top-down modular design tool, constructed of squares representing the
different modules in the system, and lines that connect them. A structure chart is a graphic
depiction of the decomposition of a program. It is a tool to aid in software design but is
particularly helpful on large programs.

A structure chart illustrates the division of a program into sub-programss and shows the
hierarchical relationships among the parts/functions. A classic "organization chart" for a
company is an example of a structure chart.

The top of the chart is a box representing the entire problem, the bottom of the chart shows a
number of boxes representing the less complicated sub-problems (e.g. Phone Bill System).

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A structure chart is NOT a flowchart. It has nothing to do with the logical sequence of tasks. It does
NOT show the order in which tasks are performed. It does NOT illustrate an algorithm.

Each block represents some function in the system, and thus should contain a verb phrase, e.g.
"Print report."

EXERCISE
Draw a structure chart for an electricity billing system.

Decision Tables
Decision tables provide a handy and compact way to represent complex business logic. A
decision table is an excellent tool to use in both testing and requirements
management.
Decision tables are used to model complicated logic. They can make it easy to
see that all possible combinations of conditions have been considered and
when conditions are missed, it is easy to see this.
In a decision table, business logic is divided into conditions, actions (decisions) and rules for
representing the various components that form the business logic. Each column in the table
corresponds to a rule in the business logic that describes the unique
combination of circumstances that will result in the actions.

There is one row for each condition and each vertical column for each combination of values and
resulting actions. Conditions are the factors to consider when making certain business decisions
Actions are the possible actions to take when a condition is met or a certain business decision is
made.
Each vertical column of a decision table is called a rule and each rule symbolizes the combinations
of condition(s) and action(s) that form the business decision. If constructed properly, the decision
table has a rule to cover every combination. Rules are made of selectors symbolized by Y (Yes), N
(No) and – (for redundant or irrelevant rules).

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COMPLETING THE TABLE

 If the number of conditions identified is n, then the number of possible rules is found by
applying the formula; Number of rules = 2n where n is the number of conditions.
 Entries opposite the lowest condition should be completed first using Y an N alternately until all
the vertical rules have been dealt with.
 Entries opposite the second lowest condition should be completed using Y an N in pairs until all
the vertical rules have been dealt with.
 Entries for the next condition are then completed next using Ys and Ns in fours.
 This process continues using twice the number of Ys and Ns each time until all conditions are
completed.
 Once entered, the rules are read vertically in each column and an X entered at the action that
appropriately completes that rule. Actions which are mutually exclusive can be combined on a
single line.

EXAMPLE
A student who passes the examinations and completes the coursework and project satisfactorily is
awarded a pass. If the course work and the project are unsatisfactory, the student is asked to
resubmit the unsatisfactory work, as long as the exams have been passed. A student who fails the
examinations is deemed to have failed the whole course unless both the course work and the project
are satisfactory, in which case the student is allowed to re-sit the examination.

SOLUTION

Before an overall pass

Rules
Exams Passed? Y Y Y Y N N N N
Conditions
Completed Course work? Y Y N N Y Y N N
Completed Project? Y N Y N Y N Y N
Pass X
Re-sit Exam X
Actions Resubmit Coursework X X
Resubmit Project X X
Failed X X X

ASSIGNMENT 1
Candidates are accepted for permanent employment if they pass an interview and their
qualifications and referees are satisfactory. If they pass the interview and the qualifications or
referees (but not both) are unsatisfactory, a job for a probationary period is offered. In all other
circumstances, the candidate’s application is rejected.

Assignment 2
 Design the business logic (at least three conditions) that is applicable when a customer is
applying for a bank loan.
 Draw a decision table to represent the business logic.

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CHAPTER 3

3. PROGRAM STRUCTURE
STRUCTURE OF A C PROGRAM
The C programming language was designed by Dennis Ritchie as a systems programming
language for Unix.

A C program basically has the following structure:

 Preprocessor Commands/directive
 Functions
 Variable declarations
 Statements & Expressions
 Comments

Example:
#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
/* My first program*/
printf("Hello, World! \n");

return 0;
}
Int max( )
{

}
Preprocessor Commands
These commands tell the compiler to do preprocessing before doing actual compilation. Like
#include <stdio.h> is a preprocessor command which tells a C compiler to include stdio.h file
before going to actual compilation. The standard input and output header file (stdio.h) allows the
program to interact with the screen, keyboard and file system of the computer.

NB/ Preprocessor directives are not actually part of the C language, but rather instructions from you
to the compiler.

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Functions
These are main building blocks of any C Program. Every C Program will have one or more
functions and there is one mandatory function which is called main() function. When this function
is prefixed with keyword int, it means this function returns an integer value when it exits. This
integer value is retuned using return statement.
The C Programming language provides a set of built-in functions. In the above example printf() is a
C built-in function which is used to print anything on the screen.
A function is a group of statements that together perform a task. A C program can be divide up
into separate functions but logically the division usually is so each function performs a specific task.
A function declaration tells the compiler about a function's name, return type, and parameters. A
function definition provides the actual body of the function.
The general form of a function definition in C programming language is as follows:

return_type function_name( parameter list )

{
body of the function/Function definition
}

Variable Declarations
In C, all variables must be declared before they are used. Thus, C is a strongly typed programming
language. Variable declaration ensures that appropriate memory space is reserved for the variables.
Variables are used to hold numbers, strings and complex data for manipulation e.g.
Int x;
Int num; int z;

Statements & Expressions

Expressions combine variables and constants to create new values e.g.
x + y;

Statements in C are expressions, assignments, function calls, or control flow statements which
make up C programs.
An assignment statement uses the assignment operator “=” to give a variable on the operator’s left
side the value to the operator’s right or the result of an expression on the right.
z = x + y;

Comments
These are non-executable program statements meant to enhance program readability and allow
easier program maintenance- they document the program. They are ignored by the compiler.
These are used to give additional useful information inside a C Program. All the comments will be
put inside /*...*/ or // for single line comments as given in the example above. A comment can span
through multiple lines.
/* Author: Mzee Moja */

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or
/*
* Author: Mzee Moja
* Purpose: To show a comment that spans multiple lines.
* Language: C
*/

or
Fruit = apples + oranges; // get the total fruit

Escape Sequences
Escape sequences (also called back slash codes) are character combinations that begin with
a backslash symbol used to format output and represent difficult-to-type characters.

They include:
\a Alert/bell
\b Backspace
\n New line
\v Vertical tab
\t Horizontal tab
\\ Back slash
\” Double quote
\0 Null

Note the following

 C is a case sensitive programming language. It means in C printf and Printf will have
different meanings.
 End of each C statement must be marked with a semicolon.
 Multiple statements can be on the same line.
 Any combination of spaces, tabs or newlines is called a white space. C is a free-form
language as the C compiler chooses to ignore whitespaces. Whitespaces are allowed in any
format to improve readability of the code. Whitespace is the term used in C to describe
blank lines, tabs, newline characters and comments.
Statements in C can be written from any position. Unlike in some languages like COBOL,
where each field/section needs to be started at a prefefined position.

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 Statements can continue over multiple lines.

 A C identifier is a name used to identify a variable, function, or any other user-defined item.
An identifier starts with a letter A to Z or a to z or an underscore _ followed by zero or more
letters, underscores, and digits (0 to 9). C does not allow punctuation characters such as @,
$, and % within identifiers.
 A keyword is a reserved word in C. Reserved words may not be used as constants or
variables or any other identifier names
SAMPLE PROGRAM
//First program
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int num; // Declaration

num =1; // Assignment statement

printf(" My favorite number is %d because", num);
printf(" it is first.\n");
return 0;
}
The program will output (print on screen) the statement “My favorite number is 1 because it is
first”.
The %d instructs the computer where and in what form to print the value. %d is a type specifier
used to specify the output format for integer numbers.

List of Keywords (Reserved Words)

The following list shows the reserved words in C. These reserved words may not be used as
constants or variables or any other identifier names.

auto else Long switch

break enum register typedef
case extern return union
char float short unsigned
const for signed void
continue goto sizeof volatile
default if static while
do int struct _packed
double

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SOURCE CODE FILES

When you write a program in C language, your instructions form the source code/file. C files have
an extension .c. The part of the name after the period is called the extension.

Object Code, Executable Code and Libraries

An executable file is a file containing ready to run machine code. C accomplishes this in two
steps.
 Compiling –The compiler converts the source code to produce the intermediate object code.
 The linker combines the intermediate code with other code to produce the executable file.
You can compile individual modules and then combine modules later.
Linking is the process where the object code, the start up code and the code for library
routines used in the program (all in machine language) are combined into a single file- the
executable file.
The startup code is a set of execution startup routines linked into a C program that performs
any initialization work required before calling the program's main function.

NB/
 An interpreter unlike a compiler is a computer program that directly executes, i.e. performs,
instructions written in a programming language, without previously compiling them into a
machine language program.

 If the compiled program can run on a computer whose CPU or operating system is different
from the one on which the compiler runs, the compiler is known as a cross-compiler.

 A program that translates from a low level language to a higher level one is a decompiler.

 A program that translates between high-level languages is usually called a source-to-source

compiler or transpiler.
STEP BY STEP CREATION AND EXECUTION OF A C
PROGRAM
Step1: Creating and editing program
i. Write C program using a text editor
ii. Save program using .c extension i.e. the Source Code
Step 2: Compiling
i. The source code is converted into machine equivalent instruction
ii. Compiler checks for errors. If the source code is error free, the source code is converted to
object code. If there are errors, the compiler will report them.
Step 3: Linking Libraries
i. Program is linked with included header files. This is done by the linker.
ii. Other libraries are added to the program to generate the executable program.

Library Functions

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There is a minimal set of library functions that should be supplied by all C compilers, which your
program may use. This collection of functions is called the C standard library. The standard
library contains functions to perform disk I/O (input/ output), string manipulations, mathematics
and much more. When your program is compiled, the code for library functions is automatically
added to your program. One of the most common library functions is called printf() which is a
general purpose output function. The quoted string between the parenthesis of the printf() function
is called an argument.

Printf(“This is a C program\n”)

The \n at the end of the text is an escape sequence tells the program to print a new line as part of
the output.

C DATA TYPES
In the C programming language, data types refer to a system used for declaring variables or
functions of different types. A data type is, therefore, a data storage format that can contain a
specific type or range of values. The type of a variable determines how much space it occupies in
storage and how the bit pattern stored is interpreted.

The basic data types in C are as follows:

Type Description
Char Character data and is used to hold a single character. A character can be a letter,
number, space, punctuation mark, or symbol - 1 byte long
Int A signed whole number in the range -32,768 to 32,767 - 2 bytes long
Float A real number (that is, a number that can contain a fractional part) – 4 bytes
Double A double-precision floating point value. Has more digits to the right of the
decimal point than a float – 8 bytes
Void Represents the absence of type. i.e. represents “no data”

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USING C’S DATA TYPE MODIFIERS

The five basic types (int, float, char,double and void) can be modified to your specific need using
the following specifiers.
 Signed
Signed Data Modifier implies that the data type variable can store positive values as well as
negative values.
The use of the modifier with integers is redundant because the default integer declaration
assumes a signed number. The signed modifier is used with char to create a small signed
integer. Specified as signed, a char can hold numbers in the range -128 to 127.
 Unsigned
If we need to change the data type so that it can only store positive values, “unsigned” data
modifier is used.
This can be applied to char and int. When char is unsigned, it can hold positive numbers in
the range 0 to 255.

