1. What do you mean by farm irrigation system?

What are the functions of farm

irrigation system? 3+7

Farm irrigation system:

A farm irrigation system is a system that waters crops to improve their growth and
production. Irrigation systems are used in arid environments where the soil may not
naturally receive enough water.

Farm irrigation systems have several functions, including:

 Maintaining soil moisture

Irrigation systems help to maintain the water level in the soil, which is important for
plant growth.
 Cooling the soil and atmosphere
Irrigation can help to create a more favorable environment for plants to grow in by
cooling the soil and atmosphere.
 Increasing crop yield
The frequency, duration, and method of irrigation can significantly affect crop yield.
 Increasing farm productivity
Irrigation systems can help to increase farm productivity by helping to maintain soil
moisture and create a favorable environment for plant growth.

2. Describe the types of farm irrigation system. 10

There are several types of farm irrigation systems, including drip irrigation, sprinkler
irrigation, and surface irrigation.
Drip irrigation
 A micro-irrigation system that delivers water directly to plant roots through a
network of pipes
 Can be highly efficient if designed, installed, and maintained properly

A localized irrigation method that reduces water consumption
Sprinkler irrigation
 Uses sprinklers to spray water on a rotating basis

 Can cover a large area with minimal labor


Can be used from a central location or from a moving platform
Surface irrigation
 Uses gravity to distribute water across the land
  Raises the water table, making it easier for crops to access water
 Reduces airborne drift and runoff
Center pivot irrigation
 A self-propelled system that uses a central pipe with outlets that rotate around a
pivot point
 Similar to sprinkler irrigation, but larger and supported by towers
Sub irrigation
 Also known as subsurface or seepage irrigation, this method delivers water directly
to the root area from below the soil surface
 Uses capillary action to allow water to move through the soil
Manual irrigation
 A labor-intensive and time-consuming method that involves manually watering
plants with hoses, nozzles, or sprinklers

3. What are the suitability of sprinkler irrigation? 3

Sprinkler irrigation is suitable for many conditions, including sandy soils, uneven terrain,
and areas with water and labor shortages. However, it may not be suitable for certain soil
types or crops.
Soil types
 Sandy soils: Sprinklers are best suited for sandy soils with high infiltration rates.

 Soils that crust: Sprinklers are not suitable for soils that easily form a crust.
 Saline soils: Sprinklers are not suitable for soils at risk of salinization.
Terrain
 Steep or uneven land: Sprinklers are preferred over surface irrigation for steep or
unevenly sloping lands.
 Shallow sandy soils: Sprinklers are suitable for shallow sandy soils with uneven
topography.
Crops
 Deep-rooted crops: Sprinklers are suitable for crops with deep roots.
 Crops sensitive to wet soil: Sprinklers are not suitable for crops that are sensitive
to wet soil conditions around the stem.
Other conditions
 Windy conditions: Strong wind can disturb the spraying of water from sprinklers.

 Water and labor shortages: Sprinklers are suitable for regions where both labor
and water are scarce.
4. What are the condition where trickle irrigation methods is used? 3

When to use trickle irrigation

 Water scarcity: Drip irrigation is efficient and can be used when water is
scarce, such as in arid and drought-prone areas.
 Poor water quality: Drip irrigation is suitable for water of poor quality, such as
saline water.
 Recycled wastewater: Drip irrigation is often used with recycled municipal
wastewater.
 Small-scale irrigation: Drip irrigation can be a simple method for small-scale
irrigation.
Benefits of trickle irrigation
 Saves water: Drip irrigation is efficient and can save water.

 Prevents disease: Drip irrigation minimizes water contact with plants, which
can help prevent disease.
 Reduces weed growth: Drip irrigation keeps the rows between plants dry,
which can help reduce weed growth.
5. Give the schematic representation of common methods of irrigation. / Give the
flow chart of water application methods. (Unit 2/12) 5
 6. Describe the designing factors/designing steps to design and evaluation of border
irrigation system. 10

1. Site Evaluation and Analysis:

 Topography: Evaluate the land's slope, elevation, and contour. Border irrigation requires a slight
slope for water to flow evenly across the land. The slope should be uniform to avoid water
stagnation or runoff.
 Soil Type: Conduct soil tests to determine soil texture, permeability, infiltration rate, and
drainage capacity. These factors influence how much water will be retained and how quickly
water moves through the soil.
 Climate Conditions: Assess the climate, including rainfall, temperature, wind, and evaporation
rates. These factors determine water demand and the frequency of irrigation required.
 Water Availability and Source: Ensure a reliable water source with adequate flow and pressure
for irrigation. Consider the location, quality, and seasonal availability of the water supply.

2. Design of Border Layout:

 Border Size and Shape: Design borders based on the size of the field and the water flow
capacity. Borders typically vary in width (3-12 meters) depending on field conditions. Long,
narrow borders are more efficient in terms of water distribution.
 Border Length: The length of borders is usually determined by the topography of the land.
Typically, the borders should not exceed 150 meters to avoid uneven water distribution.
 Slope Design: A mild, uniform slope is essential. Generally, the slope should be between 0.1%
to 0.5%, depending on the soil type and field size. A steeper slope may lead to water runoff,
while a flatter slope could result in poor water distribution.
 Crowning and Channel Design: A slight crown (raised center) may be incorporated in the
field's design to promote even water flow. Design irrigation channels and borders to direct water
across the field evenly.

3. Water Distribution System:

 Water Source and Delivery System: Design the water intake, pumping station, and delivery
canals to transport water from the source to the field. Ensure the system provides adequate
pressure and flow for the required irrigation needs.
 Flow Regulation: Install control gates, weirs, or sluices to regulate the flow of water into each
border. These structures help in adjusting water delivery as needed for uniform distribution.
 Water Flow Rate and Timing: Determine the optimal flow rate (in liters per second) for the
specific border based on soil infiltration rates and crop water requirements. Additionally, design
the system to deliver water during the appropriate times (e.g., early morning or evening) to
minimize evaporation losses.

