Chapter 7

Consolidation

CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS

☞ Introduction ☞ Over-consolidation ratio (OCR)

☞ Compressibility ☞ Terzaghi’s theory of consolidation
☞ Consolidation ☞ Differential equation of consolidation
☞ Compaction ☞ Degree of consolidation (U)
☞ Stages of consolidation ☞ Isochrones
☞ Terzaghi’s spring analogy for primary ☞ Determination of coefficient of consolidation
consolidation ☞ Consolidation test
☞ Basic definitions ☞ Determination of void ratio at load increment
☞ Consolidation settlement (Sf ) ☞ Immediate settlement (Si )
☞ Consolidation of undisturbed specimen

Introduction Compaction
In this chapter, the concept on consolidation of soils is dis- Compression of soils as a result of expulsion of air due to
cussed. The calculations of final settlement due to consoli- dynamic methods, such as rolling and tamping is known as
dation, time taken for occurring final settlement of soil for compaction.
different drainage conditions and Terzaghi’s theory of con- • Settlement of a structure occurs due to the compression
solidation is discussed. of soils below.

Compressibility
The property of the soil due to which a decrease in volume Stages of Consolidation
occurs under compressive forces, is known as the compress- 1. Initial consolidation: The reduction in volume
ibility of soil. of a partially saturated soil due to expulsion and
In soils, compression takes place due to: compression of air in voids just after the application
1. Compression of solid particles and water in the voids. of load is known as initial consolidation or initial
compression.
2. Compression and expulsion of air in the voids.
• In saturated soil, the initial consolidation is mainly
3. Expulsion of water in the voids. due to compression of solid particles.
4. Compression of solid particles is negligibly small and 2. Primary consolidation: The reduction in volume of
compression of water in the voids is also extremely soil due to the expulsion of water from voids is known
small and negligible. as primary consolidation or primary compression.
Consolidation • For fine-grained soils, the primary consolidation
occurs over a long time, whereas for coarse gained
The compression of soil due to expulsion of water from the soil, the primary consolidation occurs quickly due
voids under a steady static pressure is known as consolidation. to the high permeability.

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3. Secondary consolidation: The reduction in volume •• Coefficient of volume change is inverse of the bulk
continues at a very slow rate even after primary modulus.
consolidation due to the expulsion of absorbed water •• The volumetric strain (Dv /V0) can be expressed in
and plastic readjustment of solid particles. Hence, terms of either void ratio or the coefficient of the
secondary consolidation is also known as secondary thickness.
compression or creep.
∆v ∆e
=
Terzaghi’s Spring Analogy V0 1 + e0

for Primary Consolidation •• For laterally confined soils,

Valve ∆v ∆H
=
V0 H0
Piston
Where, H0 = Initial height

Spring −∆e / (1 + e0 )
mv =
∆σ ′
Water
and
 −∆H 
 
H
Comparison (simulation) Model mv =  0 
∆σ ′
Soil grains Spring
Voids and water Cylinder Relation between av and mv
Permeability Valve opening
av
Effective stress in soil Load on spring mv =
1 + e0
Excess pore pressure Load on water
•• The unit of mv is same as that of av.
Basic Definitions 3. Compression index (Cc): The compression index
(Cc) is equal to the slope of the linear portion of the
1. Coefficient of compressibility (av): The coefficient
void ratio versus log σ ′ plot.
of compressibility (av) is defined as decrease in void
per unit increase in effective stress. Slope = Cc
•• It is equal to slope of the e-s ′ curve.
e De
−∆e
av = log σ ′
∆σ ′

•• The coefficient of compressibility (av) has the

log σ ′
 L2 
dimensions of   and the units are m2/kN.
F e-log σ ′ plot

2. Coefficient of volume change (mv): The coefficient −∆e −∆e

of volume change (or the coefficient of volume Cc = ; Cc =
 σ ′f   σ ′ + ∆σ ′ 
compressibility) is defined as the volumetric strain log10   log10  0 
per unit increase in effective stress.  ∆σ 0′   σ 0′ 

( ∆v / v0 ) Where
mv =
∆σ ′ ∆σ ′ = Initial effective stress
σ ′f = Final effective stress
Where
  mv = Coefficient of volume change Δe = Change in void ratio
  V0 = Initial volume ∆σ ′ = Change in effective stress
  Δv = Change in volume •• Cc is extremely useful in the determination of
  ∆σ ′ = Change in effective stress settlement in the field.

