Soil Mechanics Minor -1
1. Define soil mechanics.
Ans:- Soil mechanics is the branch of civil engineering and geotechnical engineering that deals with
the behavior of soils. It encompasses the study of soil properties, such as its composition, density,
moisture content, and strength, and how these properties influence the stability of structures built
upon or within the soil. Soil mechanics investigates soil behavior under various conditions, including
loading, compaction, and environmental factors. It plays a crucial role in the design and construction
of foundations, embankments, retaining walls, tunnels, and other civil engineering structures,
ensuring their safety, stability, and longevity.
2. Define water content of soil .
Ans:- Water content of soil refers to the amount of water present within the soil mass, expressed as a
percentage of the soil's total weight. It is a fundamental parameter in soil mechanics and
geotechnical engineering, influencing soil properties such as density, volume change, and strength.
The water content of soil can vary widely depending on factors such as precipitation, drainage,
evaporation, and soil type. Determining and controlling water content is crucial in construction
projects to ensure proper compaction, stability, and performance of foundations, embankments, and
other structures. Various methods, including gravimetric and volumetric techniques, are used to
measure soil water content accurately.
3. What do you mean by degree of saturation ?
Ans:- The degree of saturation in soil mechanics refers to the ratio of the volume of water occupying
the void spaces in the soil to the total volume of void spaces in the soil, expressed as a percentage. It
indicates how much of the pore space in the soil is filled with water compared to the total available
space. A soil with a degree of saturation of 100% is fully saturated, meaning all voids are filled with
water. Conversely, a degree of saturation of 0% indicates complete absence of water in the voids.
Understanding the degree of saturation is essential for assessing soil behavior, particularly in relation
to stability and permeability.
4. Draw 3 – phase system of soil with weight and volume .
Ans:- Three Phase diagram : A soil mass consist of the solid particles and the voids
in between them. These voids are filled with air or/and water. So there is a three
phase system, but when the voids are only filled with air, or only filled with water
then soil becomes a two phase system. Three phase system can be represented
with a diagram as shown below. When the voids are only filled with water, it is
said to be saturated.
Total volume of the soil mass, V = (Va+Vw) +Vs
Where, V = Total Volume
Va= Volume of air mass
Vw = Volume of water mass
Vs = Volume of solids
But, Va+Vw = Vv
So,
V = Vv+ Vs
Where Vv= Total volume of voids.
Void Ratio(e):
Void ratio is the ratio of the volume of the voids to the volume of the solid in the
soil.
It is denoted by ‘e’.
e= Vv/Vs = n/(1-n)
Porosity (n):
Porosity is defined as the ratio of the volume of the total voids to the total
volume of the soil mass.
It is denoted by ‘n’
So n = Vv/V = e/(1+e)
Degree of Saturation(Sr):
Degree of saturation is defined as the ratio of the volume of the water to the
total volume of the voids present in the soil mass.
Sr = Vw/Vv, For fully saturated soil mass Vw=Vv, So Sr=1
For fully dry soil mass, Vw= 0, So Sr=0
Water content(w):
It is the ratio of the weight of the water to the weight of the solids in the given
soil mass. Weight of solids can be found by weighing the soil mass after drying it
completely.
w = Ww/Ws
Air Content(na):
It is the ratio of the volume of air(Va) to the total volume of the voids(V).
na= Va/V*100
5. What is void ratio ?
Ans:- Void Ratio(e):
Void ratio is the ratio of the volume of the voids to the volume of the solid in the
soil.
It is denoted by ‘e’.
e= Vv/Vs = n/(1-n)
6. What is specific gravity?
Ans:- Specific gravity in soil mechanics is a measure of the density of soil solids compared to the
density of water. It is calculated as the ratio of the mass of soil solids to the mass of an equal volume
of water at a specified temperature. The formula for specific gravity (G) is:
G= Ws /(Ws−Ww)
Where:
Ws = mass of dry soil solids (g or kg)
Ww = mass of water (g or kg)
Specific gravity is a crucial parameter for determining soil classification and behavior, as it influences
various properties such as compaction, permeability, and strength.