 Long
Sometimes while coding a program, we need to increase the Storage Capacity of a variable
so that it can store values higher than its maximum limit which is there as default.
This can be applied to both int and double. When applied to int, it doubles its length, in
bits, of the base type that it modifies. For example, an integer is usually 16 bits long.
Therefore a long int is 32 bits in length. When long is applied to a double, it roughly
doubles the precision.
 Short
A “short” type modifier does just the opposite of “long”. If one is not expecting to see high
range values in a program.
For example, if we need to store the “age” of a student in a variable, we will make use of
this type qualifier as we are aware that this value is not going to be very high

The type modifier precedes the type name. For example this declares a long integer.

short int age;

Integer Types
Following table gives you details about standard integer types with its storage sizes and value
ranges:
Type Storage size Value range
Char 1 byte -128 to 127 or 0 to 255
unsigned char 1 byte 0 to 255
signed char 1 byte -128 to 127
Int (16 or 32 2 or 4 bytes -32,768 to 32,767 or -2147483648 to
bit compiler) 2147483647.
unsigned int 2 or 4 bytes 0 to 65,535 or 0 to 4,294,967,295
Short int 2 bytes -32,768 to 32,767
unsigned 2 bytes 0 to 65,535
short
Long int 4 bytes -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647
unsigned long 4 bytes 0 to 4,294,967,295

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Floating-Point Types
Following table gives you details about standard floating-point types with storage sizes and value
ranges and their precision:
Type Storage size Value range Precision
float 4 byte 1.2E-38 to 3.4E+38 6 decimal places
double 8 byte 2.3E-308 to 1.7E+308 15 decimal places
long double 10 byte 3.4E-4932 to 1.1E+4932 19 decimal places

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The void Type

The void type specifies that no value is available. It is used in three kinds of situations:
Types and Description
1 Function returns as void. There are various functions in C which do not return
value or you can say they return void. A function with no return value has the
return type as void. For example, void exit (int status);
2 Function arguments as void. There are various functions in C which do not
accept any parameter. A function with no parameter can accept as a void. For
example, int rand(void);
3 Pointers to void A pointer of type void * represents the address of an object,
but not its type. For example, a memory allocation function void
*malloc( size_t size ); returns a pointer to void which can be casted to any
data type.

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VARIABLES
A variable is a memory location whose value can change during program execution. In C a variable
must be declared before it can be used i.e. C is strongly typed.

Variable Declaration
Declaring a variable tells the compiler to reserve space in memory for that particular variable. A
variable definition specifies a data type and the variable name and contains a list of one or more
variables of that type .Variables can be declared at the start of any block of code. A declaration
begins with the type, followed by the name of one or more variables. For example,
Int high, low;
int i, j, k;
char c, ch;
float f, salary;

Variables can be initialized when they are declared. This is done by adding an equals sign and the
required value after the declaration.

Int high = 250; /*Maximum Temperature*/

Int low = -40; /*Minimum Temperature*/
Int results[20]; /* series of temperature readings*/

TYPES OF VARIABLES
The Programming language C has two main variable types
 Local Variables
 Global Variables

Local Variables

A local variable is a variable that is declared inside a function.

 Local variables scope is confined within the block or function where it is defined. Local
variables must always be defined at the top of a block.

 When execution of the block/module starts the variable is available, and when the block
ends the variable 'dies'.

Global Variables

Global variable is defined at the top of the program file and it can be visible and modified by any
function that may reference it. Global variables are declared outside all functions.

Sample Program.

#include <stdio.h>
int area; //global variable

int main ()
{
int a, b; //local variable

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/* actual initialization */
a = 10;
b = 20;

printf("\t Side a is %d cm and side b is %d cm long\n",a,b);

area = a*b;
printf("\t The area of your rectangle is : %d \n", area);

return 0;
}

Variable Names
Every variable has a name and a value. The name identifies the variable and the value stores data.
Every variable name in C must start with a letter; the rest of the name can consist of letters,
numbers and underscore characters. C is case sensitive i.e. it recognizes upper and lower case
characters as being different. You cannot use any of C’s keywords like main, while, switch etc as
variable names,

Examples of legal variable names:

X result outfile x1 out_file etc
It is conventional in C not to use capital letters in variable names. These are used for names of
constants.

Declaration vs Definition
A declaration provides basic attributes of a symbol: its type and its name. A definition provides all
of the details of that symbol--if it's a function, what it does; if it's a class, what fields and methods it
has; if it's a variable, where that variable is stored. Often, the compiler only needs to have a
declaration for something in order to compile a file into an object file, expecting that the linker can
find the definition from another file. If no source file ever defines a symbol, but it is declared, you
will get errors at link time complaining about undefined symbols. In the following short code, the
definition of variable x means that the storage for the variable is that it is a global variable.

int x;
int main()
{
x = 3;
}

Inputting Numbers From The Keyboard Using Scanf()

Variables can also be initialized during program execution (run time). The scanf() function is used
to read values from the keyboard. For example, to read an integer value use the following general
form:
scanf(“%d”, &var_name)
As in
scanf(“%d”, &num)

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The %d is a format specifier which tells the compiler that the second argument will be receiving an
integer value.
The & preceding the variable name means “address of”. The function allows the function to place a
value into one of its arguments.
The table below shows format specifiers or codes used in the scanf() function and their meaning.

%c Read a single character

%d Read an integer
%f Read a floating point number
%lf Read a double
%s Read a string
%u Read a an unsigned integer

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When used in a printf() function, a type specifier informs the function that a different type item is
being displayed.

SAMPLE PROGRAM USING SCANF()

#include <stdio.h>
int area; //global variable

int main ()
{
int a, b; //local variables

/* actual initialization */
printf("Enter the value of side a: ");
scanf("%d", &a);

printf("Enter the value of side b: ");

scanf("%d", &b);
printf("\n");
printf("\t You have entered %d for side a and %d for side b\n", a, b);

area = a*b;
printf("\t The area of your rectangle is : %d \n", area);

return 0;
}

CONSTANTS
C allows you to declare constants. When you declare a constant it is a bit like a variable declaration
except the value cannot be changed during program execution.
The const keyword is used to declare a constant, as shown below:
int const A = 1;
const int A = 5;
const char name= ‘c’;

These fixed values are also called literals.

Constants can be of any of the basic data types like an integer constant, a floating constant, a
character constant, or a string literal. There are also enumeration constants as well.
The constants are treated just like regular variables except that their values cannot be modified after
their definition.

TYPE CASTING
Type casting is a way to convert a variable from one data type to another. For example, if you want
to store a long value into a simple integer then you can type cast long to int. You can convert values
from one type to another explicitly using the cast operator as follows:

(type_name) expression

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Consider the following example where the cast operator causes the division of one integer variable
by another to be performed as a floating-point operation:

#include <stdio.h>

main()
{
int sum = 17, count = 5;
double mean;

mean = (double) sum / count;

printf("Value of mean is %lf \n", mean );

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:

Value of mean: 3.400000

It should be noted here that the cast operator has precedence over division, so the value of sum is
first converted to type double and finally it gets divided by count yielding a double value.

Type conversions can be implicit which is performed by the compiler automatically, or it can be
specified explicitly through the use of the cast operator. It is considered good programming
practice to use the cast operator whenever type conversions are necessary.

C PROGRAMMING OPERATORS
Operator is the symbol which operates on a value or a variable (operand). For example: + is an
operator to perform addition.

C programming language has a wide range of operators to perform various operations. For better
understanding of operators, these operators can be classified as:

OPERATORS IN C PROGRAMMING

1. Arithmetic Operators
2. Increment and Decrement Operators
3. Assignment Operators
4. Relational Operators
5. Logical Operators
6. Conditional Operators
7. Bitwise Operators
8. Special Operators

ARITHMETIC OPERATORS
Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20 then
Operator Description Example
+ Adds two operands A + B will give 30
- Subtracts second operand from the first A - B will give -10
* Multiplies both operands A * B will give 200

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/ Divides numerator by de-numerator B / A will give 2

% Modulus Operator - remainder of after an B % A will give 0
integer division

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Note: % operator can only be used with integers.

INCREMENT AND DECREMENT OPERATORS – Unary

Operators
In C, ++ and -- are called increment and decrement operators respectively. Both of these operators
are unary operators, i.e, used on single operand. ++ adds 1 to operand and -- subtracts 1 to
operand respectively. For example:

Let a=5
a++; //a becomes 6
a--; //a becomes 5
++a; //a becomes 6
--a; //a becomes 5

Difference between ++ and -- operator as postfix and prefix

When i++ is used as prefix(like: ++var), ++var will increment the value of var and then return it
but, if ++ is used as postfix(like: var++), operator will return the value of operand first and then
increment it. This can be demonstrated by an example:

#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int c=2;
printf("%d\n",c++); /*this statement displays 2 then,
only c incremented by 1 to 3.*/
printf("%d",++c); /*this statement increments 1 to
c then, only c is displayed.*/
return 0;
}

Output
20
4

ASSIGNMENT OPERATORS – Binary Operators

The most common assignment operator is =. This operator assigns the value in the right side to the
left side. For example:

var=5 //5 is assigned to var

a=c; //value of c is assigned to a
5=c; // Error! 5 is a constant.
Operator Example Same as
= a=b a=b
+= a+=b a=a+b
-= a-=b a=a-b
*= a*=b a=a*b
/= a/=b a=a/b

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Operator Example Same as

%= a%=b a=a%b

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NB/ += means Add and Assign etc.

RELATIONAL OPERATORS - Binary Operators

Relational operators check relationship between two operands. If the relation is true, it returns value
1 and if the relation is false, it returns value 0. For example:

a>b

Here, > is a relational operator. If a is greater than b, a>b returns 1 if not then, it returns 0.

Relational operators are used in decision making and loops in C programming.

Operator Meaning of Operator Example

== Equal to 5= =3 returns false (0)
> Greater than 5>3 returns true (1)
< Less than 5<3 returns false (0)
!= Not equal to 5!=3 returns true(1)
>= Greater than or equal to 5>=3 returns true (1)
<= Less than or equal to 5<=3 return false (0)

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LOGICAL OPERATORS - Binary Operators

Logical operators are used to combine expressions containing relational operators. In C, there
are 3 logical operators:

Meaning of
Operator Example
Operator
If c=5 and d=2 then,((c= =5) && (d>5))
&& Logical AND
returns false.
If c=5 and d=2 then, ((c= =5) || (d>5)) returns
|| Logical OR
true.
! Logical NOT If c=5 then, !(c= =5) returns false.

The following table shows the result of operator && evaluating the expression a&&b:

&& OPERATOR (and)

a b a && b
true true true
true false false
false true false
false false false

The operator || corresponds to the Boolean logical operation OR, which yields true if either of its
operands is true, thus being false only when both operands are false. Here are the possible results
of a || b:

|| OPERATOR (or)
a b a || b
true true true
true false true
false true true
false false false

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Explanation

For expression, ((c==5) && (d>5)) to be true, both c==5 and d>5 should be true but, (d>5) is false
in the given example. So, the expression is false. For expression ((c==5) || (d>5)) to be true,
either the expression should be true.

Since, (c==5) is true. So, the expression is true. Since, expression (c==5) is true, !(c==5) is false.

CONDITIONAL OPERATOR – Ternary Operators

Conditional operator takes three operands and consists of two symbols ? and : . Conditional
operators are used for decision making in C. For example:

d=(c>0)?10:-10;

If c is greater than 0, value of c will be 10 but, if c is less than 0, value of c will be -10.

BITWISE OPERATORS
Bitwise operators work on bits and performs bit-by-bit operation.

PRECEDENCE OF OPERATORS
If more than one operator is involved in an expression then, C language has a predefined rule of
priority of operators. This rule of priority of operators is called operator precedence.

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Here, operators with the highest precedence appear at the top of the table, those with the lowest
appear at the bottom. Within an expression, higher precedence operators will be evaluated first.