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Terzaghi and peck gave the empirical relation as follows: Consolidation of Undisturbed
For undisturbed soils,
For remoulded soils,
Specimen
Cc = 0.009(wL – 10) 1. Over-consolidated clays: A soil is said to be over-
consolidated if it had been subjected in the past to a
Cc = 0.007(wL – 10) pressure in excess of the present pressure.
Where, wL = Liquid limit in percentage 2. Normally consolidated clay: A normally
consolidated soil is one which had not been subjected
4. Expansion index:
to a pressure greater than the present existing
A
pressure.
3. Under-consolidated clays: If the clay deposit has not
Reloading reached equilibrium under the applied overburden
F loads, it is said to be under-consolidated. This occurs
C B
e in areas of recent land fills.
E
Unloading G
NOTES
1. Normally consolidated soils and over- consoli-
dated soils are not different types of soils, but
these are conditions in which a soil exists.
σ ′1 σ ′2 2. The settlements of the structure built on an
Log σ ′ over-consolidated clay are small due to the
smaller compressibility.
Loading unloading and reloading plot
•• The expansion index or swelling index (ce) is the
slope of e-log σ ′ plot obtained during unloading. Over-consolidation Ratio (OCR)
(EBC in the above figure) The maximum pressure to which an over consolidated soil
•• Expansion index is much smaller than compression had been subjected in the past divided by the present pres-
index. sure is known as over-consolidation ratio.
∆e σ c′
Cc = OCR =
 σ ′ + ∆σ ′  σ′
log  
 σ′  OCR > 1 ⇒ Over-consolidated clay
OCR = 1 ⇒ Normally consolidated clay
5. Recompression index (Cr):
OCR < 1 ⇒ Under-consolidated clay
•• The slope of the recompression curve obtained
during reloading (CFD in the above figure) when
plotted as e-log σ ′ is equal to recompression index Terzaghi’s Theory of
(Cr).
•• The recompression index is smaller than the com-
Consolidation
pression index. Assumptions:
1 1 1. The soil is homogeneous and isotropic.
•• It is usually in the range of to of the com-
10 15 2. The soil is fully saturated.
pression index.
3. The solid particles and water in the voids are
incompressible. Consolidation occurs due to
Consolidation Settlement (Sf) expulsion of water from voids.
1. S f = ∆H = mv ⋅ H 0 ⋅ ∆σ ′ 4. The coefficient of permeability of the soil has the
∆H ∆e same value at all points, and it remains constant
2. = during the entire period of consolidation.
H 0 1 + e0
5. Darcy’s law is valid throughout the consolidation
Cc  σ ′f  process.
3. S f = ∆H = H 0 log10  
1 + e0  σ 0′  6. Soil is laterally confined and consolidation takes
place only in vertical direction.
Cc  σ ′ + ∆σ ′ 
4. S f = H 0 log10  0  7. Coefficient of compressibility and coefficient of
1 + e0  σ 0′  volume change are constant.

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Differential Equation Isochrones

of Consolidation •• The curves indicating the distribution of excess hydro-
static pressure are known as isochrones.
∂U ∂2U •• The hydraulic gradient (i) at any depth is equal to the
= Cv 2 slope of isochrone at that point.
∂t ∂z
•• The following figures show the distribution of isochro-
•• The above equation gives the distribution of excess pres- nes for open layer (drainage on both top and bottom) and
sure U with depth z and time ‘t’. half-closed layer (if only one boundary of clay layer is
free draining).
K
Cv =
mv γ w Sand
Clay
Where
K = Coefficient of permeability (m/s) t3 t2 t1
2d
mv = Coefficient of volume change
•• Units of Cv are m2/s or cm2/s. Solution of the t =∞
t=0
differential equation (above) gives three non-dimensional
Sand Ui
parameters. These are as follows:
•• The first is Z/H. It is related to the location of the point
(a) Open layer
of which consolidation is considered. Here, ‘H’ is the
maximum length of drainage path.
•• The second is the consolidation ratio or degree of Sand
consolidation (U). It indicates the extent of dissipa-
tion of the hydrostatic excess pressure in relation to the Clay
initial value. t1
d
t2
t =∞ t3
Degree of Consolidation (U) t=0