7. List different method to find specific gravity ?
Ans:- Several methods can be used to determine the specific gravity of soil solids. Some common
methods include:
1. Pycnometer Method: Involves weighing a known volume of soil solids in a pycnometer, then filling
it with water and weighing again to find the volume of water displaced.
2. Density Bottle Method: Similar to the pycnometer method, but a density bottle is used instead of a
pycnometer.
3. Gas Jar Method: Soil solids are first weighed, then immersed in a gas with a known density, and
the apparent weight loss is measured.
4. Sand Cone Method: Involves determining the weight of a given volume of soil solids and
comparing it to the weight of an equal volume of sand.
5. Mercury Method: Utilizes a heavy liquid, typically mercury, to determine the specific gravity by
comparing the buoyant force on the soil solids to the weight of an equal volume of mercury.
6. Core Cutter Method: Soil sample is taken using a core cutter, and the weight of the soil sample is
measured. Then, the volume of the soil sample is measured, and specific gravity is calculated.
These methods vary in complexity, accuracy, and applicability depending on the type of soil and
available equipment.
8. What is soil profile? Show a neat diagram of soil profile ?
Ans:- The soil is the topmost layer of the earth’s crust mainly composed of organic minerals and rock
particles that support life. A soil profile is a vertical cross-section of the soil, made of layers running
parallel to the surface. These layers are known as soil horizons.
Layers of Soil
The soil profile is composed of a series of horizons or layers of soil stacked one on top of the
other. These layers or horizons are represented by letters O, A, E, C, B and R.
The O-Horizon
The O horizon is the upper layer of the topsoil which is mainly composed of organic
materials such as dried leaves, grasses, dead leaves, small rocks, twigs, surface organisms,
fallen trees, and other decomposed organic matter. This horizon of soil is often black brown
or dark brown in colour and this is mainly because of the presence of organic content.
The A-Horizon or Topsoil
This layer is rich in organic material and is known as the humus layer. This layer consists of
both organic matter and other decomposed materials. The topsoil is soft and porous to hold
enough air and water.
In this layer, the seed germination takes place and new roots are produced which grows into
a new plant. This layer consists of microorganisms such as earthworms, fungi, bacteria, etc.
The E-Horizon
This layer is composed of nutrients leached from the O and A horizons. This layer is more
common in forested areas and has lower clay content.
The B-Horizon or Subsoil
It is the subsurface horizon, present just below the topsoil and above the bedrock. It is
comparatively harder and more compact than topsoil. It contains less humus, soluble
minerals, and organic matter. It is a site of deposition of certain minerals and metal salts such
as iron oxide.
This layer holds more water than the topsoil and is lighter brown due to the presence of clay
soil. The soil of horizon-A and horizon-B is often mixed while ploughing the fields.
The C-Horizon or Saprolite
This layer is devoid of any organic matter and is made up of broken bedrock. This layer is
also known as saprolite. The geological material present in this zone is cemented.
The R-Horizon
It is a compacted and cemented layer. Different types of rocks such as granite, basalt and
limestone are found here.
9. What is residual soil ?
Ans:- Residual soil is a type of soil that forms in situ by the weathering and decomposition of
the underlying bedrock, often over long periods of time. Unlike transported soils, which are
moved by natural agents like water, wind, or glaciers, residual soils remain directly above
their parent material. They retain many characteristics of the original bedrock, such as
mineral composition and structure, but may also exhibit distinct properties influenced by
weathering processes. Residual soils are commonly found in areas with stable geological
conditions and can vary greatly in thickness and properties depending on the parent rock and
prevailing environmental factors.
10. What is transported soil .
Ans:- Transported soil, also known as sedimentary soil, is soil that has been moved from its
original location by natural agents such as water, wind, ice, or gravity. Unlike residual soils,
which form in situ from the weathering of underlying bedrock, transported soils are deposited
in new locations, often far from their source. These soils may undergo sorting and
stratification during transportation, resulting in distinct layers and particle arrangements.
Transported soils exhibit characteristics influenced by the transporting agent and the
environment of deposition, such as particle size, sorting, and composition, making them
diverse and variable across different landscapes.