Category Operator Associativity

Postfix () [ ] ++ - - Left to right

Multiplicative */% Left to right

Additive +- Left to right
Relational < <= > >= Left to right
Equality = = != Left to right
Bitwise AND & Left to right
Bitwise XOR ^ Left to right
Bitwise OR | Left to right
Logical AND && Left to right
Logical OR || Left to right
Conditional ?: Right to left
Assignment = += -= *= /= %=>>= <<= &= ^= |= Right to left
Comma , Left to right

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ASSOCIATIVITY OF OPERATORS
Associativity indicates in which order two operators of same precedence (priority) executes. Let us
suppose an expression:
a= =b!=c

Here, operators == and != have the same precedence. The associativity of both == and != is left to
right, i.e., the expression in left is executed first and execution take pale towards right. Thus, a==b!
=c equivalent to :
(a= =b)!=c
Operators may be left-associative (meaning the operations are grouped from the left), right-
associative (meaning the operations are grouped from the right)

Operator Name Associativity Operators

Multiplicative left to right * / %

Additive left to right + -

Bitwise Shift left to right << >>

Relational left to right < > <= >=

Equality left to right == !=

Bitwise AND left to right &

Bitwise Exclusive OR left to right ^

Bitwise Inclusive OR left to right |

Logical AND left to right &&

Logical OR left to right ||

Conditional right to left ?:

Assignment right to left = += -= *= /= <<= >>= %= &= ^= |=

Comma left to right ,

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MORE SAMPLE PROGRAMS

1. Program to return the square and square root of a number.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>

int main ()
{
int num, sqr; double squarert;

printf("Key in a number to get its square root: ");

scanf("%d",&num);

squarert=sqrt(num);
sqr=num*num;

printf("Square root of \"%d\" is \"%lf\"\n",num,squarert);

printf("The square of the number is %d\n",sqr);

return(0);
}

2. Program to return a number raised to the power of another number.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<math.h>

void main()
{
int num, power;
double result;

printf("Key a number : ");

scanf("%d",&num);
printf("Key the power : ");
scanf("%d",&power);

result=pow(num,power);
printf("%d raised to power %d is %lf",num,power,result);
}

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Chapter 4

CONTROL STRUCTURES
Definition
Cont
rols
truc
tur
esr
epr
ese
ntt
hef
ormsb
ywhi
chs
tat
eme
ntsi
napr
ogr
ama
ree
xec
ute
d.Fl
owofc
ont
rol
r
efe
rst
otheo
rde
rinwhi
cht
hei
ndi
vidua
lst
ate
ment
s,i
nst
ruc
ti
onsorf
unc
ti
onc
all
sofapr
ogr
ama
re
e
xec
ute
dore
val
uat
ed.

IMPORTANCE OF CONTROL STRUCTURES

Ge
ner
all
y,apr
ogr
ams
houl
dex
ecut
ethes
tat
eme
ntsoneb
yoneunt
ilt
hede
fine
dend
.Thi
stypeofa
pr
ogr
ams
truc
tur
eisc
all
eds
eque
nti
als
truc
tur
e.Thef
unc
ti
ona
li
tyoft
hist
ypeofpr
ogr
ami
sli
mit
ed
s
inc
eitflo
wsi
nas
ingl
edi
rec
ti
on.Ho
wev
er,a
llhi
gh-
lev
elpr
ogr
ammi
ngl
angua
gese
nabl
ethepr
ogr
amme
r
t
ocha
nget
heflo
wofpr
ogr
ame
xec
uti
on.Thi
sisdoneb
ytheus
eofc
ont
rols
truc
tur
eswho
sema
inbe
nefit
s
a
ret
oena
bledecision making and repetition as well as giving the power to do far more complex
processing and provide flexibility with logic. The sophisticated logic is necessary for a program to solve
complex problems.

Theki
ndsofc
ont
rolflo
wst
ate
ment
ssuppor
tedb
ydi
ffe
rentl
angua
gesv
ary
,butc
anbec
ate
gor
ize
dby
t
hei
reffe
ct:
 c
ont
inua
ti
ona
tadi
ffe
rents
tat
eme
nti
.e
.un
condi
ti
ona
ljumpe
.g.Go
Tos
tat
eme
nts
 e
xec
uti
ngas
etofs
tat
eme
ntsonl
yifs
omec
ondi
ti
oni
sme
ti.
e.c
hoi
ce
 e
xec
uti
ngas
etofs
tat
eme
ntsz
eroormor
eti
mes
,unt
ils
omec
ondi
ti
oni
sme
ti.
e.l
oop
 e
xec
uti
ngas
etofdi
st
ants
tat
eme
nts
,af
terwhi
cht
heflo
wofc
ont
rolus
ual
lyr
etur
nse
.g.
s
ubr
out
ine
s/f
unc
ti
ons

TYPES OF CONTROL STRUCTURES

There are three types in C:
1. Sequence structures
Program statements are executed in the sequence in which they appear in the program.

2. Selection structures/Decision Structures

Statement block is executed only if some condition is met. These structures include if, if/else, and
switch. Selection structures are extensively used in programming because they allow the program to
decide an action based upon user's input or other processes for instance in password checking.

3. Repetition/Iterative/looping structures
This is where a group of statements in a program may have to be executed repeatedly until some
condition is satisfied. These include while, do/while and for

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SELECTION STRUCTURES
(a)THE IF SELECTION STRUCTURE
– Used to choose among alternative courses of action i.e. the if statement provides a junction at which
the program has to select which path to follow. The if selection performs an action only if the
condition is true,

General form
If (expression)
statement

Pseudocode:

If student’s marks is greater than or equal to 600

Print “Passed”

As in

if (marks>=600)
printf(“Passed”);

If condition is true
– Print statement executed and program goes on to next statement
– If false, print statement is ignored and the program goes onto the next statement
NB/ Indenting makes programs easier to read

t
rue
gr
ade>=60 pr
int“Pas
sed”

f
als
e

Flow chart for the if selection structure

NB/ The statement in the if structure can be a single statement or a block (Compound statement).
If it’s a block of statements, it must be marked off by braces.

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if (expression)
{
Block of statements
}

As in

If (salary>5000)
{
VAT = salary * 0.16;
printf(“Tax charged is %f”, VAT);
}

(b) THE IF/ELSE

While if only performs an action if the condition is true, if/else specifies an action to be performed both
when the condition is true and when it is false. E.g.

Pseudocode:
If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print “Passed”
else
Print “Failed”

false true
grade >= 60

print “Failed” print “Passed”

Flow chart for the if/else selection structure

Example
if (x >=100)
{
printf(“Let us increment x:\n”);
x++;
}

else

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printf(“x < 0 \n);

(c) THE IF...ELSE IF...ELSE STATEMENT

– Test for multiple cases/conditions.

– Once a condition is met, the other statements are skipped
– Deep indentation usually not used in practice

Pseudocode for an if..else if..else structure

If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 90
Print “A”
Else If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 80
Print “B”
else If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 70
Print “C”
else If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print “D”
else
Print “F”

Example

#include <stdio.h>

main()
{
int marks;
printf("Please enter your MARKS:");
scanf("%d", &marks);

if (marks>=90 && marks <=100)

printf("Your grade is A\n");

else if (marks>=80 && marks <=89)

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printf("Your grade is B\n");

else if (marks>=70 && marks <=79)

printf("Your grade is C\n");

else if (marks>=60 && marks <=69)

printf("Your grade is D\n");
else if (marks >100)
printf("Marks out of range\n");
else
printf("Your grade is F\n");
}

(d) NESTED IF STATEMENTS

One if or else if statement can be used inside another if or else if statement(s).

Syntax
The syntax for a nested if statement is as follows:

if (boolean_expression 1)
{
/* Executes when the boolean expression 1 is true */
if(boolean_expression 2)
{
/* Executes when the boolean expression 2 is true */
}
}

You can nest else if...else in the similar way as you have nested if statement.

Example

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#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{
/* local variable definition */
int a = 100;
int b = 200;
/* check the boolean condition */
if( a = = 100 )
{
/* if condition is true then check the following */
if( b = = 200 )
{
/* if condition is true then print the following */
printf("Value of a is 100 and b is 200\n" );
}
}
return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
Value of a is 100 and b is 200
Exact value of a is : 100
Exact value of b is : 200

(e) SWITCH STATEMENT

A switch statement allows a variable to be tested for equality against a list of values. Each value is called
a case, and the variable being switched on is checked for each switch case.

Syntax
The syntax for a switch statement in C programming language is as follows:

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switch(expression)
{
case constant-expression:
statement(s);
break;
case constant-expression :
statement(s);
break;
/* you can have any number of case statements */
default :
statement(s);
}

The following rules apply to a switch statement:

1) You can have any number of case statements within a switch. Each case is followed by the value
to be compared to and a colon.
2) The constant-expression for a case must be the same data type as the variable in the switch
3) When the variable being switched on is equal to a case, the statements following that case will
execute until a break statement is reached.
4) When a break statement is reached, the switch terminates, and the flow of control jumps to the
next line following the switch statement.
5) Not every case needs to contain a break. If no break appears, the flow of control will fall through
to subsequent cases until a break is reached.
6) A switch statement can have an optional default case, which must appear at the end of the switch.
The default case can be used for performing a task when none of the cases is true. No break is
needed in the default case.

Sample Switch Statement

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{

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char grade;

printf("Enter your grade:");

scanf("%c", &grade);

switch (grade)
{
case 'A':
printf("Excellent!\n");
break;
case 'B':
printf("Very Good!\n");
break;
case 'C':
printf("Good!\n");
break;
case 'D':
printf("Work harder!\n");
break;
default:
printf("Fail!\n");
}
}

(f) NESTED SWITCH STATEMENTS

It is possible to have a switch as part of the statement sequence of an outer switch. Even
if the case constants of the inner and outer switch contain common values, no conflicts
will arise.
Syntax
The syntax for a nested switch statement is as follows:
switch(ch1) {
case 'A':
printf("This A is part of outer switch" );
switch(ch2) {

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case 'A':
printf("This A is part of inner switch" );
break;
case 'B':
}
break;
case 'B':
}
Example
#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{
/* local variable definition */
int a = 100;
int b = 200;
switch(a) {
case 100:
printf("This is part of outer switch\n", a );
switch(b) {
case 200:
printf("This is part of inner switch\n", a );
printf(“A is equals to %d and B is equals to %d”, a, b);
}
}
printf("Exact value of a is : %d\n", a );
printf("Exact value of b is : %d\n", b );
return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:

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This is part of outer switch

This is part of inner switch
A is equals to 100 and B is equals to 200
Exact value of a is : 100
Exact value of b is : 200

REPETITION/ITERATIVE/LOOP STRUCTURES
A loop statement allows the execution of a statement or a group of statements multiple times until a
condition either tests true or false. There are two types of loops: Pre-test and post-test loops.
In a pretest loop, a logical condition is checked before each repetition to determine if the loop should
terminate. These loops include:
– while loop
– for loop
Post-test loops check a logical condition after each repetition for termination. The do-while loop is a post-
test loop.

(a) WHILE LOOP IN C

A while loop statement repeatedly executes a target statement as long as a given condition is true.

The syntax of a while loop in C programming language is:

while(condition)
{
statement(s);
update expression
}

The statement(s) may be a single statement or a block of statements. The loop iterates while the condition
is true.
When the condition becomes false, program control passes to the line immediately following the loop.

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Example
#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{
/* local variable definition */
int a = 10; //loop index

/* while loop execution */

while( a < 20 )
{
printf("value of a: %d\n", a);
a++;
}
return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
value of a: 10
value of a: 11
value of a: 12
value of a: 13
value of a: 14
value of a: 15
value of a: 16
value of a: 17
value of a: 18
value of a: 19

(b) FOR LOOP IN C

A for loop is a repetition control structure that allows you to efficiently write a loop that needs to execute
a specific number of times.

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Syntax
The syntax of a for loop in C programming language is:

for ( initial expression; test expression/logical condition; update

expression )
{
statement(s);
}

Here is the flow of control in a for loop:

1. This step initializes any loop control variables. You are not required to put a statement here, as
long as a semicolon appears.

2. Next, the condition is evaluated. If it is true, the body of the loop is executed. If it is false, the
body of the loop does not execute and flow of control jumps to the next statement just after the for
loop.

3. After the body of the for loop executes, the flow of control jumps back up to the update
expression. This statement allows you to update any loop control variables. This statement can be
left blank, as long as a semicolon appears after the condition.
4. The condition is now evaluated again. If it is true, the loop executes and the process repeats itself.
After the condition becomes false, the for loop terminates.