Ui
(U i / U )
U= × 100 Impermeable
Ui (b) Half closed layer
 Settlement at any time 
U =  × 100
 Ultimate settlement 
S Determination of Coefficient
U= × 100
Sf of Consolidation
The following two methods are commonly used.
•• The third-dimensionless parameter, relating to time is
called ‘time factor’. 1. Square root of time fitting method:
•• The method devised by Taylor, utilizes the theoreti-
CV t cal relationship between and U and Tv .
Time factor, Tv =
d2 •• It is more suitable for soils exhibiting high level of
Where secondary consolidation.
•• The value of coefficient of consolidation of soil is
Cv = The coefficient of consolidation
obtained from the value of t90 obtained from the
d = The drainage path plot.
d = H for single drainage (half-closed layer)
For U = 90%, Tv = 0.848
H
      = for double drainage (double layer)
2 0.848d 2
t = Time for consolidation Cv =
( )
2
t90
2
π U% 
For U ≤ 60%, Tv =
4  100  2. Logarithm of time method:
•• This method was given by Casagrande, the theo-
For U > 60%, TV = 1.781 − 0.933 log10 (100 − U %)
retical curve between U and log Tv.

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•• The value of coefficient of consolidation of soil is Where

obtained from the value of t50.   Hs = Height of solids
For U = 50%, Tv = 0.196   Wd = Weight of dry soil
  G = Specific gravity of solids
0.196 d 2   A = Cross-sectional area of specimen
Cv =
t50   H = Total height
  e0 = Initial void ratio
Void ratio at any stage
Consolidation Test   Hf = Final thickness of soil = H - ΔH
•• The test is performed in consolidation test apparatus   ΔH = Change in thickness of sample
known as the consolidometer or an oedometer. 2. Change in void ratio method: Applicable for
•• Consolidometer consists of a loading device and a cylin- saturated soils only
drical container known as consolidation cell.
•• Consolidation cell are of two types: ∆e ∆H
=
(a) Floating or free ring cell in which top and bottom 1+ e f Hf
porous stones are free to move.
(b) Fixed ring cell in which only the top porous stone ef = Final void ratio
can move while bottom the porous stone cannot
3-D consolidation equation: The general equation
move.
for three-dimensional consolidation is:

∂U ∂2U ∂2U ∂2U

= Cvx + C vy + C vz
∂t ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2

Porous stone Porous stone

Sample
Porous stone
Sample Immediate Settlement (Si)
Porous stone •• It is also known as elastic settlements.
•• It occurs in all highly-permeable soils and, also occurs in
fine-grained soils.
Piezometer Immediate settlement:
(a) Floating ring type (b) Fixed ring type
qn
Si = B(1 − µ 2 ) I
Es
Determination of Void Ratio
at Load Increment Where
1. Height of solids method: This method is applicable  qn = Net intensity of contact pressure (kN/m2).
to both saturated and unsaturated soils.  B = Least lateral dimension of loaded area (m).
 Es = Undrained modulus of elasticity (kN/m2).
H − Hs
e0 =  I = Influence factor, depends on rigidity shape of
Hs loaded area, L/B ratio.
 
Wd µ = Poison’s ratio of soil.
Hs =
Gγ w ⋅ A

Exercises

1. The slope of the e-log p curve for a soil mass gives 2. Sand drains are used to
(A) coefficient of permeability, k. (A) reduce the settlement.
(B) coefficient of consolidation CV  . (B) accelerate the consolidation.
(C) compression index, CC  . (C) increase the permeability.
(D) coefficient of volume compressibility, mv  . (D) transfer the load.

