Chapter 13

Soil Exploration

CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS

☞ Introduction ☞ Cone penetration tests

☞ Objectives of soil exploration ☞ Static cone penetration test
☞ Methods of soil exploration ☞ Dynamic cone test
☞ Types of soil samples ☞ In-situ tests using a pressure meter
☞ Corrections for standard penetration number ☞ Geophysical methods

Introduction 3. Indirect methods: Soundings or penetration tests

and geophysical methods
Soil investigation or subsurface explorations are done for
determining the profile of natural soil deposits at the site and,
also for determining the index and engineering properties of the Test Pits
soil. It also includes the in situ testing of soils to determine • This test is suitable only for small depths up to 3 m.
the properties of soils in natural conditions. This chapter • For excavation of pervious soils at great depths, lateral
discusses various methods of subsurface explorations and supports or bracings are required.
in situ testing of soil deposits. • Useful for conducting field tests, such as plate bearing
test.
ObJectives of Soil Exploration • Test pits are usually made only for supplementing other
methods or for minor structures.
1. Determination of the depth and thickness of the various
soil strata and their extent in horizontal direction.
2. The location of ground water and fluctuation in
Boring
ground water table. • Boring is a method of making or drilling bore holes into
the ground for obtaining soil or rock samples from known
3. Determination of the engineering properties of the
or specified depths.
soil and the rock strata that affect the performance of
• Depending upon the type of soil and the purpose of
the structure.
boring, the following methods are used for drilling the
4. Determination of the in-situ properties by performing holes.
field tests.
1. Auger boring:
Methods of Soil Exploration • This method is effective for subsurface investiga-
The methods available for soil exploration may be classified tions of highways, railways and airfields, where the
as follows: depth of exploration is small.
• This method is, generally, used in soils which can
1. Direct methods: Test pits, trial pits or trenches. stay open without casing or drilling mud, such as
2. Semi-direct methods: Borings clays, silts, etc.

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•• The main disadvantage of auger boring is that the Types of Soil Samples
soil samples are highly disturbed.
1. Disturbed samples:
2. Wash boring: •• If the natural structure of the soil gets disturbed
•• Used for exploration below ground water table for during the sampling, then they are known as dis-
which the Auger method is not suitable. turbed samples.
•• This method cannot be efficiently applied in hard •• It is used to determine the index properties of soil.
soils, rocks and soils containing boulders.
•• The hole is advanced by a combination of chop- 2. Undisturbed samples:
ping action and jetting action. •• In these samples, the natural structure of the soil
and the water content are retained.
3. Rotary drilling: •• Undisturbed samples are used for determining the
•• It is used in clay sands and rocks. This method is engineering properties of soil.
not suitable if material contains large percentage of •• In it, smaller the disturbance, greater would be the
particles of gravel reliability of results.
•• The hole is advanced by rotating a hollow drill rod
which has a cutting bit at its lower end. Design Features Affecting
4. Percussion drilling: the Sample Disturbance
•• This method is suitable for making holes in rocks, Area Ratio (Ar)
boulders and other hard strata.
•• It is useful for drilling holes in glacial tills contain- Maximum cross − ∫ Sectional
ing boulders.
area of the cutting edge
•• In this method, a heavy chisel is alternately lifted Ar = ×100
and dropped in a vertical hole. Area of the soil sample

5. Core drilling: D22 − D12

Area ratio can be expressed as, Ar = × 100
•• This method is used for drilling holes and obtain- D12
ing rock cores. Where
•• Diamond-cutting edge is used.
D1 = Inner diameter of the cutting edge
D2 = Outer diameter of the cutting edge
Spacing of Borings D4
•• The spacing of borings or the number of borings depends
on the type, size and weight of the proposed structure,
variation in soil conditions.
•• For an area of about 0.4 hectare, one bore hole or Sampling tube
trial pit in each corner and one is the centre should be D3
adequate.
•• For smaller and less important buildings, one bore hole at
the cente is sufficient.