Flow Diagram

Example
#include <stdio.h>
int main ()

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{
int a;//loop index
/* for loop execution */
for(a = 10; a < 20; a++)
{
printf("value of a: %d\n", a);
}
return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
value of a: 10
value of a: 11
value of a: 12
value of a: 13
value of a: 14
value of a: 15
value of a: 16
value of a: 17
value of a: 18
value of a: 19

(c) DO...WHILE LOOP IN C – Post Test Loop

Unlike for and while loops, which test the loop condition at the top of the loop, the do...while loop in C
programming language checks its condition at the bottom of the loop.
A do...while loop is similar to a while loop, except that a do...while loop is guaranteed to execute at least
one time. The structure, therefore loops until a condition tests false i.e. loop until.

Syntax
do
{
statement(s);
update expression;
}while( condition );

If the condition is true, the flow of control jumps back up to do, and the statement(s) in the loop execute
again. This process repeats until the given condition becomes false.

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Example
#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{
/* local variable definition */
int a = 10;
/* do loop execution */
do
{
printf("value of a: %d\n", a);
a = a + 1;
}while( a < 20 );
return

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
value of a: 10
value of a: 11
value of a: 12
value of a: 13
value of a: 14
value of a: 15
value of a: 16
value of a: 17
value of a: 18
value of a: 19

(d) NESTED LOOPS IN C

C programming language allows the use of one loop inside another loop. The following section shows a
few examples to illustrate the concept.
Syntax
The syntax for a nested for loop statement in C is as follows:

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for ( init; condition; increment )

{
for ( init; condition; increment )
{
statement(s);
}
statement(s);
}

The syntax for a nested while loop statement in C programming language is as follows:

while(condition)
{
while(condition)
{
statement(s);
}
statement(s);
}

The syntax for a nested do...while loop statement in C programming language is as follows:

do
{
statement(s);
do
{
statement(s);
}while( condition );

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}while( condition );

A final note on loop nesting is that you can put any type of loop inside of any other type of loop. For
example, a for loop can be inside a while loop or vice versa.

Example

#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
int n, c, k;

printf("Enter number of rows:");

scanf("%d",&n);

for ( c = 1 ; c <= n ; c++ )

{
for( k = 1 ; k <= c ; k++ )
{
printf("%d",k);
}
printf("\n");
}

return 0;
}

Result:
If the user interred 5 as the number of rows, the output would be:
1

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12
123
1234
12345

TERMINATING LOOPS
• Counter-controlled loops - a loop controlled by a counter variable, generally where the number of times
the loop will execute is known ahead of time especially in for loops.
• Event-controlled loops - loops where termination depends on an event rather than executing a fixed
number of times for example when a zero value is keyed in or search through data until an item is found.
Used mostly in while loops and do-while loops.
Using a Sentinel
• The value -999 is sometimes referred to as a sentinel value. The value serves as the “guardian” for the
termination of the loop. It is a good idea to make the sentinel a constant:
#define STOPNUMBER -999
while (number != STOPNUMBER) ...

LOOP CONTROL STATEMENTS

(a)BREAK STATEMENT IN C
The break statement has the following two uses:
1. When the break statement is encountered inside a loop, the loop is immediately terminated and
program control resumes at the next statement following the loop.
2. It can be used to terminate a case in the switch statement.
3. If you are using nested loops (i.e., one loop inside another loop), the break statement will stop the
execution of the innermost loop and start executing the next line of code after the block.
#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{
/* local variable definition */

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int a = 10;
/* do loop execution */
do
{
if( a = = 15)
{
/* skip the iteration */
break;
}
printf("value of a: %d\n", a);
a++;
}while( a < 20 );
return 0;
}

(b)CONTINUE STATEMENT IN C
The continue statement works somewhat like the break statement. Instead of forcing termination,
however, continue forces the next iteration of the loop to take place, skipping any code in between.
For the for loop, continue statement causes the conditional test and increment portions of the loop to
execute. For the while and do...while loops, continue statement causes the program control to pass to the
conditional tests.

Example
//program to demonstrate the working of continue statement in C programming
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int j;
for (j=0; j<=8; j++)
{
if (j==4)
{

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continue;
}

printf("%d ", j);

}
}

(c) THE COMMA OPERATOR

We now introduce the comma operator (,) which is used primarily in conjunction with the f o r statement.
This operator permits two different expressions to appear in situations where only one expression would
ordinarily be used.
For example, it is possible to write f o r ( expression 7a, expression 7b; expression 2; expression 3)
statement where expression la and expression 7b are the two expressions, separated by the comma
operator, where only one expression (expression I) would normally appear. These two expressions would
typically initialize two separate indices that would be used simultaneously within the f o r loop.
Similarly, a f o r statement might make use of the comma operator in the following manner.
f o r ( expression 7; expression 2; expression 3a, expression 36) statement
Here expression 3a and expression 3b, separated by the comma operator, appear in place of the usual
single expression. In this application the two separate expressions would typically be used to alter (e.g.,
increment or decrement) two different indices that are used simultaneously within the loop. For example,
one index might count forward while the other counts backward.
#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{
/* for loop execution */
int a,b,product=0,product2;

for(a = 10,b=10; a <=20;a++,b--)

{
product = 10 * a; product2 = 10 * b;

printf("10 * %d = %d ", a,product);

printf("10 * %d = %d\n", b,product2);
}
return 0;

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(d)GOTO STATEMENT IN C
A goto statement provides an unconditional jump from the goto to a labeled statement in the same
function.
NOTE: Use of goto statement is highly discouraged in any programming language because it makes
difficult to trace the control flow of a program, making the program hard to understand and hard to
modify. Any program that uses a goto can be rewritten so that it doesn't need the goto.

Syntax
The syntax for a goto statement in C is as follows:
goto label;
..
.

Example
#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{
/* for loop execution */
int a,userinput,sum=0;

for(a = 0; a < 5;a++)

{
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d",&userinput);
if (userinput <1)
goto jump;

sum+=userinput;
}

jump:
printf("The sum of the values is %d\n", sum);
return 0;

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(e)THE RETURN STATEMENT

The last of the loop control branching statements is the return statement. The return statement exits
from the current function, and control flow returns to where the function was invoked. The return
statement has two forms: one that returns a value, and one that doesn't. To return a value, simply put the
value (or an expression that calculates the value) after the return keyword.

return count;

The data type of the returned value must match the type of the method's declared return value. When a
function is declared void, use the form of return that doesn't return a value.

return;

THE INFINITE LOOP

A loop becomes infinite loop if a condition never becomes false. The for loop is traditionally used for
this purpose. Since none of the three expressions that form the for loop are required, you can make an
endless loop by leaving the conditional expression empty.

#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{
for( ; ; )
{
printf("This loop will run forever.\n");
}
return 0;
}

When the conditional expression is absent, it is assumed to be true. You may have an initialization and
increment expression, but C programmers more commonly use the for(;;) construct to signify an infinite
loop.
NOTE: You can terminate an infinite loop by pressing Ctrl + C keys.

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CHAPTER 5

SUBPROGRAMS IN C
A sub-program is a series of C statements that perform a specific task in a program. A
subprogram can be called within another procedure. Every C program has at least one
function, which is main(). A C program can be divided up into separate functions.

A function declaration tells the compiler about a function's name, return type, and
parameters. A function definition provides the actual body of the function.
The C standard library provides numerous built-in functions that your program can
call. For example, function strcat() to concatenate two strings, function memcpy() to
copy one memory location to another location and many more functions.
A function is known with various names like a method or a sub-routine or a
procedure, etc. However, a function returns a value while a procedure doesn’t: it just
executes commands.

A Subprogram is:
 a part of a program that performs one or more related tasks
 has its own name
 written as an independent part of the program

Benefits of using sub-procedures in programming are:

 Sub-programs help to break programs into several but logical sections. The
smaller programs/routines make programming, debugging and subsequent
maintenance easier.
 They also help in coding repeated operations such as frequently used
calculations, text etc thus making programming less repetitive and faster.
 Procedures used in one program can act as building blocks for other programs
with slight modifications i.e. code re-use. Examples include the library
functions such as printf() and scanf().
 Programmers working on large projects can divide the workload by making
different functions.

TYPES OF FUNCTIONS
Basically, there are two types of functions in C on basis of whether it is defined by
user or not.

 Library functions
 User defined functions

LIBRARY FUNCTION

Library functions are the in-built functions in C programming system. For example:

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printf()

- printf() is used for displaying output in C.

scanf()

- scanf() is used for taking input in C.

USER DEFINED FUNCTION

C allows programmers to define their own function according to their requirements

known as user defined functions.

How user-defined function works in C Programming?

#include <stdio.h>
void function_name(){
................
................
}
int main(){
...........
...........
function_name();
...........
...........
}

As mentioned earlier, every C program begins from main() and program starts
executing the codes inside main() function. When the control of program reaches to
function_name() inside main() function. The control of program jumps to void
function_name() and executes the codes inside it. When, all the codes inside that
user-defined function are executed, control of the program jumps to the statement just
after function_name() from where it is called. Analyze the figure below for
understanding the concept of function in C programming.

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Remember, the function name is an identifier and should be unique.

DEFINING A FUNCTION
The general form of a function definition in C programming language is as follows:

return_type function_name ( parameter list )

{
body of the function
}

A function definition in C programming language consists of a function header and a

function body. Here are all the parts of a function:

1. Return Type: A function may return a value. The return_type is the data type of
the value the function returns. Some functions perform the desired operations
without returning a value. In this case, the return_type is the keyword void.
2. Function Name: This is the actual name of the function. The function name and
the parameter list together constitute the function signature.
3. Parameters: A parameter is like a placeholder. When a function is invoked, you
pass a value to the formal parameter. This value is referred to as actual
parameter or argument. The parameter list refers to the type, order, and
number of the parameters of a function. Parameters are optional; that is, a function
may contain no parameters.
4. Function Body: The function body contains a collection of statements that define
what the function does.

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Example
Following is the source code for a function called max(). This function takes two
parameters num1 and num2 and returns the maximum between the two:

/* function returning the max between two numbers */

int max(int num1, int num2)

{
/* local variable declaration */
int result;
if (num1 > num2)
result = num1;
else
result = num2;
return result;
}
FUNCTION DECLARATIONS
A function declaration tells the compiler about a function name and how to call the
function. The actual body of the function can be defined separately.

A function declaration has the following parts:

return_type function_name( parameter list );

For the above defined function max(), following is the function declaration:

int max(int num1, int num2);

Parameter names are not important in function declaration; only their type is required,
so the following is also valid declaration:

int max(int, int);

Function declaration is required when you define a function in one source file and you
call that function in another file. In such case you should declare the function at the
top of the file calling the function.
CALLING A FUNCTION
While creating a C function, you give a definition of what the function has to do. To
use a function, you will have to call that function to perform the defined task.
When a program calls a function, program control is transferred to the called function.
A called function performs defined task, and when its return statement is executed or
when its function-ending closing brace is reached, it returns program control back to
the main program. Therefore, the calling program is suspended during execution of
the called subprogram.
To call a function, you simply need to pass the required parameters along with
function name, and if function returns a value, then you can store returned value. For
example:

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#include <stdio.h>
/* function declaration */
int max(int num1, int num2);
int main ()
{
/* local variable definition */
int a = 100;
int b = 200;
int ret;
/* calling a function to get max value */
ret = max(a, b);
printf( "Max value is : %d\n", ret );
return 0;
}

/* function returning the max between two numbers */

int max(int num1, int num2)
{
/* local variable declaration */
int result;
if (num1 > num2)
result = num1;
else
result = num2;

return result;
}

The formal parameters behave like other local variables inside the function and are
created upon entry into the function and destroyed upon exit.

While calling a function, there are two ways that arguments can be passed to a
function:

Pass Type Description

This method copies the actual value of an argument into the
formal parameter of the function. In this case, changes made
Pass by value to the parameter inside the function have no effect on the
argument.
This method copies the address of an argument into the
formal parameter. Inside the function, the address is used to
Pass by reference access the actual argument used in the call. This means that
changes made to the parameter affect the argument.