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3. Consolidation in soils 10. At a reclamation site for which the soil strata is shown
(A) is a function of the effective stress. in the figure, a 3 m thick layer of a fill material is to
(B) does not depend on the present stress. be laid instantaneously on the top surface. If the coef-
(C) is a function of the pore water pressure. ficient of volume compressibility, mv for clay is 2.2 ×
(D) is a function of the total stress. 10−4/kN, the consolidation settlement of the clay layer
4. A double draining clay layer; 6 m thick, settles by 30 mm due to placing of fill material will be
in three years under the influence of a certain loads.
Its final consolidation settlement has been estimated to
3m
be 120 mm. If a thin layer of sand having negligible γ = 21 kN/m2
GWT bulk
thickness is introduced at a depth of 1.5 m below the
top surface, the final consolidation settlement of clay
4m
layer will be Silty sand γ = 20 kN/m2
bulk
(A) 60 mm (B) 120 mm
(C) 240 mm (D) None of these
10 m γ = 18 kN/m2
5. Root time method is used to determine sat

(A) T, time factor. mv = 2.2 × 104m2/kN

Clay
(B) CV, coefficient of consolidation.
(C) av, coefficient of compressibility. (A) 69.5 mm (B) 139 mm
(D) mv, coefficient of volume compressibility. (C) 228 mm (D) 278 mm
6. The time for a clay layer to achieve 90% consolidation 11. A 6 m thick clay undergoes 90% consolidation four
is 15 years. The time required to achieve 90% consoli- times faster under two way drainage as compared to
dation, if the layer were twice as thick, 3 times more one way drainage. In an identical clay layer of 15 m
permeable and 4 times more compressible would be thickness, two way drainage will be faster as compared
(A) 70 years (B) 75 years to one way drainage by
(C) 80 years (D) 85 years (A) 8 times
7. A building is constructed on the ground surface (B) 4 times
beneath which, there is a 2 m thick saturated clay layer (C) 2.5 times
sandwiched between two highly previous layers. The (D) 2 times
building starts settling with time. If the average coef- 12. The change that take place during the process of con-
ficient of consolidation of clay is 2.5 × 10−4 cm2/s, in solidation of a saturated clay would include
how many days will the building reach half of its final (A) an increase in pore water pressure and an increase
settlement? (T50 = 0.197) in effective pressure.
8. Identify the two FALSE statements from the following (B) an increase in pore water pressure and a decrease
four statements: in effective pressure.
I. The consolidation of soil happens due to the change (C) a decrease in pore water pressure and a decrease in
effective pressure.
in total stress.
(D) a decrease in pore water pressure and an increase
II. When standard penetration test are performed in
in effective pressure.
fine sands below the water table, the dilation cor-
rection is applied after the overburden correction is 13. Match List I and List II and select the correct answer
applied. using the codes given below the lists (notations have
III. Over consolidated clays will have predominantly their usual meaning):
cohesive strength as compared to the frictional List I List II
strength.
a. Coefficient of 1. mv
IV. Compaction of soils is due to expulsion of water. compressibility
(A) II and III (B) I and IV b. Compression index 2. CV t/H2
(C) I and III (D) II and IV c. Time factor 3. av
9. The time for a clay layer to achieve 85% consolida- d. Coefficient of volume 4. Soil with high organic content
tion is 10 years. If the layer was half as thick, 10 times compressibility with high compressibility
more permeable and 4 times more compressible then
the time that would be required to achieve the same Codes:
degree of consolidation is a b c d a b c d
(A) 1 year (B) 5 years (A) 3 2 4 1 (B) 1 2 4 3
(C) 12 years (D) 16 years (C) 1 4 2 3 (D) 3 4 2 1

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14. In soil consolidation process, the following events take Direction for questions 18 and 19:
place after loading: Figure shows the geometry of a strip footing supporting the
I. Decrease in excess pore pressure. load bearing walls of a three storied building and the prop-
II. Increase in total stress. erties of clay layer
III. Development of excess pore pressure.
IV. Increase in effective stress.
The correct sequence of these events is G S
(A) III, II, I, IV
γ = 18 kN/m2
(B) II, III, I, IV 1m
bulk