Cutting edge
Depth of Borings
Normally, the depth of boring should be one and half times
the width of the footing below the foundation level. D1

D2

Soil Sampling For obtaining good quality undisturbed samples, the area
ratio should be 10 percent or less.
•• It is the process of obtaining soil samples from the desired
depth at the desired location in a natural soil deposit to Inside Clearance (Ci)
assess the engineering properties of soil.
•• The devices used for the purpose of sampling are known D3 − D1
Ci = × 100
as soil samplers. D1

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Where, D3 = Inner diameter of the sampling tube. •• It can also be used to determine the unconfined compres-
sive strength of cohesive soils.
•• For an undisturbed sample, the inside clearance should be
•• The test is conducted in a bore hole using a standard split
between 0.5–3 percent.
spoon sampler. Standard penetration number is equal to
Outside Clearance (C0) the number of blows required for 300 mm of penetration
beyond a seating drive of 150 mm.
D2 − D4 •• If the number of blows for 150 mm drive exceeds 50, it is
C0 = × 100 taken as refusal and test is discontinued.
D4

Where, D4 = Outer diameter of the sampling tube.

Corrections for Standard
Split Spoon Samplers Penetration Number
•• Commonly used for obtaining a disturbed sample of the
soil. Dialatancy Correction
•• Sampler is attached to the drilling rod and the soil sample •• Correction is to be applied in case of silty fine sands and
is collected by jacking or by applying repeated blows of fine sands below the water table due to development of
a drop hammer. pore pressure which increases the resistance of soil and
•• Sample recovery becomes difficult in case of fine sand the penetration number (N).
below the water table. In such case, a spring core catcher •• Terzaghi and peck recommended the following correc-
device is used. tion when the observed value of N exceeds 15.
If NR ≤ 15, NC = NR
Scraper Bucket Sampler
If NR > 15, corrected penetration number
•• Suitable for sandy deposit containing pebbles where
standard split spoon sampler or split spoon sampler fitted 1
NC = 15 + (N – 15)
with a spring core catcher cannot be used. 2 R
•• Can also be used cohesionless soils below water table. Where, NR is recorded value, and NC is the corrected
value.
Shelby Tubes and Thin-walled Samplers
•• Used for obtaining undisturbed samples of clay. Overburdened Pressure Correction
•• The area ratio of shelby tubes is less than 15% and the •• N-value depends on the overburdened pressure.
inside clearance is between 0.5–3%. •• Higher confining pressure gives a higher penetration
•• The length of tube is 5–10 times the diameter for sandy number.
soils and 10–15 times the diameter of the clayey soil. •• As the confining pressure in cohesionless soils increase
with the depth, the penetration number for soils at shal-
Piston Sampler low depth is under estimated and that greater depth is
Used for obtaining undisturbed soil samples from soft and over estimated.
sensitive clays. •• For uniformity, N-value is reported at a standard effective
overburden pressure.
Dension Sampler •• Different empirical formulas are available.
•• Mainly used for obtaining samples of stiff to hard cohe-
sive soils and slightly cohesive sands.
•• It cannot be used for gravelly soils, loose cohesionless
Cone Penetration Tests
sands and silts below the ground water table and very soft •• Sounding methods mainly consist of the cone test and the
cohesive soils. standard penetration test.
•• Cone test was developed by the Dutch Government. This
Hand-carved Samples test is also known as Dutch cone test.
•• The test is conducted either by static method or by
•• Hand-carved samples are also known as chunk samples.
dynamic method.
•• Hand-carved samples are undisturbed.

Standard Penetration Test Static Cone Penetration Test

•• Commonly used in situ-test for cohesionless soils. •• It is also known as Dutch cone test.
•• It is usefull for determining the relative density and the •• Dutch cone has an apex angle of 60° and an overall
angle of shearing resistance of cohesionless soils. diameter of 35.7 mm.