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By default, C uses pass by value to pass arguments. In general, this means that code
within a function cannot alter the arguments used to call the function and above
mentioned example while calling max() function used the same method.

FUNCTION ARGUMENTS
If a function is to use arguments, it must declare variables that accept the values of the
arguments. These variables are called the formal parameters of the function.
The formal parameters behave like other local variables inside the function and are
created upon entry into the function and destroyed upon exit.
A formal parameter is a dummy variable listed in the subprogram header and used in
the subprogram. An actual parameter represents a value used in the subprogram call
statement.

When max() is called, we pass it the arguments which the function uses as the values
of ret. This process is called parameter passing.
*****
Parameters refers to the list of variables in a method declaration. Arguments are the
actual values that are passed when the method is invoked. When you invoke a
method, the arguments used must match the declaration's parameters in type and
order.
TYPES OF VARIABLES
The Programming language C has two main variable types
 Local Variables
 Global Variables

LOCAL VARIABLES

A local variable is a variable that is declared inside a function.

 Local variables scope is confined within the block or function where it is

defined. Local variables must always be defined at the top of a block.

 When execution of the block starts the variable is available, and when the
block ends the variable 'dies'.

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GLOBAL VARIABLES
Global variable is defined at the top of the program file and it can be visible and
modified by any function that may reference it. Global variables are declared outside
all functions.

Sample Program.
#include <stdio.h>
int area; //global variable
int main ()
{
int a, b; //local variable

/* actual initialization */
a = 10;
b = 20;
printf ("\t Side a is %d cm and side b is %d cm long\n", a, b);
area = a*b;
printf ("\t The area of your rectangle is : %d \n", area);
return 0;
}

EXERCISES

1. Write a C program to add two integers. Define a function add to add integers
and display sum in main() function.

//main function
#include<stdio.h>
int add(int a, int b);
int main()
{
int a, b, sum;

printf ("Enter the first integer:");

scanf ("%d", &a);

printf("Enter the second integer:");

scanf("%d", &b);

sum = add(a,b);
printf("The sum of the two numbers is %d\n", result);

//start of second function

int add(int a,int b)
{
int result;
result = a+b;

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return result;
}

2. Write a C program– max()- to determine the greater of two integers. Call the
function from main() and supply it with two integers and then display the greater
of the two.

#include <stdio.h>

/* function declaration */
int max(int, int);

int main ()
{
/* local variable definition */
int a = 100;
int b = 200;
int ret;

/* calling a function to get max value */

ret = max(a, b);

printf( "Max value is : %d\n", ret );

return 0;
}

/* function returning the max between two numbers */

int max(int num1, int num2)
{
/* local variable declaration */
int result;

if (num1 > num2)

result = num1;
else
result = num2;

return result;
}

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CHAPTER 6

DATA STRUCTURES
These refer to groups of data elements that are organized in a single unit so that they can be
used more efficiently as compared to the simple variables such as integers and strings. Ordinary
variables store one value at a time while a data structure will store more than one value at a time in
a single variable name.

Data structures are important for grouping sets of similar data together and passing them as one.
For example, if you have a method that prints a set of data but you don't know when writing the
procedure how large that set is going to be, you could use an array to pass the data to that method
and loop through it.
The data structures available in C include arrays, Linked Lists, Stacks, Queues, Trees, Graphs,
Tables, Sets, Pointers and References.
In Pascal, the data structures include arrays, records, files and sets.
Data structures can be classified using various criteria.
a) Linear
In linear data structures, elements are arranged in linear fashion. A linear data structure traverses the
data elements sequentially. The elements in the structure are adjacent to one another other and every
element has exactly two neighbour elements to which it is connected. Arrays, linked lists, stacks and
queues are examples of linear data structures.
b) Non-Linear
The data values in this structure are not arranged in order but every data item is attached to several
other data items in a way that is specific for reflecting relationships. Tree, graph, table and sets are
examples of non-linear data structures.
c) Homogenous
In this type of data structures, values of the same types of data are stored, as in an array.
d) Non-homogenous
In this type of data structures, data values of different types are grouped together, as in structures
and classes.
e) Dynamic
In dynamic data structures such as references and pointers, size and memory locations can be
changed during program execution. These data structures can grow and shrink during execution.
f) Static
With a static data structure, the size of the structure is fixed. Static data structures such as arrays are
very good for storing a well-defined number of data items.

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ARRAYS
An array is a named list of elements, all with the same data type. It is also defined as a consecutive
group of memory locations all of which have the same name and the same data type. Arrays store a
fixed-size sequential collection of elements of the same type.

Instead of declaring individual variables, such as number0, number1, ..., and number99, you declare
one array variable such as numbers and use numbers[0], numbers[1], and ..., numbers[99] to
represent individual variables. A specific element in an array is accessed by an index.

All arrays consist of contiguous memory locations. The lowest address corresponds to the first
element and the highest address to the last element.

DECLARING ARRAYS

To declare an array in C, a programmer specifies the type of the elements and the number of
elements required by an array as follows:

type arrayName [ arraySize ];

This is called a single-dimensional array. The arraySize must be an integer constant greater than
zero and type can be any valid C data type. For example, to declare a 10-element array called
balance of type double, use this statement:

double balance[10];

Now balance is a variable array which is sufficient to hold up to 10 double numbers.

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INITIALIZING ARRAYS

You can initialize an array in C either one by one or using a single statement as follows:

double balance[5] = {1000.0, 2.0, 3.4, 17.0, 50.0};

The number of values between braces { } cannot be larger than the number of elements that we
declare for the array between square brackets [ ]. Following is an example to assign a single element
of the array:

If you omit the size of the array, an array just big enough to hold the initialization is created.
Therefore, if you write:

double balance[] = {1000.0, 2.0, 3.4, 17.0, 50.0};

You will create exactly the same array as you did in the previous example.

balance[4] = 50.0;

The above statement assigns element number 5 in the array a value of 50.0. Array with 4th index
will be 5th ie. last element because all arrays have 0 as the index of their first element which is also
called base index. Following is the pictorial representation of the same array we discussed above:

ACCESSING ARRAY ELEMENTS

An element is accessed by indexing the array name. This is done by placing the index of the
element within square brackets after the name of the array. For example:

double salary = balance[9];

The above statement will take 10th element from the array and assign the value to salary variable.
Following is an example which will use all the above mentioned three concepts viz. declaration,
assignment and accessing arrays:

#include <stdio.h>

int main ()
{
int n[ 9 ]; /* n is an array of 10 integers */
int i,j;

/* initialize elements of array n to 0 */

for ( i = 0; i < 9; i++ )
{
n[ i ] = i + 100; /* set element at location i to i + 100 */
}

/* output each array element's value */

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for (j = 0; j < 10; j++ )

{
printf("Element[%d] = %d\n", j, n[j] );
}

return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:

Element[0] = 100
Element[1] = 101
Element[2] = 102
Element[3] = 103
Element[4] = 104
Element[5] = 105
Element[6] = 106
Element[7] = 107
Element[8] = 108
Element[9] = 109

SORT TECHNIQUES
1. Bubble sort
2. Selection sort
3. Merge sort
4. Quick sort
5. Exchange sort
6. Shell sort

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Bubble Sort
In the bubble sort, as elements are sorted they gradually "bubble" (or rise) to their proper location
in the array, like bubbles rising in a glass of soda. The bubble sort repeatedly compares adjacent
elements of an array. The first and second elements are compared and swapped if out of order.
Then the second and third elements are compared and swapped if out of order. This sorting process
continues until the last two elements of the array are compared and swapped if out of order.

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When this first pass through the array is complete, the bubble sort returns to elements one and two
and starts the process all over again.

The table below follows an array of numbers before, during, and after a bubble sort
fordescending order. A "pass" is defined as one full trip through the array comparing and if
necessary, swapping, adjacent elements. Several passes have to be made through the array before
it is finally sorted
Array at beginning: 84 69 76 86 94 91
After Pass #1: 84 76 86 94 91 69
After Pass #2: 84 86 94 91 76 69
After Pass #3: 86 94 91 84 76 69
After Pass #4: 94 91 86 84 76 69
After Pass #5 (done): 94 91 86 84 76 69

The bubble sort is an easy algorithm to program, but it is slower than many other sorts. With a
bubble sort, it is always necessary to make one final "pass" through the array to check to see that no
swaps are made to ensure that the process is finished. In actuality, the process is finished before this
last pass is made.

// Bubble Sort Function for Descending Order

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int control , control2, marks, temp;
int allmarks[5]={9,7,12,5,8};

for (control = 0; control < 4; control++) {

for (control2 = 0; control2 < 4; control2++) {
if (allmarks[control2] > allmarks[control2+1])
{
temp = allmarks[control2];
allmarks[control2]= allmarks[control2+1];
allmarks[control2+1] = temp;
}
}
}

printf("\nThe sorted list of marks is:\n");

for (control=0; control<=4;control++)

{
printf("%d\n", allmarks[control]);
}
}

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Selection Sort
The selection sort is a combination of searching and sorting.

During each pass, the unsorted element with the smallest (or largest) value is moved to its
proper position in the array.
The number of times the sort passes through the array is one less than the number of items in the
array. In the selection sort, the inner loop finds the next smallest (or largest) value and the outer
loop places that value into its proper location.

Let's look at our same table of elements using a selection sort for descending order. Remember, a
"pass" is defined as one full trip through the array comparing and if necessary, swapping elements.

Array at beginning: 84 69 76 86 94 91
After Pass #1: 84 91 76 86 94 69
After Pass #2: 84 91 94 86 76 69
After Pass #3: 86 91 94 84 76 69
After Pass #4: 94 91 86 84 76 69
After Pass #5 (done): 94 91 86 84 76 69

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While being an easy sort to program, the selection sort is one of the least efficient. The algorithm
offers no way to end the sort early, even if it begins with an already sorted list.

// Selection Sort Function for Descending Order

void main()
{
int i, j, first, temp;
int num[5]
for (i= 4; i > 0; i--)
{
first = 0; // initialize to subscript of first element
for (j=1; j<=i; j++) // locate smallest between positions 1 and i.
{
if (num[j] < num[first])
first = j;
}
temp = num[first]; // Swap smallest found with element in position i.
num[first] = num[i];
num[i] = temp;
}
return;
}

Shell Sort
The shell sort is named after its inventor D. L. Shell. Instead of comparing adjacent elements, like
the bubble sort, the shell sort repeatedly compares elements that are a certain distance away from
each other (d represents this distance). The value of d starts out as half the input size and is halved
after each pass through the array. The elements are compared and swapped when needed. The
equation d= (N + 1) / 2 is used. Notice that only integer values are used for d since integer
division is occurring.

Let's look at our same list of values for descending order with the shell sort. Remember, a "pass" is
defined as one full trip through the array comparing and if necessary, swapping elements.

Array at beginning: 84 69 76 86 94 91 d
After Pass #1: 86 94 91 84 69 76 3
After Pass #2: 91 94 86 84 69 76 2
After Pass #3: 94 91 86 84 76 69 1

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After Pass #4 (done): 94 91 86 84 76 69 1

First Pass: d = (6 + 1) / 2 = 3. Compare 1st and 4th , 2nd and 5th, and 3rd and 6th items since they
are 3 positions away from each other))
Second Pass: value for d is halved d = (3 + 1) / 2 = 2. Compare items two places away such as 1st
and 3rd ……
Third Pass: value for d is halved d = (2 + 1) / 2 = 1. Compare items one place away such as 1st
and 2nd …..
Last Pass: sort continues until d = 1 and the pass occurs without any swaps.

This sorting process, with its comparison model, is an efficient sorting algorithm.