(C) II, III, IV, I

(C) III, II, IV, I X Strip footing
GWT
15. Match List I (Unit/Test) with List II (Purpose) and
select the correct answer using the codes given below
1.2 m
the lists:
6m
Clay layer
List I List II
Cc = 0.08, e0 = 0.40
a. Casagrande’s apparatus 1. Determination γ 3
sat = 20 kN/m
of grain size
distribution
b. Hydrometer 2. Consolidation
Hard stratum
characteristics 18. If the pressure acting on the footing is 40 kPa, the con-
c. Plate load test 3. Determination of solidation settlement of the footing will be
consistency limits (A) 0.89 mm
d. Oedometer 4. Determination of (B) 8.9 mm
safe bearing (C) 89.0 mm
capacity of soil (D) None of these
Codes: 19. If the elastic modulus and the Poisson’s ratio of the clay
a b c d a b c d layer are 50 × 103 kPa and 0.4 respectively and if the
(A) 1 3 2 4 (B) 1 3 4 2 influence factor for the strip footing is 1.75, the elastic
(C) 3 1 2 4 (D) 3 1 4 2 settlement of the footing will be
(A) 0.41 mm
16. If the time required for 60% consolidation of a (B) 1.41 mm
remoulded soil sample of clay with single drainage is (C) 14.1 mm
‘t’, then what is the time required to consolidate the (D) None of these
same sample of clay with the same degree of consolida-
tion but with double drainage? Direction for questions 20 and 21:
(A) 4t (B) 2t The average effective overburden pressure on 10 m thick
t t homogeneous saturated clay layer is 150 kPa. Consolidation
(C) (D) test on an undisturbed soil sample taken from the clay layer
2 4
showed that the void ratio decreased from 0.6 to 0.5 by
17. In a consolidation test the sample tested has height H;
increasing the stress intensity from 100 kPa to 300 kPa
water content is w; specific gravity of solid G. After
(G = 2.65)
increasing the loading by an increment Dp, the height
decrease is DH. Which one of the following expresses 20. The initial void ratio of the clay layer is
the corresponding change in void ratio De? (A) 0.209 (B) 0.563
(C) 0.746 (D) 1.00
∆H 21. The total consolidation settlement of the clay layer due
(A) ∆e =
H (1 + wG ) to the construction of a structure imposing an addi-
tional stress intensity of 200 kPa is
∆H (1 + wG )
(B) ∆e = (A) 0.10 m (B) 0.25 m
H (C) 0.35 m (D) 0.50 m
H (1 + wG ) 22. The soil which is compacted to the dry of optimum has
(C) ∆e = (A) low swelling.
∆H
(B) low shear strength.
H (C) high swelling.
(D) ∆e =
∆H (1 + wG ) (D) None of these

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23. During consolidation process 32.