4. Irrigation Scheduling and Management:

 Soil Moisture Monitoring: Regularly monitor soil moisture levels to determine when irrigation
is needed. The design should incorporate a system for periodic water application based on crop
needs.
 Watering Frequency: Ensure that the irrigation system is designed to meet crop requirements
without over-irrigating or under-irrigating. This depends on climate, soil type, and crop stage.
  Drainage System: Provide adequate drainage systems to remove excess water and avoid
waterlogging or salinity problems.

5. Evaluation of Border Irrigation System:

 Field Trials and Adjustments: Conduct field trials to test the efficiency and uniformity of the
irrigation system. This includes evaluating water distribution patterns and soil moisture content.
Adjustments may be required based on initial observations.
 Efficiency Monitoring: Evaluate the efficiency of water application by measuring the
uniformity of water distribution (uniformity coefficient) and overall water use efficiency (crop
yield per unit of water applied).
 Economic Feasibility: Assess the cost-effectiveness of the system by comparing installation,
operation, and maintenance costs with the potential benefits, including improved crop yield and
water savings.

6. Maintenance and Operation:

 Regular Inspection: Ensure regular inspection and maintenance of the irrigation infrastructure,
including channels, gates, pumps, and field borders.
 Training Farmers: Train farmers in the proper operation and maintenance of the system, as well
as in techniques for efficient water use, to maximize productivity and reduce water waste.

7. What are the primary steps are involves in designing farm irrigation system?
(2/20) 5

Designing a farm irrigation system involves a series of important steps to ensure that water is delivered
efficiently to crops, maximizing yields while conserving water resources. Here are the primary steps
involved in designing a farm irrigation system:

1. Assessment of Water Source and Availability

 Water Source Identification: Determine the available water sources (e.g., wells, rivers,
reservoirs, ponds).
 Flow Rate and Quality: Measure the flow rate (how much water can be supplied per unit of
time) and water quality (impurities, salinity, etc.) to ensure it’s suitable for irrigation.
 Seasonal Variability: Consider the seasonal availability of water to determine how much water
is available throughout the year and adjust the system design accordingly.

2. Soil and Crop Assessment

 Soil Analysis: Conduct soil tests to assess soil texture, infiltration rates, permeability, and water
holding capacity. This will influence the irrigation method and scheduling.
 Crop Water Requirements: Assess the specific water requirements for the crops being grown,
considering factors like the stage of growth, climate, and local evapotranspiration rates.

3. Topographical Survey
  Field Slope and Elevation: Perform a topographical survey of the farm to understand the land
slope, elevation, and contour. This will help in designing an efficient irrigation layout and
selecting the appropriate irrigation method (e.g., drip, sprinkler, furrow).
 Drainage Consideration: Evaluate existing drainage conditions and determine if any
improvements are needed to prevent waterlogging.

4. Choosing the Appropriate Irrigation Method

 Irrigation Type Selection: Based on the soil type, crop needs, and field characteristics, select
the appropriate irrigation method (e.g., surface irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, drip irrigation, or
sub-surface irrigation).
o Surface Irrigation: Used in fields with relatively uniform slopes and suitable soil for
water infiltration.
o Sprinkler Irrigation: Suitable for various crops and fields with irregular terrain.
o Drip Irrigation: Ideal for row crops or orchards, especially in water-scarce areas, as it
delivers water directly to the root zone.
 Designing for Uniformity: Ensure that the system can deliver water uniformly across the field,
taking into account variations in field elevation and soil type.

5. System Layout and Design

 Field Layout: Plan the layout of the irrigation system, including the position of water
distribution lines, sprinklers, drip emitters, or furrows. Ensure that the design accounts for water
distribution efficiency and ease of maintenance.
 Pipe and Channel Sizing: Calculate the sizes of pipes, channels, or hoses based on the flow
rates and pressure required for the system to operate efficiently.
 Pressure Management: Ensure that the system is designed to maintain adequate pressure for
optimal water delivery. Consider pressure regulators, pumps, and storage tanks if needed.

6. Water Conveyance and Distribution System Design

 Water Conveyance: Design the network of pipes, canals, or hoses to carry water from the
source to the field. This includes considering pump specifications, pipe diameters, material, and
pump capacity.
 Water Distribution Network: Design the layout for distributing water throughout the field,
whether through sprinkler heads, drip lines, or furrows. Ensure that the system can deliver water
evenly to all areas of the field.

7. Irrigation Scheduling

 Crop Water Demand: Develop a watering schedule based on the crop’s growth stage, local
weather conditions, and soil moisture levels. The irrigation system should be able to adjust to
varying water demands throughout the growing season.
 Automation and Control: Incorporate automated timers, sensors, or weather-based systems to
optimize irrigation scheduling and reduce water waste.

8. Estimation of Costs and Budgeting

 Cost Calculation: Estimate the total costs of the irrigation system, including materials, labor,
equipment, and installation.
  Operational Costs: Calculate ongoing operational and maintenance costs, including energy for
pumps, water treatment (if required), and system maintenance.
 Cost-Benefit Analysis: Perform a cost-benefit analysis to determine if the investment in the
irrigation system will result in higher yields and water savings over time.

9. Installation and Commissioning

 System Installation: Install the necessary components of the irrigation system, including water
storage tanks, pipes, pumps, valves, sprinklers, drip emitters, etc.
 System Testing: Once installed, test the system to ensure it is operating as designed. Check for
water distribution uniformity, pressure consistency, and proper functioning of valves, pumps, and
emitters.

10. Training and Maintenance

 Farmer Training: Train farmers or operators on how to use and maintain the system efficiently.
This includes regular inspections, cleaning, and troubleshooting.
 Ongoing Maintenance: Develop a maintenance schedule to ensure the system remains
functional. This includes cleaning filters, replacing worn-out parts, checking for leaks, and
monitoring system performance regularly.

11. Monitoring and Evaluation

 Performance Monitoring: After the system is operational, monitor its performance regularly.
Check for uniformity in water distribution, crop health, and soil moisture levels.
 Adjustments and Optimization: Based on performance data, make necessary adjustments to the
irrigation system, such as modifying the irrigation schedule, adding pressure regulators, or
improving water conveyance.