//Shell Sort Function for Descending Order

void main()
{
int I,d , temp, length[5];
while( (d > 1)) // boolean flag (true when not equal to 0)
{
d = (d+1) / 2;
for (i = 0; i < (5 - d); i++)
{
if (num[i + d] > num[i])
{
temp = num[i + d]; // swap positions i+d and i
num[i + d] = num[i];
num[i] = temp;
flag = 1; // tells swap has occurred
}
}
}
return;
}

Quick Sort
The quicksort is considered to be very efficient, with its "divide and conquer" algorithm. This sort
starts by dividing the original array into two sections (partitions) based upon the value of the first
element in the array. Since our example sorts into descending order, the first section will contain all
the elements greater than the first element. The second section will contain elements less than (or
equal to) the first element. It is possible for the first element to end up in either section. This sort
uses recursion - the process of "calling itself".

Let's examine our same example

Array at beginning: 84 69 76 86 94 91
= 1st partition 86 94 91 84 69 76
= 2nd partition 94 91 86 84 69 76

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94 91 86 84 69 76
94 91 86 84 69 76
Done: 94 91 86 84 76 69

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//Quick Sort Functions for Descending Order

// (2 Functions)
void main()
{
// top = subscript of beginning of array
// bottom = subscript of end of array

int middle;
if (top < bottom)
{
middle = partition(num, top, bottom);
quicksort(num, top, middle); // sort first section
quicksort(num, middle+1, bottom); // sort second section
}
return;
}

//Function to determine the partitions

// partitions the array and returns the middle subscript
int main()
{
int x = array[top];
int i = top - 1;
int j = bottom + 1;
int temp;
do
{
do
{
j - -;
}while (x >array[j]);

do
{
i++;
} while (x <array[i]);

if (i < j)
{
temp = array[i];
array[i] = array[j];
array[j] = temp;
}
}while (i < j);
return j; // returns middle subscript
}

Merge Sort

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The merge sort combines two sorted arrays into one larger sorted array.
As the diagram below shows, Array A and Array B merge to form Array C.

Arrays to be merged MUST be SORTED FIRST!!

Be sure to declare Array C in main( ) and establish its size.

Example: Ascending Order

Array A: {7. 12}
Array B: {5, 7, 8}
Array C: {5, 7, 7, 8, 12} after merge

Here is how it works: The first element of array A is compared with the first element of array B. If
the first element of array A is smaller than the first element of array B, the element from array A is
moved to the new array C. The subscript of array A is now increased since the first element is now
set and we move on.

If the element from array B should be smaller, it is moved to the new array C. The subscript of
array B is increased. This process of comparing the elements in the two arrays continues until
either array A or array B is empty. When one array is empty, any elements remaining in the other
(non-empty) array are "pushed" into the end of array C and the merge is complete.

//Function to merge two pre-sorted arrays

void main()
{
int indexA = 0; // initialize variables for the subscripts
int indexB = 0;
int indexC = 0;
Int arrayC[5];

while((indexA < 5) && (indexB < 5)

{

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if (arrayA[indexA] < arrayB[indexB])

{
arrayC[indexC] = arrayA[indexA];
indexA++; //increase the subscript
}
else
{
arrayC[indexC] = arrayB[indexB];
indexB++; //increase the subscript
}
indexC++; //move to the next position in the new array
}
// Move remaining elements to end of new array when one merging array is empty
while (indexA < 5)
{
arrayC[indexC] = arrayA[indexA];
indexA++;
indexC++;
}
while (indexB < 5)
{
arrayC[indexC] = arrayB[indexB];
indexB++;
indexC++;
}
return;
}

SEARCHING ARRAYS
When working with arrays, it is often necessary to perform a search or "lookup" to determine
whether an array contains a value that matches a certain key value The process of locating a
particular element value in an array is called searching. There are two types of search mechanisms:
serial/linear search and binary search
a) Serial Search
The technique used here is called a serial search, because the integer elements of the array are
compared one by one to the user input being looked for (userValue) until either a match is found or
all elements of the array are examined without finding a match.
In the code below, if a match is found, the text “There is a match” is printed on the form and the
execution of the procedure is terminated (Exit Sub). If no match is found, the program exits the loop
and prints the text “No match found”.
#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
int array[5]={10,7,8,2,5}, searchvalue, c;

printf("\tEnter the number to search: ");

scanf("%d", &searchvalue);

for (c = 0; c < 5; c++)

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{
if (array[c] == searchvalue) // if required element found
{
printf("\n%d is present at location %d.\n", searchvalue, c++);
break;
}
}
if (c == 5) // if looped more than 5 times ie 6 times
printf("\n%d is not present in the array.\n", searchvalue);

return 0;
}

Binary Search
Binary search uses the concept of splitting your searchable array in two, discarding the half that
does not have the element for which you are looking.
You place your items in an array and sort them. Then you simply get the middle element and test if
it is <, >, or = to the element for which you are searching. If it is less than, you discard the greater
half, get the middle index of the remaining elements and do it again. Binary search divides your
problem in half every time you execute your loop.

#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
int c, first, last, middle, n, search, array[10];

printf("Enter number of elements\n");

scanf("%d",&n);

printf("Enter %d integers\n", n);

for ( c = 0 ; c < n ; c++ )

scanf("%d",&array[c]);

printf("Enter value to find\n");

scanf("%d",&search);

first = 0;
last = n - 1;
middle = (first+last)/2;

while( first <= last )

{
if ( array[middle] < search )
first = middle + 1;
else if ( array[middle] == search )
{
printf("%d found at location %d.\n", search, middle+1);
break;
}
else
last = middle - 1;

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middle = (first + last)/2;

}
if ( first > last )
printf("Not found! %d is not present in the list.\n", search);

return 0;
}

POINTERS
A pointer is a variable whose value is the address of another variable, i.e., direct address of the
memory location. Like any variable or constant, you must declare a pointer before you can use it to
store any variable address. The general form of a pointer variable declaration is:

type *var-name;

Here, type is the pointer's base type; it must be a valid C data type and var-name is the name of the
pointer variable. The asterisk * you used to declare a pointer is the same asterisk that you use for
multiplication. However, in this statement the asterisk is being used to designate a variable as a
pointer. Following are the valid pointer declaration:

int *ip; /* pointer to an integer */

double *dp; /* pointer to a double */
float *fp; /* pointer to a float */
char *ch /* pointer to a character */

The actual data type of the value of all pointers, whether integer, float, character, or otherwise, is the
same, a long hexadecimal number that represents a memory address. The only difference between
pointers of different data types is the data type of the variable or constant that the pointer points to.

Dereferencing

HOW TO USE POINTERS?

Pointers are used for:

 Strings
 Dynamic memory allocation
 Sending function arguments by reference
 Pointing to functions
 Building special data strcutures such as Trees

There are few important operations, which we will do with the help of pointers very frequently. (a)
we define a pointer variable (b) assign the address of a variable to a pointer and (c) finally access
the value at the address available in the pointer variable. This is done by using unary operator * that
returns the value of the variable located at the address specified by its operand. Following example
makes use of these operations:

#include <stdio.h>

int main ()

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{
int var = 20; /* actual variable declaration */
int *ip; /* pointer variable declaration */

ip = &var; /* store address of var in pointer variable*/

printf("Address of var variable: %x\n", &var );

/* address stored in pointer variable */

printf("Address stored in ip variable: %x\n", ip );

/* access the value using the pointer */

printf("Value of *ip variable: %d\n", *ip );

return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces result something as follows:

Address of var variable: bffd8b3c

Address stored in ip variable: bffd8b3c
Value of *ip variable: 20

NULL Pointers in C

It is always a good practice to assign a NULL value to a pointer variable in case you do not have
exact address to be assigned. This is done at the time of variable declaration. A pointer that is
assigned NULL is called a null pointer.

A NULL pointer is usually used to mark the end of a linked list. i.e. Since pointers in a list points to
the next member of the list, if the pointer is NULL, then it is the last node in the list.

The NULL pointer is a constant with a value of zero defined in several standard libraries. Consider
the following program:

#include <stdio.h>

int main ()
{
int *ptr = NULL;

printf("The value of ptr is : %x\n", ptr );

return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:

The value of ptr is 0

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On most of the operating systems, programs are not permitted to access memory at address 0
because that memory is reserved by the operating system. However, the memory address 0 has
special significance; it signals that the pointer is not intended to point to an accessible memory
location. But by convention, if a pointer contains the null (zero) value, it is assumed to point to
nothing.

To check for a null pointer you can use an if statement as follows:

if(ptr) /* succeeds if p is not null */

if(!ptr) /* succeeds if p is null */

C STRINGS
In C, one or more characters enclosed between double quotes is called a string. C does not have
built-in string data type. Instead, C supports strings using one-dimensional arrays. A string is
defined as a null terminated array i.e. \0. This means that you must define the array that is going to
hold a string to be one byte larger than the largest string it is going to hold, in order to make room
for the null.

To read a string from the keyboard, you must use another of C’s standard library functions, gets( ) ,
which requires the string.h header file. The gets ( ) function reads characters until you press
<ENTER>. The carriage return is not stored, but it is replaced by a null, which terminates the
string. E.g.

#include<stdio.h>
Main ( )
{
Char name [80];
Printf (” Enter a string: \n”);
gets(name);

//Output the name

Printf(name);
}

The following declaration and initialization create a string consisting of the word "Hello". To hold
the null character at the end of the array, the size of the character array containing the string is one
more than the number of characters in the word "Hello".

char greeting[6] = {'H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', '\0'};

Initialization of strings

In C, string can be initialized in a different number of ways.

char c[]="abcd";
OR,
char c[5]="abcd";
OR,
char c[]={'a','b','c','d','\0'};
OR;
char c[5]={'a','b','c','d','\0'};

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Strings can also be initialized using pointers

char *c="abcd";
char c[20];
scanf("%s",c);

String variable c can only take a word. It is beacause when white space is encountered, the scanf()
function terminates.

Write a C program to illustrate how to read string from terminal.

#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
char name[20];
printf("Enter name: ");
scanf("%s",name);
printf("Your name is %s.",name);
return 0;
}

Output

Enter name: Dennis Ritchie

Your name is Dennis.

Here, program will ignore Ritchie because, scanf() function takes only string before the white
space.

C supports a wide range of functions that manipulate null-terminated strings:

S.N. Function & Purpose

1 strcpy(s1, s2);
Copies string s2 into string s1.
2 strcat(s1, s2);
Concatenates string s2 onto the end of string s1.
3 strlen(s1);
Returns the length of string s1.
4 strcmp(s1, s2);
Returns 0 if s1 and s2 are the same; less than 0 if s1<s2; greater than
0 if s1>s2.
5 strchr(s1, ch);
Returns a pointer to the first occurrence of character ch in string s1.
6 strstr(s1, s2);
Returns a pointer to the first occurrence of string s2 in string s1.

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The C library function int strcmp(const char *str1, const char *str2) compares the string pointed
to by str1 to the string pointed to by str2.

Following is the declaration for strcmp() function.

strcmp(str1, str2)

PARAMETERS

 str1 -- This is the first string to be compared.

 str2 -- This is the second string to be compared.

RETURN VALUE

This function returned values are as follows:

 if Return value < 0 then it indicates str1 is less than str2

 if Return value > 0 then it indicates str2 is less than str1

 if Return value = 0 then it indicates str1 is equal to str2

Example

The following example shows the usage of strncmp() function.

#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

int main ()
{
char str1[15];
char str2[15];
int ret;

strcpy(str1, "abcdef");
strcpy(str2, "ABCDEF");

ret = strcmp(str1, str2);

if(ret > 0)
{
printf("str1 is less than str2");
}
else if(ret < 0)
{
printf("str2 is less than str1");
}
else
{
printf("str1 is equal to str2");
}

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return(0);
}

Dynamic allocation
Dynamic allocation of memory is a very important subject in C - it allows building complex data
structures such as linked lists. Allocating memory dynamically helps us to store data without
initially knowing the size of the data in the time we wrote the program.

To allocate a chunk of memory dynamically, we have to have a pointer ready - which will store the
location of the newly allocated memory. We can access memory that was allocated to us using that
same pointer, and we can use that pointer to free the memory we got, once we finish using it.