(A) effective pressure on soil decreases. Well graded soil
(B) void ratio increases.
Low plastic silt
(C) degree of saturation remains same.
(D) excess hydrostatic pressure increases. Q
24. The compactive effort in the modified proctor test is
about ________ times than that of the standard proctor
test. The type of soil present at Q is
(A) 4.85 (B) 4.65 (A) high plastic clay. (B) high plastic silt.
(C) 4.25 (D) 4.55 (C) low plastic clay. (D) poorly graded soil.
25. The sensitivity of soil indicates the 33. When the OCR = 1 then the type of clay is known as
(A) moisture holding capacity of soil. (A) over consolidated clay.
(B) shear strength of the soil. (B) normal consolidated clay.
(C) consolidation of soil. (C) under consolidation clay.
(D) weakening due to remolding of soil. (D) None of these
26. A cohesive soil yield a maximum dry density of 1.4 g 34. The following figure represents the contact pressure
m/cc at OMC of 16% during a standard proctar test. If distribution underneath a
the value of G = 2.65, then degree of saturation of the
soil is
(A) 1.23 (B) 1.86 Settlement
(C) 1.43 (D) 1.69
27. A saturated clay of 6 m thick takes 1.6 years for 50%
primary consolidation when drained on both sides. Its
coefficient of volume charge is 1.5 × 10−3 m2/kN. The Contact
coefficient of permeability of soil will be pressure
(A) 0.013 m/year (A) rigid footing on sand.
(B) 0.016 m/year (B) flexible footing on clay.
(C) 1.58 m/year (C) flexible footing on sand.
(D) 2.54 m/year (D) rigid footing on clay.
28. A 5 m thick clay has coefficient of consolidation 0.025 35. A footing carries a load of 1200 tonnes and is of 3.2 m
cm2/min and final settlement 10 cm. The time required square. It rests in dense sand of 8 m thickness overlay-
for 80% of settlement to occur is ing a clay layer of 2.8 m. The clay layer overlies hard
rock. The depth of foundation is 1.5 m liquid limit of
U Tv
clay is 48% and void is 0.95. The saturated unit weight
80% 0.567
of sand and clay are given as 1.86t/m3 and 1.76t/m3
25% 0.078 respectively Take the load distribution as 2V to 1H.
(A) 5.6 × 106 minutes (B) 6.5 × 106 minutes Assume that the site is flooded and determine the ulti-
(C) 7.5 × 10 minutes
6 (D) 5.8 × 106 minutes mate settlement due to consolidation of clay layer.
(A) 150 mm (B) 170 mm
29. Time required for 2.5 cm settlement is
(C) 190 mm (D) 210 mm
(A) 7.5 × 105 minutes (B) 7.8 × 105 minutes
(C) 7.6 × 10 minutes
5 (D) 7.2 × 105 minutes 36. If a clay test specimen of 25 mm thick, under double
drainage condition attained 50% of primary consolida-
30. With the increase of water content incompaction the
tion in 50 minutes. How long will it take for the same
maximum dry density will
clay layer of 10 m thick to reach the same degree of
(A) increase.
consolidation under the condition that ‘clay is drained
(B) decrease.
on the top surface only’.
(C) first increase and then decrease.
(D) first decrease and then increase. (A) 15.4 years (B) 61.7 years
31. Which of the following property increases with increase (C) 85.6 years (D) None of these
in compaction 37. In a Newmarks influence chart for stress distribution,
(A) permeability there are 12 concentric circles and 40 radial lines. The
(B) shear strength influence factor of the chart is _______.
(C) void ratio (A) 0.002 (B) 0.02
(D) compressibility (C) 0.2 (D) 0.0002

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38. The time for a clay layer to achieve 60% consolida- (C) II and III are correct
tion is 8 years. If the layer was half as thick, 10 times (D) I and III are correct
more permeable and 3 times more compressible then 40. The change in voids ratio due to increase in effective
the time that would be required to achieve the same stress by 1.2 kg/cm2 is 0.20. Initial void ratio is 0.4. The
degree of consolidation is _______. thickness of soil stratum is 5 m. Consolidation settle-
(A) 0.6 year (B) 1 year ment in ‘cm’ is ________.
(C) 5 years (D) 1.5 years (A) 30 cm
39. Consider the following statements. (B) 50 cm
I. The optimum moisture content is expected to be (C) 70 cm
more for the tests with lesser energy. (D) 10 cm
II. The maximum dry density is expected to be more 41. The time taken for a clay layer to achieve 90% consoli-
for the tests with higher energy. dation is 15 years. The time required to achieve 90%
III. Clayey soil has more optimum moisture content consolidation, if the layer was twice as thick, 3 times
than sandy soils. more permeable and 4 times more compressible would
Which of the following statements are correct? be _______.
(A) I, II and III are correct (A) 75 years (B) 120 years
(B) I and II are correct (C) 80 years (D) 140 years