12. Environmental Considerations

 Water Conservation: Ensure the system is designed for efficient water use, minimizing waste
and optimizing water application to reduce the environmental impact.
 Sustainability: Consider the long-term sustainability of the irrigation system, particularly in
terms of water source availability, energy usage, and soil health.

8. How you can analyze the performance of farm irrigation system? (How you can analyze
the efficiency of a farm irrigation system?) How can you analyze the conveyance efficiency
of a farm irrigation system?Analyzing the conveyance efficiency of a farm irrigation system
involves evaluating how effectively water is transported from the source (e.g., pump, reservoir) to the
field. This is important because losses during water transport can affect the overall efficiency of the
irrigation system. Here's an easy way to analyze it:

Steps to Analyze Conveyance Efficiency:

1. Measure the Water Supplied to the Field:

 o Determine the amount of water being delivered to the irrigation system (at the point
where water enters the field, like a main pipe or channel).
2. Measure the Water at the Source:
o Measure how much water is being provided at the water source (e.g., pump, reservoir, or
canal). This is the total amount of water available for irrigation.
3. Calculate the Losses During Conveyance:
o Subtract the amount of water delivered to the field from the amount taken from the
source. This difference represents the losses that occur during water transport (e.g., leaks,
evaporation, seepage).

Losses=Water at the source−Water delivered to the field\text{Losses} = \text{Water at the

source} - \text{Water delivered to the
field}Losses=Water at the source−Water delivered to the field

4. Calculate Conveyance Efficiency:

o Conveyance efficiency is the percentage of water that is effectively transported to the
field compared to the total amount of water taken from the source.

Conveyance Efficiency=(Water delivered to the fieldWater at the source)×100\text{Conveyance

Efficiency} = \left( \frac{\text{Water delivered to the field}}{\text{Water at the source}} \right)
\times 100Conveyance Efficiency=(Water at the sourceWater delivered to the field)×100

The higher the percentage, the more efficient the system is in transporting water.

Example:

 If 1,000 liters of water are taken from the source, but only 900 liters reach the field, then the
conveyance losses are 100 liters.
 Conveyance efficiency = (900 / 1,000) × 100 = 90%.

Factors Affecting Conveyance Efficiency:

 Leaks: Leaks in pipes or canals reduce the amount of water reaching the field.
 Evaporation: Water loss due to evaporation, especially in open channels.
 Seepage: Water may seep into the ground in certain types of conveyance systems like unlined
canals.

9.Determine DDIR when readily available water is 150 mm, and minimum
irrigation interval during the irrigation season is 14 days.5
11. Briefly explain the designing procedures of furrow irrigation system. (Unit 2-Page 32 to 38) 10

The design of a furrow irrigation system involves several key steps to ensure efficient water distribution.
Here is a brief overview of the process:

1. Site Assessment: Evaluate the field's topography, soil type, and water availability. This helps in
determining the suitability of furrow irrigation.
2. Field Layout: The field is divided into furrows, typically spaced 1-2 meters apart, depending on
the crop type and soil conditions. Furrow length is determined based on the slope of the
land.
3. Water Source and Supply: Choose an appropriate water source (e.g., canal, well, or
reservoir) and ensure a reliable water supply to the furrow system.
4. Flow Rate Calculation: Estimate the required flow rate for each furrow to ensure proper
infiltration and uniform water distribution. This is based on soil infiltration rates and crop
water requirements.
5. Furrow Design: Design furrow depth and width to match the soil characteristics and the
irrigation method (e.g., short or long furrows). Furrow depth is typically shallow to reduce water
loss through evaporation.
6. Water Distribution System: Install a system to convey water to the furrows (e.g., pipelines,
canals). Water is typically introduced at the upper end of the furrows and flows downward,
distributing moisture evenly across the crop root zone.
7. Irrigation Scheduling: Develop a schedule based on crop water needs, ensuring that water is
applied at the right time and in the right amount to avoid over-irrigation or under-irrigation.
8. Monitoring and Adjustment: Regularly monitor the system’s performance, checking for any
blockages, uneven water distribution, or soil compaction, and make adjustments as needed.

12. What are the benefits of drip/trickle irrigation? 3

Drip or trickle irrigation offers several key benefits, particularly in water-efficient agricultural practices:

1. Water Efficiency: Drip irrigation delivers water directly to the plant roots, minimizing
evaporation and runoff, making it highly efficient in water usage, especially in arid regions.
2. Reduced Water Wastage: By targeting the root zone, it reduces water wastage, unlike
traditional methods such as sprinkler or furrow irrigation, where water can be lost to evaporation
or surface runoff.
3. Increased Crop Yields: Since water is supplied directly to the root zone in controlled amounts,
plants receive a consistent and optimal water supply, which can lead to healthier growth and
higher yields.
4. Minimized Weed Growth: As water is delivered directly to the plants, the surrounding soil
remains drier, discouraging weed growth, which often requires water to thrive.
5. Nutrient Efficiency: Fertilizers can be applied through the drip system, allowing for fertigation.
This ensures that nutrients are supplied directly to the plant roots, improving nutrient uptake and
reducing fertilizer wastage.
6. Improved Soil Structure: Because water is delivered in small, frequent amounts, it prevents soil
erosion and compaction, maintaining soil structure and improving water infiltration.
7. Reduced Labor Costs: Drip irrigation systems are automated, which reduces the need for
manual labor in watering the crops. This can lower operational costs for farmers.
 8. Flexibility for Different Terrain: Drip irrigation can be adapted to various land types, including
uneven or sloped terrains, making it versatile for different farming environments.
9. Less Disease Pressure: Since water is applied at the root zone and not on the plant foliage, it
reduces the risk of fungal diseases and other waterborne plant diseases that thrive in wet
conditions.