To dynamically allocate a person structure, the person is defined like this:

typedef struct {
char * name;
char age;
} person;

Execute Code
To allocate a new person in the myperson argument, we use the following syntax:
person * myperson = malloc(sizeof(person));

Execute Code
This tells the compiler that we want to dynamically allocate just enough to hold a person struct in
memory, and then return a pointer to the newly allocated data.

Note that sizeof is not an actual function, because the compiler interprets it and translates it to the
actual memory size of the pointer struct.

To access the person's members, we can use the -> notation:

myperson->name = "John";
myperson->age = 27;

Execute Code
After we are done using the dynamically allocated struct, we can release it using free:
free(myperson);

Execute Code
Note that the free does not delete the myperson variable itself, it simply releases the data that it
points to. The myperson variable will still point to somewhere in the memory - but after
calling myperson we are not allowed to access that area anymore. We must not use that pointer
again until we allocate new data using it.

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Linked lists
Linked lists are the best and simplest example of a dynamic data structure that uses pointers for its
implementation. However, understanding pointers is crucial to understanding how linked lists work,
so if you've skipped the pointers tutorial, you should go back and redo it. You must also be familiar
with dynamic memory allocation and structures.

Essentially, linked lists function as an array that can grow and shrink as needed, from any point in
the array.

Linked lists have a few advantages over arrays:

1. Items can be added or removed from the middle of the list

2. There is no need to define an initial size

However, linked lists also have a few disadvantages:

1. There is no "random" access - it is impossible to reach the nth item in the array without first
iterating over all items up until that item. This means we have to start from the beginning of the
list and count how many times we advance in the list until we get to the desired item.
2. Dynamic memory allocation and pointers are required, which complicates the code and
increases the risk of memory leaks and segment faults.
3. Linked lists have a much larger overhead over arrays, since linked list items are dynamically
allocated (which is less efficient in memory usage) and each item in the list also must store an
additional pointer.

A linked list, therefore, is a set of dynamically allocated nodes, arranged in such a way that
each node contains one value and one pointer. The pointer always points to the next member of
the list. If the pointer is NULL, then it is the last node in the list.

A linked list is held using a local pointer variable which points to the first item of the list. If that
pointer is also NULL, then the list is considered to be empty.

Defining a linked list node:

typedef struct node {

int val;

struct node * next;

} node_t;

Notice that we are defining the struct in a recursive manner, which is possible in C. Let's name our
node type node_t.

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Now we can use the nodes. Let's create a local variable which points to the first item of the list
(called head).
node_t * head = NULL;

head = malloc(sizeof(node_t));

if (head == NULL) {

return 1;

head->val = 1;

head->next = NULL;

We've just created the first variable in the list. We must set the value, and the next item to be empty,
if we want to finish populating the list. Notice that we should always check if malloc returned a
NULL value or not.

To add a variable to the end of the list, we can just continue advancing to the next pointer:
node_t * head = NULL;

head = malloc(sizeof(node_t));

head->val = 1;

head->next = malloc(sizeof(node_t));

head->next->val = 2;

head->next->next = NULL;

This can go on and on, but what we should actually do is advance to the last item of the list, until
the next variable will be NULL.

Iterating over a list

To print out all the items of a list. Use a current pointer that will keep track of the node we are
currently printing. After printing the value of the node, we set the current pointer to the next node,
and print again, until we've reached the end of the list (the next node is NULL).
while (current != NULL) {

printf("%d\n", current->val);

current = current->next;

More Examples
1) C Program to Find the Length of a String

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#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main()
{
char s[1000],i;
printf("Enter a string: ");
gets(s);

i = strlen(s);
printf("Length of the string is: %d\n",i);

return 0;
}Output
Enter a string: Programiz
Length of string: 9

2) Code to Concatenate Two Strings Manually

#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
main()
{
char fname[10],mname[10],newone[20];
int len,len2; char *mypt;char *secstr;

printf("Key in your first name: ");

scanf("%s",fname);
printf("Key in your middle name: ");
scanf("%s",mname);
len=strlen(fname);
strcat(fname,mname);
len2=strlen(fname);
strcpy(newone,fname);
mypt = strchr(fname,'N');
secstr= strstr(newone,mname);

printf("Your full name is %s\n",fname);

puts(fname);
printf("The new array is %s\n",newone);
printf("The length of the first name before concatenation is %d\n",len);
printf("The length of the first name after concatenation is %d\n",len2);

printf("The first instance of fname is %x\n",mypt);

printf("The first instance of mname in newone is %x\n",secstr);

Structures
C arrays allow you to define types of variables that can hold several data items of the same kind.
On the other hand, a structure is a User Defined Data Type (UDT) available in C programming,
which allows you to combine data items of different kinds.

Structures are used to group together different types of variables under the same name. For
example you could create a structure “Books”: which is made up of three strings (that is used to
hold the author’s name, Subject and title) and an integer (that is used to hold the book’s ID).

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Structures are used to represent records of data. Suppose you want to keep track of your books
in a library. You might want to track the following attributes about each book:

 Title

 Author

 Subject

 Book ISBN No

Defining a Structure

To define a structure, you must use the struct statement. The struct statement defines a new data
type, with more than one member for your program.

With the declaration of the structure you have created a new type, called Books. Before you can use
the type telephone you have to create a variable of the type BOOKS. The format of the struct
statement is this:

struct structure_name
{
member definition;
member definition;
...
member definition;
};

Accessing Structure Members

To access any member of a structure, we use the member access operator (.). The member access
operator is coded as a period between the structure variable name and the structure member that we
wish to access. You would use struct keyword to define variables of structure type. Following is
the example to explain usage of structure:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

struct Books
{
char title[50];
char author[50];
char subject[100];
int book_id;
};

int main( )
{
struct Books Book1; /* Declare Book1 of type Book */

/* book 1 specification */
strcpy( Book1.title, "C Programming");
strcpy( Book1.author, "Nuha Ali");
strcpy( Book1.subject, "C Programming Tutorial");
Book1.book_id = 6495407;
/* print Book1 info */
printf( "Book 1 title : %s\n", Book1.title);

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printf( "Book 1 author : %s\n", Book1.author);

printf( "Book 1 subject : %s\n", Book1.subject);
printf( "Book 1 book_id : %d\n", Book1.book_id);

return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:

Book 1 title : C Programming

Book 1 author : Nuha Ali
Book 1 subject : C Programming Tutorial
Book 1 book_id : 6495407

typedef
The C programming language provides a keyword called typedef, which you can use to give a user
defined type (UDT) a new name.

For example you can use typedef with structure to define a new data type and then use that data
type to define structure variables directly as follows:

#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>

typedef struct Books

{
int isbnNo;
char *title;
char author[50];
}BOOK;

main()
{
BOOK mybook;
mybook.isbnNo=22001;
mybook.title="Wizard of the Crow";
strcpy(mybook.author,"Ngugi wa Thiong'o");

printf("The book's title is %s: \n",mybook.title);

printf("The book's Author is %s: \n",mybook.author);
printf("The book's ISBN No is %d: \n",mybook.isbnNo);
}

typedef vs #define
The #define is a C-directive which is also used to define the aliases for various data types similar to
typedef but with a different:
The typedef is limited to giving symbolic names to types only where as #define can be used to
define an alias for values as well, like you can define 1 as ONE etc.

The typedef interpretation is performed by the compiler where as #define statements are processed
by the pre-processor.

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Following is a simplest usage of #define:

#include <stdio.h>
#define TRUE 1
#define FALSE 0
int main( )
{
printf( "Value of TRUE : %d\n", TRUE);
printf( "Value of FALSE : %d\n", FALSE);
return 0;
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
Value of TRUE : 1
Value of FALSE : 0

QUEUES
Queue is a specialized data storage structure (Abstract data type). Unlike arrays, access of elements
in a Queue is restricted. It has two main operations enqueue and dequeue. Insertion in a queue is
done using enqueue function and removal from a queue is done using dequeue function. An item
can be inserted at the end (‘rear’) of the queue and removed from the front (‘front’) of the queue. It
is therefore, also called First-In-First-Out (FIFO) list. Queue has five properties - capacity stands for
the maximum number of elements Queue can hold, size stands for the current size of the Queue,
elements is the array of elements, front is the index of first element (the index at which we remove
the element) and rear is the index of last element (the index at which we insert the element).

Primitive operations
a) enqueue (q, x): inserts item x at the rear of the queue q
b) x = dequeue (q): removes the front element from q and returns its value.
c) isEmpty(q) : true if the queue is empty, otherwise false.

Example
enqueue(q, ‘A’);
enqueue(q, ‘B’);
enqueue(q, ‘C’);
x = dequeue(q);
enqueue(q, ‘D’);
enqueue(q, ‘E’);

x= dequeue (q) -> x= ‘A’

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STACKS
A stack is a data structure that allows adding and removing elements in a particular order. Every
time an element is added, it goes on the top of the stack; the only element that can be removed is the
element that was at the top of the stack. Consequently, a stack is said to have "first in last out"
behavior (or "last in, first out"). The first item added to a stack will be the last item removed from a
stack.

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CHAPTER 7

FILE HANDLING / DATA FILES

This chapter explains how C programmers can create, open and close text or binary files
for their data storage. A file represents a sequence of bytes. It does not matter if it is a text
file or binary file.

OPENING FILES
You can use the fopen( ) function to create a new file or to open an existing file, this call
will initialize an object of the type FILE, which contains all the information necessary to
control the stream. Following is the prototype of this function call:

FILE *fopen( filename, mode );

Here, filename is a string literal, which you will use to name your file and access mode
can have one of the following values:

Mode Description
r Opens an existing text file for reading purpose.
Opens a text file for writing, if it does not exist then a new file is created. Here
w
your program will start writing content from the beginning of the file.
Opens a text file for writing in appending mode, if it does not exist then a new file
a is created. Here your program will start appending content in the existing file
content.
r+ Opens a text file for both reading and writing.
Opens a text file for reading and writing both. It first truncate the file to zero
w+
length if it exists otherwise create the file if it does not exist.
Opens a text file for reading and writing both. It creates the file if it does not exist.
a+
The reading will start from the beginning but writing can only be appended.

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If you are going to handle binary files then you will use below mentioned access modes
instead of the above mentioned:

"rb", "wb", "ab", "ab+", "a+b", "wb+", "w+b"

Example
#include<stdio.h>
main ()
{
char name[20];
FILE *myfile;

printf("Key in your name: ");

gets(name);

myfile = fopen("C:/tmp/test.txt","w+");
fprintf(myfile,"Hello ");
fputs(name,myfile);
fputs(" and welcome\n",myfile);
fclose(myfile);

CLOSING A FILE

To close a file, use the fclose( ) function. The prototype of this function is:

int fclose( FILE *fp );

The fclose( ) function returns zero on success, or EOF if there is an error in closing the
file. This function actually, flushes any data still pending in the buffer to the file,
closes the file, and releases any memory used for the file. The EOF is a constant
defined in the header file stdio.h.

There are various functions provided by C standard library to read and write a file
character by character or in the form of a fixed length string.

WRITING A FILE

Following is the simplest function to write individual characters to a stream:

int fputc( int c, FILE *fp );

The function fputc() writes the character value of the argument c to the output stream
referenced by fp. It returns the written character written on success otherwise EOF if
there is an error. You can use the following functions to write a null-terminated string to a
stream:

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int fputs( const char *s, FILE *fp );

The function fputs() writes the string s to the output stream referenced by fp. It returns a
non-negative value on success, otherwise EOF is returned in case of any error. You can
use int fprintf(FILE *fp,const char *format, ...) function as well to write a string into a
file. Try the following example:

#include <stdio.h>

main()
{
FILE *fp;

fp = fopen("/tmp/test.txt", "w+");
fprintf(fp, "This is testing for fprintf...\n");
fputs("This is testing for fputs...\n", fp);
fclose(fp);
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it creates a new file test.txt in /tmp
directory and writes two lines using two different functions. Let us read this file in next
section.