Previous Years’ Questions

Direction for questions 1 and 2: 2. What is the compression of the clay layer in mm due
The ground conditions at a site are as shown in the figure. to the lowering of the water table?
The water table at the site which was initially at a depth of (A) 125 (B) 100
5 m below the ground level got permanently lowered to a (C) 25 (D) 0
depth of 15 m below the ground level due to pumping of 3. A saturated clay stratum draining both at the top and
water over a few years. Assume the following data bottom undergoes 50 per cent consolidation in 16
I. Unit weight of water = 10 kN/m3 years under an applied load. If the additional drainage
II. Unit weight of sand above water table = 18 kN/m3 layer were present at the middle of the clay stratum,
III. Unit weight of sand and clay below the water table 50 per cent consolidation would occur in 
= 20 kN/m3.  [GATE, 2008]
IV. Coefficient of volume compressibility = 0.25 m2/ (A) 2 years
MN. [GATE, 2007] (B) 4 years
(C) 8 years
GL (D) 16 years
5m
Original Direction for questions 4 and 5:
water table 4. A saturated undisturbed sample from a clay strata has
20 m moisture content of 22.22% and specific gravity of
2.7. Assuming γw = 10 kN/m3, the void ratio and the
Lowered saturated unit weight of the clay, respectively are 
water table
 [GATE, 2009]
5m
(A) 0.6 and 16.875 kN/m3
(B) 0.3 and 20.625 kN/m3
Clay soil 5m (C) 0.6 and 20.625 kN/m3
(D) 0.3 and 16.975 kN/m3
1. What is the change in the effective stress in kN/m2 at 5. Using the properties of the clay layer derived form
mid-depth of the clay layer due to the lowering of the the above question, the consolidation settlement of
water table? the same clay layer under a square footing neglecting
(A) 0 its self weight with additional data shown in the figure
(B) 20 (assume the stress distribution as 1H : 2V from the
(C) 80 edge of the footing and γw = 10 kN/m3) is
(D) 100  [GATE, 2009]

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 3.504 | Part III ■ Unit 7 ■ Geotechnical Engineering

200 kN Uniform
Site X surcharge Site Y

Ground
surface
GWT
Water Water
1.0 m Saturated table table
γ 3
sat = 18 kN/m
1
1.0 m Isotropic
2
2m×2m 5m saturated
silty clay
Stiff clay
1.0 m compression index (Cc) = 0.4 Isotropic
saturated
silty clay Thin
Dense sand 10 m sand
layer

(A) 32.78 mm
(B) 61.75 mm Isotropic
5m
(C) 79.5 mm saturated
(D) 131.13 mm silty clay

6. The e-log p curve shown in the figure is representative

of  [GATE, 2010]
Bedrock Bedrock
(A) 2.25 months (B) 4.5 months
(C) 9 months (D) 36 months
8. A layer of normally consolidated, saturated silty clay
of 1 m thickness is subjected to one dimensional con-
solidation under a pressure increment of 20 kPa. The
Void ratio, e

properties of the soil are: specific gravity = 2.7, natu-

ral moisture content = 45%, compression index = 0.45,
and recompression index = 0.05. The initial average
effective stress within the layer is 100 kPa. Assuming
Terzaghi’s theory to be applicable, the primary con-
solidation settlement (rounded off to the nearest mm) is
 [GATE, 2012]
(A) 2 (B) 9
log p (C) 14 (D) 16
9. The following data are given for the laboratory sample
(A) normally consolidated clay.
σ 01 = 175 kPa; e0 = 1.1;
(B) over consolidated clay.
(C) under consolidated clay. σ 01 + ∆σ 01 = 300 kPa, e = 0.9

(D) normally consolidated clayey sand. It thickness of the clay specimen is 25 mm, the value
of coefficient of volume compressibility is ____
7. Identical surcharges are placed at ground surface at × 10−4 m2/kN  [GATE, 2014]
sites X and Y, with soil conditions shown alongside
10. A circular raft foundation of 20 m diameter and 1.6 m
and water table at ground surface. The silty clay lay-
thickness is provided for a tank that applies a bearing
ers at X and Y are identical. The thin sand layer at
pressure of 110 kPa on sandy soil with Yound’s modu-
Y is continuous and free draining with a very large
lus, ES = 30 MPa and Poisson’s ratio, μs = 0.3. The
discharge capacity. If primary consolidation at X is
raft is made of concrete (Ec = 30 GPa and μc = 0.15)
estimated to complete in 36 months, what would be
considering the raft as rigid, the elastic settlement (in
the corresponding time for completion of primary
mm) is  [GATE, 2014]
consolidation at Y?
(A) 50.96 (B) 53.36
 [GATE, 2011] (C) 63.72 (D) 66.71