13. What are the problems associated with drip/trickle irrigation? 3

While drip or trickle irrigation offers numerous advantages, it also comes with some challenges and
potential problems:

1. Clogging of Emitters: Drip emitters can become clogged due to debris, algae, or mineral
buildup in the water. This can disrupt the water flow to the plants, leading to uneven irrigation
and potential crop stress.
2. High Initial Costs: The setup of a drip irrigation system can be expensive, especially for small-
scale farmers. The cost includes purchasing pipes, emitters, filters, pumps, and other
components, which may be a barrier to adoption.
3. Maintenance Requirements: Drip systems require regular maintenance, including cleaning
filters, checking for clogs, and inspecting for wear and tear. Failure to maintain the system can
lead to inefficiencies and reduced performance.
4. System Complexity: Drip irrigation systems can be complex to design and install, especially for
large or uneven fields. Improper installation or poor design can result in uneven water
distribution, reducing effectiveness.
5. Risk of Over-irrigation: While drip irrigation is designed to be water-efficient, it can still lead
to over-irrigation if not properly managed, potentially causing root rot or other water-related
diseases.
6. Vulnerability to Physical Damage: Drip irrigation components, such as tubing and emitters, can
be damaged by machinery, animals, or environmental factors, leading to leaks or system failure.
7. Limited Applicability in Certain Soils: In soils with very high clay content or very sandy soils,
water may not infiltrate evenly, potentially reducing the effectiveness of drip irrigation in those
areas.
8. Energy and Pumping Costs: The system typically requires pumps to maintain water pressure,
and if the water source is located far from the field, energy costs for pumping can add up.
9. Salinity Buildup: In areas with saline water, the drip system can cause the accumulation of salts
in the root zone, potentially harming plant growth if not managed with appropriate water quality
or leaching practices.
10. Limited Applicability for Certain Crops: Some crops with deep root systems may not benefit
as much from drip irrigation, as it is most effective for shallow-rooted crops. In such cases,
alternative irrigation methods might be more suitable.

14. Describe the methods of drip/trickle irrigation. 8

Drip or trickle irrigation can be implemented using various methods, depending on the crop, field layout,
water availability, and soil characteristics. Here are the main methods of drip irrigation:
1. Surface Drip Irrigation

In surface drip irrigation, the tubing and emitters are placed on the soil surface, delivering water directly
to the root zone of plants. This is the most common method used for row crops, vegetables, and
orchards.

 Components: Flexible tubing, emitters or drippers, and filters.

 Application: Water is applied through small emitters that release a slow and steady flow directly
at the plant base.
 Benefits: Efficient water use, easy installation, and minimal soil erosion.

2. Subsurface Drip Irrigation (SDI)

In subsurface drip irrigation, the drip lines are buried beneath the soil surface, usually 4-12 inches deep.
This method reduces water evaporation and can improve water efficiency by minimizing surface losses.

 Components: Drip tubes or pipes, buried at a shallow depth in the root zone.
 Application: Ideal for crops where surface evaporation is a concern or where the soil has poor
water retention.
 Benefits: Reduced evaporation, prevents surface weed growth, and reduces risk of disease as
plants aren't exposed to water on their leaves.

3. Drip Tape Irrigation

Drip tape is a flexible, flat hose with pre-installed emitters that are spaced evenly along the tape. This
system is most commonly used in row crops and horticulture.

 Components: Thin, flat tubing with built-in emitters, often designed for shorter field lengths.
 Application: Best suited for crops with a short growing season or in annual cropping systems.
 Benefits: Cost-effective, easy to install and maintain, and good for areas with lighter soils.

4. Inline Drip Irrigation

Inline drip irrigation uses tubes with emitters that are pre-installed at fixed intervals along the length of
the tube. The emitters are uniformly spaced within the tubing, which is placed on the soil surface or
buried.

 Components: Tubing with built-in emitters and a filtration system.

 Application: Used in orchards, vineyards, and fields with row crops.
 Benefits: Uniform water distribution, reduces labor costs, and is efficient for large-scale
applications.

5. Point Source Drip Irrigation

In point-source drip irrigation, individual emitters (also called drippers) are placed at specific points
along the irrigation system, usually at the base of each plant. Each emitter provides a small amount of
water to a single plant.

 Components: Emitters, usually attached to a mainline or sub-mainline tube.

  Application: Best for orchards, vineyards, and vegetable gardens where each plant needs a
separate water supply.
 Benefits: Provides precise water delivery, minimizes water wastage, and allows for easy
adjustment for different plant requirements.

6. Micro-sprinklers

Although technically a form of sprinkler irrigation, micro-sprinklers can be considered part of drip
irrigation systems when used for very localized, low-pressure water distribution. They are used in areas
where crops need more water than what drip emitters can deliver.

 Components: Micro-sprinklers, tubing, pressure regulators, and filters.

 Application: Suitable for trees, shrubs, and crops requiring higher water volumes than typical
drip systems can provide.
 Benefits: Uniform water coverage, ideal for high-density plantings, and can be used in
conjunction with other drip irrigation systems.

15. Describe the several trickle system components. 10

A trickle or drip irrigation system consists of several key components that work together to efficiently
deliver water to plants. Here’s an overview of the main components:

1. Water Source

The water source is the origin of the water used for irrigation. It could be a well, river, reservoir, pond,
or municipal supply.

 Function: Provides the water that is distributed throughout the system.

 Considerations: Water quality (e.g., salinity, presence of debris) and the ability to provide
enough pressure and volume for the system.

2. Filters

Filters are critical in preventing clogging of the emitters or drip lines. They remove dirt, debris, and
particles from the water before it enters the system.

 Types: Sand filters, disc filters, and screen filters.

 Function: Protects the emitters and tubing from clogging by removing contaminants.
 Considerations: The type and size of filter depend on the water quality and the system’s needs.

3. Pressure Regulator

The pressure regulator ensures that water flows at the correct pressure for the emitters to function
properly. Drip emitters require low and consistent pressure to operate efficiently.

 Function: Reduces and stabilizes water pressure to prevent damage to components and ensure
uniform water distribution.
  Considerations: Pressure is typically regulated to 10-30 psi (pounds per square inch) depending
on the system.

4. Mainline

The mainline is the large pipe that carries water from the source to the sub-mainlines or directly to the
drip tubing.

 Function: Distributes water from the water source to the system.

 Considerations: Should be durable and capable of handling the water flow without significant
pressure loss.

5. Sub-Mainlines

Sub-mainlines are smaller pipes that branch off from the mainline and distribute water to different zones
or areas of the field.