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•• For obtaining cone resistance, the cone is pushed down- 1. Seismic methods
ward at a steady rate by applying thrust. 2. Electrical resistivity methods
•• It is useful for determination of bearing capacity and skin •• Seismic method is extremely useful for the
friction values. determination of various strata and their
•• It is useful for cohesionless soils. characteristics.
•• The seismic methods are useful for obtaining pre-
Dynamic Cone Test liminary information on the types and depths of
•• The number of blows required for 30 cm of penetration is various strata.
taken as the dynamic cone resistance. •• This method (seismic) cannot be used if a hard
•• The driving energy is given by a 65 kg hammer falling layer overlies a softer layer.
from a height of 75 cm. •• Electrical resistivity is divided into electrical pro-
filing method and electrical sounding method.
In-situ Tests Using •• The electrical profiling method is also known as
the resistivity mapping method. It is, generally,
a Pressure Meter used for locating sand and gravel deposits within a
•• It is also known as sub-soil deformeter. fine-grained soil deposit.
•• This method was developed by Maynand. •• The electrical sounding method can indicate the
•• It is used for determining the stress deformation charac- sub-surface variation when a hard layer overlies
teristics of the soils in natural condition. a soft layer or vice-versa. It can also be used for
locating water table.
Geophysical Methods
The geophysical methods can be divided into two
categories:

Exercises

1. The observed value of the standard penetration number 3. Consider the following properties for a soil sampler:
(N) at 10 m depth of a silty sand deposit is 13. The unit I. Area ratio should be low.
weight of the soil is 16 kN/m3. The N value after cor- II. Cutting edge should be thick.
recting for the presence of fines will be III. Inside clearance should be high.
(A) 12 (B) 13 IV. Outside clearance should be low.
(C) 14 (D) 15 The properties necessary for a good quality soil sam-
2. Match the List I (Boring methods) with List II (Field pler would include
conditions) and select the correct answer using the (A) I and IV
codes given below the lists. (B) I, II and IV
List I List II
(C) II, III and IV
(D) I, III and IV
a. Auger boring 1. Below water table in all soil types
except hard soils and rocks 4. A good quality undisturbed soil sample is one which is
b. Wash boring 2. Large diameter boreholes over obtained using a sampling tube having an area ratio of
150 mm in size (A) 8%
c. Percussion drilling 3. Explorations for shallow foun- (B) 16%
dations and highways (C) 24%
d. Rotary drilling 4. Bouldery and gravelly strata (D) 32%
Codes: 5. A soil sampler has inner and outer radii of 25 mm and
a b c d a b c d 30 mm, respectively. The area ratio of the sampler is
(A) 3 1 4 2 (B) 1 2 4 3 (A) 24% (B) 34%
(C) 2 3 4 1 (D) 3 1 2 4 (C) 44% (D) 54%

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6. Match List I (Sampler) with List II (Use) and select the III. Inside clearance should be low.
correct answer using the codes given below the lists: IV. Outside clearance should be low.
List I List II Which of the above statements are correct?
a. Split spoon 1. To obtain representative sam- (A) I and II (B) II and III
sampler ples in all types
(C) III and IV (D) I and IV
b. Stationary pis- 2. To obtain undisturbed samples
ton sampler of stands below water table 11. Match the items of List I with List II and select the
c. Rotary sampler 3. To obtain undisturbed samples
correct answer using the codes given below the lists
in clay and silts
List I List II
d. Compressed air 4. To obtain approximately
a. Modulus of subgrade 1. Cyclic pile load test
sampler undisturbed samples of hard
reaction
cemented cohesive soils
b. Relative density and 2. Pressure meter test
Codes: strength
a b c d a b c d
c. Skin friction and point 3. Plate load test
(A) 1 3 2 4 (B) 3 1 4 2 bearing resistance
(C) 1 3 4 2 (D) 3 1 2 4 d. Elastic constants 4. Standard penetration test

7. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer 5. Dynamic cone penetra-
tion test
using the code given below the lists:
List I List II Codes:
a. Geophysical methods 1. Primary for cohesive soils
a b c d a b c d
b. SPT 2. Clays and silts (A) 1 3 2 5 (B) 1 2 4 3
(C) 2 5 1 3 (D) 3 4 1 2
c. DCPT 3. Reconnaissance covering
large area and large depth 12. In the context of collecting undisturbed soil samples
d. Piston-type sampler 4. Suitable for sandy soils of high quality using a spoon sampler, following state-
ment are made:
Codes:
I Area ratio should be less than 10%
a b c d a b c d
II. Clearance ratio should be less than 1%
(A) 2 1 4 3 (B) 3 1 4 2
With reference to above statements, which of the fol-
(C) 2 4 1 3 (D) 3 4 1 2
lowing applies?
8. Consider the following statements; (A) Both the statements are true.
I. Undisturbed samples may be obtained with the help (B) Statement II is true but I is false.
of augers.
(C) Statement I is true but II is false.
II. Auger drilling is most effective in clayey soils.
III. Hollow stem augers are sometimes used to drill (D) Both the statements are false.
holes in silty sand. 13. During the subsurface investigation for design of foun-
Which of these statements are correct? dations, a standard penetration test was conducted at
(A) I, II and III (B) I and II only 4.5 m below the ground surface. The record of number
(C) II and III only (D) I and III only of blows is given below:
9. Consider the following statements: Penetration
I. The static cone penetration test is unsuitable for Depth (cm) No of Blows
layered deposits of sands, silts and clays. 0–7.5 3
II. The results of groundwater investigation are 7.5–15 3
recorded as water-table contours over the site.
15–22.5 6
III. Closed piezometers are used to measure pore water
22.5–30 6
pressure in soils having low permeability.
30–37.5 8
Which of the above statements are correct?
(A) I, II and III (B) I and II only 37.5–4.5 7
(C) II and III only (D) I and III only Assuming the water table at ground level, soil as fine
10. Consider the following statements related to the prop- sand and correction for overburden as 1.0, the cor-
erties of a good quality soil example: rected ‘N’ value for the soil would be
I. Area ratio should be low. (A) 18 (B) 19
II. Cutting edge should be thick. (C) 21 (D) 33

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14. Match the following: 20. The seismic method of soil exploration cannot be used
Compaction
for
Equipments Usage (A) sub surface investigation.
1. Tampers i. For cohesive and
(B) hard layers.
non cohesive soils (C) clays.
2. Pneumatic tyred ii. For clays
(D) sandy soils.
rollers 21. The number of blows observed in a standard
3. Sheep foot roller iii. For confined trenches penetration test for different penetration depths are
4. Vibratory compactors iv. For granular soils given as follows:

(A) 1 – iii, 2 – i, 3 – ii, 4 – iv Penetration of Sampler Number of Blows

(B) 1 – iv, 2 – iii, 3 – ii, 4 – i 0–100 mm 2
(C) 1 – iii, 2 – ii, 3 – iv, 4 – i 100–200 mm 4
(D) 1 – ii, 2 – i, 3 – iii, 4 – iv 200–350 mm 7
15. If the actual observed value of standard penetration 350–400 mm 10
resistance N is greater than 15 in a fine sand layer below
The observed ‘N’ value is ______.
water table, then equivalent penetration resistance will
be 22. For the sampler shown in the figure area ratio, inside
( N + 15) ( N × 15) clearance and outside clearance are respectively
(A) 15 + (B) 15 +
2 2 25 mm

( N − 15) (15 − N )
(C) 15 + (D) 15 +
2 2
25 mm
16. In standard penetration test conducted at site the Sampling tube
recorded values of blow count for every 15 cm penetra-
tion at a depth of 45 cm are 5, 10, 15 respectively. The
value of SPT blow count (N) that should be used is
(A) 15 (B) 17 Cutting edge
(C) 25 (D) 19 20 mm
17. Match the following
Type of Boring Usage
28 mm
a. Auger boring 1. For drilling holes