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 Chapter 7 ■ Consolidation | 3.505

11. A water tank is to be constructed on the soil deposit 14. In the consolidated undrained triaxial test on a satu-
shown in the figure below. A circular footing of rated soil sample, the pore water pressure is zero
diameter 3 m and depth of embedment 1 m has been  [GATE, 2016]
designed to support the tank. The total vertical load (A) during shearing stage only.
to be taken by the footing is 1500 kN. Assume the (B) at the end of consolidation stage only.
unit weight of water as 10 kN/m3 and the load disper- (C)  both at the end of consolidation and during
sion patter as 2V:1H. The expected settlement of the shearing stages.
tank due to primary consolidation of the clay layer is (D) Under none of the above conditions
_________ mm. [GATE, 2015] 15. An undisturbed soil sample was taken from the mid-
GL dle of a clay layer (i.e., 1.5 m below GL), as shown in
2m Silty Sand Bulk unit weight = 15 kN/m3 GWT
the figure. The water table was at the top of clay layer.
Laboratory test results are as follows: [GATE, 2016]
6m Sand Saturated unit weight = 18 kN/m3
Natural water content of clay 25%
Saturated unit weight = 18 kN/m3 Preconsolidation pressure of clay 60 kPa
Normally
Compression index = 0.3
10 m consolidated Compression index of clay 0.50
Initial void ratio = 0.7
clay Recompression index of clay 0.05
Confficient of consolidation = 0.004 cm2/s
Specific gravity of clay 2.70
Dense Sand Bulk unit weight of sand 17 kN/m3
A compacted fill of 2.5 m height with unit weight of
20 kN/m3 is placed at the ground level.
12. A 20 m thick clay layer is sandwiched between a silty
sand layer and a gravelly sand layer. The layer experi- GL
ences 30 mm settlement in 2 years.
Given: Sand
1m

π U 
  for U ≤ 60% GWT
Ty = 4  100 
1.781 − 0.933 log10 (100 − U ) for U > 60%
1m

Clay

where Tv is the time factor and U is the degree of con-

solidation in %. Hard stratum
If the coefficient of consolidation of the layer is 0.003
cm2/s, the deposit will experience a total of 50 mm Assuming unit weight of water as10 kN/m3, the ulti-
settlement in the next _______ years. [GATE, 2015] mate consolidation settlement (expressed in mm) of
13. A 4 m thick layer of normally consolidated clay has the clay layer is ____________.
an average void ratio of 1.30. Its compression index 16. The relationship between the specific gravity of sand
is 0.6 and coefficient of consolidation is 1 m2/year. (G) and the hydraulic gradient (i) to initiate quick
If the increase in vertical pressure due to foundation condition in the sand layer having porosity of 30% is
load on the clay layer is equal to the existing effective  [GATE, 2016]
overburden pressure, the change in the thickness of (A) G = 0.7i + 1 (B) G = 1.43i – 1
the clay layer is ________ mm. [GATE, 2015] (C) G = 1.43i + 1 (D) G = 0.7i – 1

Answer Keys

Exercises
1. C 2. B 3. A 4. B 5. B 6. C 7. 91.2 8. B 9. A
10. B 11. B 12. D 13. D 14. B 15. D 16. D 17. B 18. C 19. B
20. B 21. D 22. C 23. C 24. D 25. D 26. D 27. B 28. A 29. B
30. B 31. C 32. B 33. B 34. C 35. B 36. B 37. A 38. A 39. A
40. C 41. C

Previous Years’ Questions

1. C 2. B 3. B 4. C 5. B 6. B 7. C 8. D 9. 7.62 10. B
11. 53.23 12. 4.43 13. 314 14. B 15. 36.7 16. C

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