 Function: Transports water from the mainline to various sections of the irrigation system.
 Considerations: Sub-mainlines help divide the system into manageable sections to optimize
water delivery.

6. Drip Tubing or Drip Line

This is the flexible hose or pipe that runs along the field, delivering water directly to the plants. It is
embedded with emitters or has an integrated drip tape to release water slowly.

 Function: Delivers water directly to the root zone of the plants.

 Considerations: Tubing or lines come in various diameters and emitter spacings, and the
material needs to withstand pressure and UV radiation.

7. Emitters (Drippers)

Emitters are devices that control the water flow from the drip tubing to the plant's root zone. They can be
built into the drip line or attached to individual emitters.

 Types: Pressure-compensating emitters (uniform water flow despite pressure changes) and non-
compensating emitters.
 Function: Release a slow and steady amount of water at a consistent rate, directly to the soil
around the plant roots.
 Considerations: Emitters should be spaced appropriately based on the plant's root system and
the type of crop.

8. Fittings and Connectors

Fittings and connectors are used to join various components of the system, such as pipes, hoses, emitters,
and valves. They include tees, elbows, couplings, and adapters.

 Function: Allows for flexible system design by connecting tubing, pipes, and other components.
 Considerations: Proper sizing and sealing are essential to prevent leaks and ensure the system
functions correctly.
9. Valves

Valves control the flow of water throughout the system, allowing for zoning, scheduling, and shut-off.

 Types: Manual valves, solenoid valves (automated), and control valves.

 Function: Regulate water flow to different zones or crops, helping to create efficient irrigation
schedules and systems.
 Considerations: The choice of valve depends on whether the system is manually or
automatically operated.

10. End Caps

End caps are placed at the ends of the drip lines or tubing to close off the system and prevent water
leakage.

 Function: Seals the ends of drip lines or tubing to ensure water doesn’t leak out.
 Considerations: Prevents water wastage and system pressure loss.

11. Air Vents (Optional)

Air vents are used in some systems to allow trapped air to escape from the system, preventing blockages
and pressure issues.

 Function: Release air that might accumulate in the system to maintain uniform water flow.
 Considerations: Air vents are usually used in longer systems or where there are elevation
changes.

12. Pressure Gauges (Optional)

Pressure gauges monitor the pressure within the system to ensure it remains within the desired range.

 Function: Indicates whether the system is operating at the correct pressure for optimal emitter
performance.
 Considerations: Can be installed at various points in the system for ongoing monitoring and
maintenance.

13. Timer and Controller (Optional)

Timers and controllers are used in automated drip systems to schedule when the system will turn on and
off, based on the crop’s water needs.

 Function: Automatically controls the timing of irrigation cycles.

 Considerations: Ideal for large-scale or automated irrigation, reducing the need for manual
operation and optimizing water use.
16. Draw a profiles of moisture front advance in drip irrigation in medium textured soils 4
17. Explain the major advantages of drip irrigation as compared to other methods of irrigation. (U
4/5) 10
18. What are the factors that are involves to designing of a drip irrigation system? (U4/17) 3
19. Describe the necessary steps/checklist of procedures in designing a drip irrigation system.
(U4/17) 7
20.Short note: Emitter Selection Criteria (U4/18) 5
21. What are the steps to be taken for selection of emitter? (U4/19) 5

22. Short note: Design emission uniformity (Uniformity coefficient) with example 13.1 (U5/9)

Emission Uniformity in an irrigation system refers to the consistency with which water is distributed
across the entire area being irrigated. It measures how evenly the system applies water to the soil and
plants. Achieving high emission uniformity ensures that all parts of the field or landscape receive
adequate moisture, which promotes healthy plant growth, conserves water, and reduces waste.

Key Factors Affecting Emission Uniformity:

1. Sprinkler Distribution Patterns: Sprinklers should have a consistent spray pattern, and their
placement should avoid overlap or gaps in coverage. This is particularly important in systems
like center pivots or rotor sprinklers.
2. Water Pressure: The water pressure at the sprinkler must be constant throughout the system.
Inconsistent pressure can cause some areas to receive more water than others.
3. Sprinkler Design: Different types of sprinklers, such as impact, rotor, or spray sprinklers, have
varying uniformity characteristics. Choosing the appropriate type for the field size, crop type,
and water supply is crucial for good emission uniformity.
4. Wind and Environmental Conditions: External factors such as wind can affect the trajectory of
water droplets and lead to uneven distribution. This can be minimized by choosing sprinklers
with appropriate droplet sizes and adjusting the irrigation timing.
 5. Elevation and Terrain: The topography of the field can affect water distribution. Areas at
higher elevations might receive less water than lower areas unless the system compensates for
elevation changes.

23. What are the uses of sprinkler irrigation system? 5

Sprinkler irrigation systems are widely used in agriculture, landscaping, and other applications to
distribute water efficiently and uniformly. Here are the main uses of sprinkler irrigation systems:

1. Agriculture:
o Crop irrigation: Sprinkler systems are used to water crops, ensuring they receive
adequate moisture for growth, especially in regions with irregular rainfall.
o Water conservation: Sprinklers allow precise control of water distribution, reducing
wastage compared to traditional irrigation methods like flood irrigation.
o Fertigation: Sprinkler systems can be used to apply fertilizers mixed with water,
improving nutrient absorption by crops.
2. Landscaping and Lawn Care:
o Residential lawns and gardens: Sprinklers are commonly used to keep lawns, gardens,
and plants hydrated, especially in dry or arid climates.
o Golf courses and sports fields: These systems are essential for maintaining the grass and
turf in sports facilities and recreational areas.
3. Horticulture:
o Greenhouses: Sprinkler irrigation is used in greenhouses to maintain consistent moisture
levels for delicate plants, flowers, and vegetables.
o Nurseries: Sprinklers provide water to plants in nurseries, promoting healthy growth.
4. Municipal and Urban Areas:
 o Parks and public spaces: Sprinkler systems are used to irrigate public parks, gardens,
and green spaces in urban areas.
o Street landscaping: Some city streets and roadsides are watered using sprinkler systems
to maintain greenery and aesthetics.
5. Dust Control:
o In areas prone to dust, such as construction sites or mining operations, sprinklers can be
used to wet surfaces, reducing dust accumulation and improving air quality.
6. Frost Protection:
o Sprinkler systems are sometimes used in cold climates to protect crops from frost
damage. The water forms a protective layer over plants, preventing the temperature from
dropping too low.
7. Fire Protection:
o In areas at risk of wildfires, sprinklers can be installed around properties to create a buffer
zone by moistening the surrounding vegetation and reducing fire risks.