b. Rotary drilling 2. Advancing holes in the ground
(A) 96%, 12%, 10% (B) 49%, 11%, 9%
c. Core drilling 3. Drilling holes in clay (C) 49%, 9%, 11% (D) 96%, 10%, 12%
d. Percussion drilling 4. Sampling for highways,
railways etc
23. Match List I (Roller type) with List II (Soil type):
List I List II
a b c d a b c d
1. Sheep foot roller a. Gravel in WBM road
(A) 4 1 3 2 (B) 4 3 1 2
2. Pneumatic roller b. Dry sand
(C) 2 3 1 4 (D) 1 2 3 4
3. Smooth heavy roller c. Hearting of earthen dam
18.    I.Cement stabilization is done by using mixture of soil 4. Vibratory roller d. Casing of earthen dam
+ cement + water + compaction + curing.
II. Chemical stabilization is done by using calcium (A) 1 – b, 2 – c, 3 – a, 4 – d
chloride and sodium silicate. (B) 1 – c, 2 – d, 3 – a, 4 – b
(A) I and II are true (C) 1 – d, 2 – c, 3 – a, 4 – b
(B) I and II are false (D) 1 – d, 2 – c, 3 – b, 4 – a
(C) I is true and II is false 24. The area ratio of sampler should not exceed
(D) I is false and II is true (A) 70% (B) 50%
19. The incorrect statement among the following is: (C) 10% (D) 25%
(A) The area ratio should be low. 25. The SPT value is recorded for the penetration of split
(B) The cutting edge should be thick. barrel sampler for a penetratioin of
(C) The inside clearance should be small. (A) 60 cm (B) 30 cm
(D) The outside clearance should be small. (C) 15 cm (D) 45 cm

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26. Match List I (Roller Type) with List II (Soil Type) and Codes:
select the correct answer using the codes given. a b c d a b c d
List I List II (A) 3 1 2 4 (B) 4 1 2 3
a. Vibratory roller. 1. Cohesive and granular soils (C) 3 2 1 4 (D) 4 2 1 3
b. Smooth wheel roller 2. Silty soils of low plasticity
c. Pneumatic roller 3. Cohesionless soil
d. Sheep foot roller 4. Plastic soils of moderate
cohesion

Previous Years’ Questions

1. The number of blows observed in a standard penetra- 4. List I enlists in situ field tests carried out for soil
tion test (SPT) for different penetration depths are exploration. While List II provides a list of param-
given as follows  [GATE, 2007] eters for sub soil strength characterization. Match
Penetration of Sampler Number of Blows the type of tests with the characterization parameters
0 –150 mm 6  [GATE, 2014]
150–3000 8 List I List II
300 –450 mm 10 P. Pressure test (PMT) 1. Menard’s modulus (Em)
The observed N value is Static cone penetration
Q. 2. Number of blows (N)
(A) 8 (B) 14 test (SCPT)
(C) 18 (D) 24 Standard penetration
R. 3. Skin resistance (fc)
test (SPT)
2. Dilatancy correction is required when a strata is
 [GATE, 2009] S. Vane shear test (VST) 4. Undrained cohesion (Cu)
(A) cohesive and saturated and also has N value of (A) P – 1; Q – 3; R – 2; S – 4
SPT > 15. (B) P – 1; Q – 2; R – 3; S – 4
(B) saturated silt/fine sand and N value SPT < 10 (C) P – 2; Q – 3; R – 4; S – 1
after the over bourdon correction. (D) P – 4; Q – 1; R – 2; S – 3
(C) saturated silt/fine sand and N value (SPT) > 15
5. Which of the following statements is TRUE for
after the over burden correction.
degree of disturbance of collected soil sample?
(D) coarse sand under dry condition and N value of
 [GATE, 2015]
SPT < 10 after the over burden correction.
(A) Thinner the sampler wall, lower the degree of
3. The degree of disturbance of the sample collected by disturbance of collected soil sample.
the sampler is expressed by a term called the ‘area (B) Thicker the sampler wall, lower the degree of
ratio’. If the outer diameter and inner diameter of the disturbance of collected soil sample.
sampler are D0 and Di respectively, the area ratio is (C) Thickness of the sampler wall and the degree of
given by  [GATE, 2014] disturbance of collected soil sample are unrelated.
D02 − Di2 Di2 − D02 (D) The degree of disturbance of collected soil sample
(A) (B) is proportional to the inner diameter of the sam-
Di2 Di2
pling tube.
D02 − Di2 Di2 − D02
(C) (D)
D02 D02

Answer Keys

Exercises
1. B 2. A 3. A 4. A 5. C 6. A 7. D 8. C 9. A 10. D
11. D 12. C 13. C 14. A 15. C 16. C 17. B 18. A 19. B 20. B
21. 21 22. D 23. B 24. C 25. B 26. A

Previous Years’ Questions

1. C 2. C 3. A 4. A 5. A

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