READING A FILE

Following is the simplest function to read a single character from a file:

int fgetc( FILE * fp );

The fgetc() function reads a character from the input file referenced by fp. The return
value is the character read, or in case of any error it returns EOF. The following
functions allow you to read a string from a stream:

The functions fgets() reads up to n - 1 characters from the input stream referenced by fp.
It copies the read string into the buffer buf, appending a null character to terminate the
string.

char *fgets( char *str, int num, FILE * stream );

PARAMETERS OF THE fgets() FUNCTION

Str – This is the pointer to an array of chars where the string is to be stored
num – The maximum number of characters to be read (including the final null-character).
Usually, the length of the array to be used is given here.
Stream – This is the pointer to a file object where the characters are to be read from.

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If this function encounters a newline character '\n' or the end of the file EOF before they
have read the maximum number of characters, then it returns only the characters read up
to that point including new line character. You can also use int fscanf(FILE *fp, const
char *format, ...) function to read strings from a file but it stops reading after the first
space character it encounters.

#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
FILE *myfile;
char buffer[50];
myfile=fopen("C:/tmp/cfiles.txt","r");
fgets(buffer,50,myfile);
printf("%s\n",buffer);
fclose(myfile);
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it reads the file created in previous
section and produces the following result:

1 : This
2: is testing for fprintf...

3: This is testing for fputs...

Let's see a little more detail about what happened here. First fscanf() method read just
This because after that it encountered a space, second call is for fgets() which read the
remaining line till it encountered end of line. Finally last call fgets() read second line
completely.

BINARY I/O FUNCTIONS

There are following two functions, which can be used for binary input and output:

size_t fread(void *ptr, size_t size_of_elements,

size_t number_of_elements, FILE *a_file);

size_t fwrite(const void *ptr, size_t size_of_elements,

size_t number_of_elements, FILE *a_file);

Both of these functions should be used to read or write blocks of memories - usually
arrays or structures.

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MORE EXAMPLES
a. Writing array elements (from user) into a text file.
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int i, marks[5];
FILE *myfile;

printf("Key in five integers:\n");

for(i=1; i<=5;i++)
{
scanf("%d",&marks[i]);
}

myfile = fopen("C:/tmp/array.txt","w+");
fputs("The following are the array elements",myfile);

for(i=1;i<=5;i++)
{
fprintf(myfile,"%d,",marks[i]);
}
fclose(myfile);

}
b. Writing a pattern of values into a text file.
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int k,l;
FILE *myfile;
myfile=fopen("C:/tmp/test2.txt", "w");

for(k=1;k<=5;k++)
{
for(l=5;l>=k;l--)
{

fprintf(myfile,"%d ",l);
}
fprintf(myfile,"\n");
}
fclose(myfile);

}
c. Writing a customized greeting into a text file

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#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
char name[20];
FILE *myfile;

printf("Key in your name: ");

gets(name);

myfile=fopen("C:/tmp/test.txt","w+");
fprintf(myfile,"Hello ");
fputs(name,myfile);
fputs(" and welcome\n",myfile);
fclose(myfile);

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Chapter 7

ERROR HANDLING AND DEBUGGING

Programming errors often remain undetected until an attempt is made to compile or execute the
program.

Types of Errors
1. Syntactic Errors
2. Execution Errors
3. Logical Errors.

Syntactic Errors
Syntax errors are generated when the programmer from the strict rules of the programming
language. These errors will prevent the program from being compiled or executed successfully.
Some particularly common errors of this type are:
a. Improperly declared variables
b. A reference to an undeclared variable
c. Incorrect punctuation, etc.
Most C compilers will generate diagnostic messages when syntactic errors have been detected during
the compilation process. These diagnostic messages are not always straightforward in their meaning
and they may not correctly identify where the error occurred (though they may attempt to do so).
Nevertheless, they are helpful in identifying the nature and the approximate location of the errors.
If a program includes several different syntactic errors, they may not all be detected on the first pass
through the compiler. Thus, it may be necessary to correct some syntactic errors before others can be
found.
This process could repeat itself through several cycles before all of the syntactic errors have been
identified and corrected.

Execution Errors
These errors occur if code attempts to execute an instruction that is impossible to carry out.
Execution errors occur during program execution, after a successful compilation.
Example of some common execution errors are:
a. A numerical overflow of underflow (exceeding the largest or smallest permissible number that
can be stored in a variable)
b. Division by zero
c. Attempting to compute the logarithm or the square root of a negative number, etc.
Diagnostic messages will often be generated in situations of this type, making it easy to identify and
correct the errors. These diagnostics are sometimes called execution messages or run-time messages, to
distinguish them from the compilation messages described earlier.

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Logical Errors
Here the program executes correctly, carrying out the programmer’s wishes, but the programmer has
supplied the computer with instructions that are logically incorrect. Logical errors can be very difficult
to detect, since the output resulting from a logically incorrect program may appear to be error-free.
Moreover, logical errors are often hard to locate even when they are known to exist (as, for example,
when the computed results are obviously incorrect).
Fortunately, methods are available for finding the location of execution errors and logical errors within
a program. Such methods are generally referred to as debugging techniques. Some of the more
commonly used debugging techniques are described below.

DEBUGGING TECHNIQUES
Syntactic errors are relatively easy to find and correct, even if the resulting error messages are unclear.
Execution errors, on the other hand, can be much more troublesome. When an execution error occurs,
we must first determine its location (where it occurs) within the program. Once the location of the
execution error has been identified, the source of the error (why it occurs) must be determined.

Error Isolation
Error isolation is useful for locating an error resulting in a diagnostic message. If the general location of
the error is not known, it can frequently be found by temporarily deleting a portion of the program and
then rerunning the program to see if the error disappears. The temporary deletion is accomplished by
surrounding the instructions with comment markers (/ * and * /), causing the enclosed instructions to
become comments.
If the error message then disappears, the deleted portion of the program contains the source of the error.
A closely related technique is that of inserting several unique printf statements, such as
printf ("Debugging - l i n e 1\ n " ) ;
printf ("Debugging - l i n e 2 \ n " ) ;
etc.at various places within the program. When the program is executed, the debug messages will
indicate the approximate location of the error. Thus, the source of the error will lie somewhere between
the last printf statement whose message did appear, and the first printf statement whose message did
not appear.

Tracing
Tracing involves the use of printf statements to display the values assigned to certain key variables, or
to display the values that are calculated internally at various locations within the program. This
information serves several purposes. For example, it verifies that the values actually assigned to certain
variables really are (or are not) the values that should be assigned to those values. It is not uncommon
to find that the actual assigned values are different than those expected. In addition, this information
allows you to monitor the progress of the computation as the program executes. In many situations, you
will be able to identify a particular place where things begin to go wrong because the values generated
will be obviously incorrect.

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Watch Values
A watch value is the value of a variable or an expression which is displayed continuously as the
program executes. Thus, you can see the changes in a watch value as they occur, in response to the
program logic. By monitoring a few carefully selected watch values, you can often determine where the
program begins to generate incorrect or unexpected values.
In Turbo C++, watch values can be defined by selecting Add Watch from the Debug menu (see Fig. 5.4
earlier in this chapter), and then specifying one or more variables or expressions in the resulting dialog
box.
The watch values will then be displayed within a separate window as the program executes.

Breakpoints
A breakpoint is a temporary stopping point within a program. Each breakpoint is associated with a
particular instruction within the program. When the program is executed, the program execution will
temporarily stop at the breakpoint, before the instruction is executed. The execution may then be
resumed, until the next breakpoint is encountered. Breakpoints are often used in conjunction with
watch values, by observing the current watch value at each breakpoint as the program executes.
To set a breakpoint in Turbo C++,select Add Breakpoint from the Debug menu (see Fig. 5.4), and then
provide the requested information in the resulting dialog box. Or, select a particular line within the
program and designate it a breakpoint by pressing function key F5. The breakpoint may later be
disabled by again pressing F5. (Function key F5 is called a "toggle" in this context, since it turns the
breakpoint on or off by successively pressing the key.)

Stepping
Stepping refers to the execution of one instruction at a time, typically by pressing a fbnction key to
execute each instruction. In Turbo C++, for example, stepping can be carried out by pressing either
function key F7 or F8. (F8 steps over subordinate functions, whereas F7 steps through the functions.)
By stepping through an entire program, you can determine which instructions produce erroneous results
or generate error messages.
Stepping is often used with watch values, allowing you to trace the entire history of a program as it
executes. Thus, you can observe changes to watch values as they happen. This allows you to determine
which instructions generate erroneous results.

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Chapter 8

SOFTWARE DOCUMENTATION
Software documentation is written text that accompanies computer software. It both explains how the
software operates or how to use it and may mean different things to people in different roles.
Importance of software documentation
1. Provide for communication among team members
2. They should provide information for management to help them plan, budget and schedule the
software development process.
3. It acts as an information repository to be used by maintenance engineers
4. Describe to users how to operate and administer the system
5. In all software projects some amount of documentation should be created prior to any code being
written for example Design docs, etc.
6. Documentation should continue after the code has been completed for example User’s manuals,
etc.

The two main types of documentation created are Internal and External.
INTERNAL DOCUMENTATION
It is also known as In-Line Program Documentation and refers to the notes on how and why various
parts of code operate that are included within the source code as comments. It is often combined with
meaningful variable names with the intention of providing potential future programmers a means of
understanding the workings of the code.

The internal documentation should include the following:

a. ‘block comment’ which should be placed at the head of every method (also known as the
function or subprogram). This will include the method name; the purpose of the method; the
method’s pre– and post–conditions; the method’s return value (if any); and a list of all
parameters, including direction of information transfer (into this method, out from the method
back to the calling method, or both), and their purposes.
b. Meaningful identifier names. Traditionally, simple loop variables may have single letter
variable names, but all others should be meaningful. Never use nonstandard abbreviations. If
the programming language has a naming convention for variables, methods, classes, etc., then
those conventions should be used.
c. Each variable and constant must have a brief comment immediately after its declaration that
explains its purpose. This applies to all variables, as well as to fields of structure declarations.
d. Complex sections of the program that need some more explanations should have comments just
before or embedded in those program sections.

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EXTERNAL DOCUMENTATION
This is documentation that is kept external to the program and provides a comprehensive description of
the design, development, and structure of a program. There are two types of external documentation:
Process and Product documentation.

PROCESS DOCUMENTATION
(a) Used to record and track the development process
 Planning documentation
 Cost, Schedule, Funding tracking
 Schedules
 Standards e.t.c.
(b) This documentation is created to allow for successful management of a software product
(c) Has a relatively short lifespan
(d) Only important to internal development process
(e) Except in cases where the customer requires a view into this data
(f) Some items, such as papers that describe design decisions should be extracted and moved into
the product documentation category when they become implemented

PRODUCT DOCUMENTATION
Describes the delivered product
Must evolve with the development of the software product
There are two main categories of process documentation:
1. Technical/System Documentation
This describes how the system works, but not how to operate it
Examples:
 Requirements Spec
 Architectural Design
 Detailed Design
 Commented Source Code
 Including output such as JavaDoc
 Test Plans
 Including test cases
 V&V plan and results
 List of Known Bugs

2. User Documentation
The user documentation describes each feature of the program, and assists the user in realizing these
features. A good user document can also go so far as to provide thorough troubleshooting assistance.
User Documentation has two main types
 End User

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 System Administrator
In some cases these are the same people. The target audience must be well understood.
There are five important areas that should be documented for a formal release of a software application.
These do not necessarily each have to have their own document, but the topics should be covered
thoroughly. These include:
 Functional Description of the Software
 Installation Instructions
 Introductory Manual
 Reference Manual
 System Administrator’s Guide

Document Quality
Providing thorough and professional documentation is important for any size product development
team
Document Structure
All documents for a given product should have a similar structure
The authors “best practices” are:
 Put a cover page on all documents
 Divide documents into chapters with sections and subsections
 Add an index if there is lots of reference information
 Add a glossary to define ambiguous terms

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