24. Briefly describe the classification of sprinkle irrigation system. 5 Sprinkler irrigation systems are
classified based on several factors, such as the type of sprinkler used, the water pressure required, and
the layout of the system. Here's a brief overview of their classification:

1. Based on Sprinkler Type:

o Fixed Sprinkler System: The sprinklers are stationary, usually installed on a permanent
basis, and irrigate a specific area.
o Mobile Sprinkler System: These systems consist of sprinklers that can be moved to
different locations to irrigate various areas as needed.
2. Based on Water Pressure:
o Low-Pressure Sprinkler Systems: Operate at lower pressure (typically 1 to 2 bar) and
are used for small-scale or garden irrigation.
o Medium-Pressure Sprinkler Systems: Work at moderate pressure (2 to 4 bar) and are
commonly used for larger agricultural areas.
o High-Pressure Sprinkler Systems: These operate at higher pressure (over 4 bar) and are
suitable for large fields and high-efficiency irrigation needs.
3. Based on Layout:
o Center Pivot Irrigation: A circular system where a rotating pipe with sprinklers moves
around a central pivot, irrigating a large area in a circular pattern.
o Lateral Move (Side Roll) Irrigation: A linear sprinkler system that moves back and
forth across a field in a straight line, irrigating the area as it moves.
o Static Sprinkler System: Involves stationary sprinklers that cover specific zones, often
used in gardens or smaller fields.

25. Short note: Types of sprinklers

There are several types of sprinklers used in irrigation systems, each designed for different purposes,
water pressures, and coverage areas. The main types of sprinklers include:

1. Stationary Sprinklers:
o Impact Sprinklers: These sprinklers use a mechanical arm that swings back and forth to
distribute water in a circular pattern. They are suitable for medium to large-sized areas.
o Stationary (Fixed) Sprinklers: These are fixed in place and water a specific area. They
are commonly used in smaller landscapes, gardens, and lawns.
2. Rotary Sprinklers:
o Rotor Sprinklers: These sprinklers rotate slowly, delivering water in a continuous spray
over a larger area. They are often used for larger landscapes and lawns.
o Gear-Driven Rotors: A more durable and efficient version of rotor sprinklers, these have
a gear mechanism that provides even, adjustable coverage. They're used for medium to
large areas, such as parks and golf courses.
3. Pop-up Sprinklers:
o These sprinklers are designed to stay below the ground when not in use and pop up when
the irrigation system is activated. They are commonly used in lawns and gardens because
they don’t obstruct the landscape when idle.
4. Spray Sprinklers:
o Fixed Spray Sprinklers: These deliver water in a fixed, short-range spray pattern and are
typically used for smaller areas like flower beds, gardens, or lawns.
o Adjustable Spray Sprinklers: These sprinklers allow for adjustable spray patterns and
are used in areas with varied irrigation needs.
5. Misting or Micro Sprinklers:
o These sprinklers produce a fine mist and are used for delicate irrigation, such as for small
plants, flowers, or in greenhouses where lower water volumes are needed.
6. Traveling Sprinklers:
o These sprinklers move across the area on a hose, typically used for large lawns or sports
fields. They provide uniform water distribution by moving along the length of the field.
7. Drip and Soaker Sprinklers:
o Drip Irrigation: Delivers water slowly directly to the root zone of plants, reducing
evaporation and runoff. It is often used for rows of plants or in garden beds.
o Soaker Hoses: A type of porous hose that emits water slowly along its length, ideal for
watering flower beds or rows of crops.

26. How you can determine sprinkler performance, application rate, application uniformity, explain
with equation? 6
27. What is the basis of sprinkler selection? 3

the key factors that form the basis for sprinkler selection:

1. Spray Pattern

 Full Circle (360°): Used for areas that require uniform coverage in all directions, such as circular
garden beds or small lawns.
 Half Circle (180°): Ideal for rectangular or narrow areas where only half the coverage is needed,
such as along fences or walkways.
 Quarter Circle (90°): Best suited for areas with constrained spaces, like corners or along
building walls.
 Adjustable Spray Patterns: Some sprinklers have adjustable nozzles that allow you to change
the spray pattern to suit varying garden shapes and landscaping features.

2. Water Pressure and Flow Rate

  Sprinklers have specific pressure requirements to operate efficiently. Pressure is typically
measured in pounds per square inch (psi). The sprinkler head must match the water pressure
available from the system to ensure proper operation.
 The flow rate (typically measured in gallons per minute, GPM) indicates how much water the
sprinkler can deliver at a given pressure. The sprinkler should be selected based on the flow rate
it can handle without causing uneven coverage or pressure drop in the system.

3. Application Type

 Lawns/Turf: For lawns, traditional pop-up spray heads or rotor sprinklers are often used. Spray
heads are good for smaller, flat areas, while rotor sprinklers are more effective for larger, more
open spaces with varying water needs.
 Garden Beds: For flower or vegetable gardens, drip irrigation or bubbler sprinklers may be
selected to minimize water waste and provide more targeted watering.
 Trees and Shrubs: Rotor heads or specially designed tree bubblers may be needed to cover
larger and more vertical areas.

4. Coverage Area and Radius

 The size of the area being watered determines the type of sprinkler you choose. Sprinklers have
different spray radii, typically ranging from a few feet to over 50 feet.
 Small areas may require spray heads with a smaller radius (e.g., 10-15 feet), while larger areas
may need rotor heads with a larger radius (e.g., 20-50 feet).
 Ensure that the radius of the sprinkler head aligns with the spacing and the area you want to
cover, considering the ideal overlap between heads for even distribution.

5. Water Efficiency

 Water Conservation: Choose sprinklers that are designed to minimize water waste. Low-flow or
water-efficient sprinklers such as pressure-regulated heads or drip irrigation systems help
conserve water.
 Rain Sensors or Smart Controllers: Sprinklers can be integrated with controllers or rain
sensors that adjust the watering schedule based on current weather conditions, reducing
unnecessary irrigation.

6. Soil Type and Topography

 Soil Permeability: Different soils absorb water at varying rates. Sandy soils require less water
and can handle higher-pressure sprinklers, while clay soils need more time to absorb water, so
lower pressure or slower application sprinklers (like rotors or drip) may be necessary.
 Slopes and Elevation: Sprinklers should be chosen with the terrain in mind. On slopes, consider
pressure-regulated sprinklers or heads that provide consistent application rates, avoiding runoff
or over-watering higher areas.

7. Sprinkler Head Type

 Pop-up Sprinklers: These are used for lawns or areas where sprinklers need to retract when not
in use. They are typically used with spray or rotor heads.
 Rotor Sprinklers: These are used for larger, more open areas with less dense planting. They
rotate to deliver water in a larger pattern.
  Impact Sprinklers: Ideal for large areas and are often adjustable in both flow rate and spray
pattern.
 Drip Irrigation: For areas requiring highly targeted watering (e.g., garden beds, trees), drip
irrigation heads or emitters are ideal for delivering water directly to the soil without waste.

8. Durability and Material

 Sprinklers are made from various materials such as plastic, brass, or stainless steel. Choose the
material based on the environmental conditions (e.g., resistance to UV rays, durability in cold
climates, corrosion resistance).
 The choice of material also affects the life span of the sprinkler. For example, stainless steel or
high-quality plastic tends to last longer in areas with high sun exposure.

9. Cost and Maintenance

28. Determine the sprinkler capacity for a Set-Move System for the following data: 10 Application
efficiency = 70% L = 18 m DDIR = 0.80 cm L1 = 402 m S = 12 m N1 = laterals D = 5 cm Tm =
0.5hour Af = (38+RLN)
K = 100
he cans 25, 23, 21, 28, 24, 22, 23, 24, 21, 23, 19, 26, 20, 18, 16, 20, 29, 22, 16 and 19 mm.
Determine theuniformity coefficient of the sprinkler? 5

29. Twenty sample cans are uniformly spaced in the area covered by four sprinklers. The depths
were caught in the cans 25, 23, 21, 28, 24, 22, 23, 24, 21, 23, 19, 26, 20, 18, 16, 20, 29, 22, 16 and
19 mm. Determine theuniformity coefficient of the sprinkler? 5
30. State the general rules for sprinkler system design and layout. 7

Designing and laying out a sprinkler system requires careful planning to ensure adequate coverage,
efficiency, and compliance with local codes. Below are the general rules for sprinkler system design and
layout:

1. Water Supply and Pressure

 Water Source: Ensure there is a sufficient and reliable water supply to meet the demands of the
sprinkler system.
 Pressure Requirements: Sprinkler systems typically require specific water pressures, often
ranging from 30-50 psi, depending on the type of sprinkler heads. The system design should
account for pressure loss due to friction and elevation.

2. Sprinkler Head Selection

 Type of Sprinkler Heads: Choose the appropriate sprinkler heads (rotors, spray heads, drip
emitters, etc.) based on the application (lawn, garden, trees, etc.), coverage area, and water
efficiency.
 Adjustable vs. Fixed: Use adjustable heads for flexibility in coverage, especially when the
layout or landscaping may change.
 Spray Pattern: Select heads that provide an even distribution pattern (full circle, half circle,
quarter circle) to match the layout of the area.
3. Spacing of Sprinkler Heads

 Spacing Between Heads: Generally, sprinkler heads should be spaced at a distance equal to the
radius of their spray pattern. However, the spacing might vary depending on the type of sprinkler
and the flow rate.
 Overlap Coverage: Ensure that there is overlap between sprinkler heads to prevent dry spots and
ensure uniform coverage. A 50-75% overlap is typical.

4. Layout and Zoning

 Zones: Divide the system into multiple zones based on the water needs of different areas. Larger
areas or areas with different sun/shade conditions may require separate zones.
 Irregular Shaped Areas: Use different types of sprinkler heads (e.g., spray heads, rotors) to
cover irregularly shaped areas effectively.
 Watering Requirements: Group plants with similar water requirements in the same zone.
Separate turf areas from shrub or flower beds as they have different watering needs.

5. Pipe Sizing and Flow

 Pipe Sizing: Ensure the pipe diameter is adequate to deliver the required flow to the sprinkler
heads without excessive pressure loss. A system designed to handle the total flow capacity is
essential.
 Flow Rate: Each sprinkler head has a specific flow rate, and the design must ensure that the total
flow for a zone does not exceed the water supply capacity.
 Pressure Loss: Consider friction loss in the pipes and fittings, as this can reduce the system’s
effectiveness. Larger diameter pipes typically reduce friction loss.

6. Elevations and Slopes

 Elevation Differences: If the area has significant elevation changes, consider the impact on
pressure. Higher elevations may require additional pressure to compensate for the loss due to
gravity.
 Sloped Areas: For sloped areas, consider using pressure-regulated sprinkler heads or valves to
maintain consistent water distribution.

7. Backflow Prevention

 Install a backflow prevention device to prevent contaminants from entering the potable water
supply due to pressure changes or system malfunctions.

8. System Components

 Valves: Use zone valves to control the operation of each zone independently. Ensure that the
valves are easily accessible for maintenance.
 Controllers: Choose an irrigation controller that allows scheduling and automation, optimizing
water usage and preventing overwatering.
 Filters and Pressure Regulators: Depending on water quality and pressure, filters and
regulators may be necessary to protect the system components and ensure efficient operation.

9. System Testing and Adjustment

  After installation, test the system to ensure all sprinkler heads are functioning properly, covering
the designated areas, and the pressure is within the required range.
 Adjust sprinkler heads for optimal water distribution and check for leaks or clogs.

10. Maintenance and Seasonal Adjustments

 Routine Inspections: Periodically check for any obstructions, leaks, or clogged sprinkler heads
and ensure they are working efficiently.
 Seasonal Adjustments: Adjust the watering schedule based on seasonal changes, weather
patterns, and plant water requirements.
32.Describe the evaluation procedures of buried pipe irrigation system.

Ans: Describe the evaluation procedures of buried pipe irrigation system are given below:
1. Flow Rate and Uniformity:
a .Measure the flow rate of water delivered by the pipes. Use flow meters or other appropriate measurement tools
to determine if the system is providing the intended flow rates.
b. Assess the uniformity of water distribution along the length of the pipes and across the field. Evaluate whether
all areas receive an equal amount of water.

2. Pipe Condition:
a. Inspect the pipes for physical damage, leaks, or obstructions. This may involve visually examining the pipes or
using tools like pipe cameras to detect any blockages or defects.
b. Check for corrosion or material degradation, especially in older systems. The condition of the pipes should be
assessed to ensure they are functioning optimally.

3. System Layout:
a. Review the layout of the buried pipe network. Ensure that the pipes are correctly positioned in the field and that
they are not exposed to potential damage from equipment or external factors.
b. Assess the alignment and depth of the pipes to prevent potential problems, such as pipe rupture due to pressure
or environmental stress.

4. Emitter Performance:
a. Evaluate the performance of emitters or outlets attached to the pipes. Ensure that they are delivering water
consistently and are not clogged or damaged.
b.Check for the presence of pressure-compensating devices to maintain uniform flow rates across the system.

5. Water Quality:
Analyze the quality of the water used for irrigation, as poor water quality can lead to clogging and reduced system
efficiency. Test for issues such as high sediment content or water chemistry problems.

6. Energy Efficiency:
Evaluate the energy consumption associated with the irrigation system, especially if it includes pumps. Ensure that
the system operates efficiently and minimizes energy costs.

7. Water Use Efficiency:

Assess the overall water use efficiency of the system. This involves measuring the amount of water applied
versus the crop's water requirements.
Calculate water use efficiency indicators such as water use efficiency (WUE) and application efficiency.

8. Monitoring and Control:

Determine whether the system has appropriate monitoring and control mechanisms in place. This may involve
assessing the use of sensors, automation, and remote control for irrigation scheduling and adjustments.

9. Irrigation Scheduling:
Review the irrigation schedule and frequency to ensure it matches the crop's needs. Adjustments may be
necessary based on weather conditions, soil moisture, and crop growth stages.

10. Maintenance and Repairs:

Check for regular maintenance practices and repairs. A well-maintained system is less likely to experience
downtime and inefficiencies.
Identify any immediate repair needs and prioritize them to prevent further damage.

33.Describe the designing factors/designing steps to design and evaluation of border irrigation
system.
Ans: Describe the designing factors/designing steps to design and evaluation of border irrigation system
are given below:

(1) size of stream.

(2) rate of advance.
(3) length of run and time involved.
(4) depth of flow .
(5) intake rate .
(6) slope of land surface.
(7) surface roughness.
(8) erosion hazard.
(9) shape of flow channel .
(10) depth of water to be applied,
(11) fluid characteristics.
Designing and evaluating surface irrigation, particularly graded border irrigation methods, involves
considering various factors to optimize water distribution, minimize water wastage, and prevent erosion.

1. Size of Stream: The size of the stream refers to the width of the water source (typically a canal or
river) from which water is diverted for surface irrigation. The size of the stream should be adequate to
meet the water requirements of the field. Insufficient flow can lead to water deficits, while excessive
flow can cause flooding and wastage.
2. Rate of Advance: The rate of advance is the speed at which the water moves across the field. It's
essential to control this rate to ensure uniform water distribution. A slow advance can lead to over-
irrigation and waterlogging, while a fast advance can result in inadequate water penetration.

3. Length of Run and Time Involved: The length of the run refers to the distance water travels across the
field. This parameter, along with the time involved, should be carefully managed to ensure that the entire
field receives the required amount of water. Longer runs may require more precise control to achieve
uniform irrigation.

4. Depth of Flow: The depth of flow is the height of the water as it moves across the field. It is
important to maintain a consistent and adequate depth of flow to ensure proper soil infiltration. Too
shallow a flow can lead to uneven distribution, while too deep a flow may cause water wastage.

5. Intake Rate: Intake rate refers to the ability of the soil to absorb water. It is critical to match the
irrigation rate with the soil's intake rate to avoid runoff and ponding. Soil type, texture, and compaction
all influence the intake rate.

6. Slope of Land Surface: The slope of the land affects the flow of water in surface irrigation. A gentle
slope is generally preferred, as it allows for even water distribution. Steep slopes can lead to water
concentration in lower areas and increased erosion risk.

7. Surface Roughness: The roughness of the field's surface impacts the uniformity of water distribution.
A smooth, level surface promotes better water spread, whereas rough or uneven terrain can lead to water
pooling in low spots.

8. Erosion Hazard: Surface irrigation can be prone to erosion, especially on sloping fields. Implementing
measures like contour farming, planting cover crops, or using sediment basins can help mitigate erosion
and soil loss.
9. Shape of Flow Channel: The shape of the flow channel, such as the cross-sectional geometry of
ditches or furrows, can influence how water spreads and infiltrates the field. Properly designed flow
channels should promote even water distribution.

10. Depth of Water to Be Applied: The depth of water to be applied is determined by the crop's water
requirements and the soil's moistureholding capacity. Accurate measurement and control of applied
water depth are essential for efficient irrigation.

11. Fluid Characteristics: The properties of the water, such as temperature and sediment content, can
affect the efficiency of surface irrigation. Very cold or sediment-laden water may impact the distribution
and infiltration of water into the soil. In the design and evaluation of graded border irrigation methods,
it's crucial to consider all these factors to achieve efficient water use, minimize water wastage, and
prevent soil erosion. Additionally, advanced technology, such as soil moisture sensors and automated
control systems, can be integrated into the system to optimize irrigation practices and conserve water
resources. Regular monitoring and adjustment are also necessary to adapt to changing conditions and
improve the overall effectiveness of the irrigation system