11. Draw A–line chart .
Ans:- Plasticity chart is a graph between plasticity index (IP) and liquid limit (WL) in
percentage which is used for classification of fine grained soils as per the Indian Standard
Soil Classification System(ISSCS). If more than 50% percentage of soil passes through
75micron sieve, then it is classified as fine grained soil.
Equation of A-line as represented in the given chart relates plasticity index and liquid limit as
IP = 0.73 (WL - 20).
The equation of A-line gives value of plasticity index ranges from 0 to 58.4 corresponding to
values of liquid limit from 0 to 100%.
12. List out different type of soil according to IS classification with their size in mm.
Ans:- The Indian Standard (IS) classification system categorizes soils into various groups
based on their grain size distribution. Here are the main soil types according to the IS
classification along with their corresponding particle size ranges in millimeters:
1. Gravel: Particle size greater than 75 mm.
2. Sand:
- Coarse Sand: Particle size between 4.75 mm and 2.00 mm.
- Medium Sand: Particle size between 2.00 mm and 0.425 mm.
- Fine Sand: Particle size between 0.425 mm and 0.075 mm.
3. Silt: Particle size between 0.075 mm and 0.002 mm.
4. Clay: Particle size less than 0.002 mm.
These are the primary classifications, but in practical applications, soil may contain a mixture
of these particle sizes, leading to classifications like sandy clay, silty clay, sandy loam, etc.
13. Define plasticity index ?
Ans:- In soil mechanics, plasticity index (PI) is a measure of the plasticity or the ability of a
soil to undergo deformation without cracking or crumbling. It is defined as the numerical
difference between the liquid limit (LL) and the plastic limit (PL) of the soil. Mathematically,
it is expressed as:
PI=LL−PL
Soils with higher plasticity index values have greater potential for deformation under load
and exhibit greater sensitivity to changes in moisture content. Plasticity index is an essential
parameter used in soil classification systems and is indicative of the engineering properties
and behavior of cohesive soils, such as clayey soils.
14. Define flow index ?
Ans:- In soil mechanics, the flow index (FI) is a parameter used to quantify the flow behavior
of fine-grained soils, particularly cohesive soils such as clays. It is part of the Casagrande's
liquid limit test method, which involves determining the water content at which a soil
transitions from a plastic to a liquid state.
The flow index is defined as the slope of the flow curve in a plot of the water content
(expressed as a percentage of the dry soil weight) versus the logarithm of the number of
blows required for the soil sample to flow a specified distance in the liquid limit test.
A higher flow index indicates that the soil requires less water content to flow, reflecting its
greater liquidity or ability to deform under low shear stresses.
15. How organic soil are formed ?
Ans:- Organic soils, also known as histosols, are formed through the accumulation and
decomposition of organic matter in wet or waterlogged environments where oxygen levels
are low. Here's a general process of how organic soils are formed:
1. Accumulation of Organic Matter: In wetlands, marshes, swamps, or other water-saturated
areas, plants and other organic materials accumulate over time. These materials include dead
leaves, roots, branches, and other plant debris.
2. Limited Decomposition: The waterlogged conditions slow down the decomposition
process. As organic matter accumulates faster than it decomposes, layers of partially
decomposed organic material build up over time.
3. Peat Formation: With time, the accumulated organic matter undergoes partial
decomposition, forming a thick layer of peat. Peat is characterized by its high organic content
and dark color.
[Link] Moss Contribution: In some cases, sphagnum moss plays a crucial role in
organic soil formation. It grows in waterlogged environments and can hold large amounts of
water, contributing to the waterlogged conditions necessary for organic soil formation.
5. Transformation into Organic Soil: Over centuries to millennia, the accumulated layers of
peat undergo further compaction and transformation, eventually forming organic soils. These
soils typically have high organic content, low density, and unique properties suited to their
wetland environment.
The process of organic soil formation is slow and occurs over long periods under specific
environmental conditions, resulting in soils with distinctive characteristics and properties.
These soils are valuable ecosystems and play important roles in water retention, carbon
storage, and biodiversity.
16. Draw structure of montmorillonite.
Ans:- Montmorillonite is a subclass of smectite and a natural aluminomagnesium silicate
clay, with potential protective effect for the digestive tract mucosa, and anti-inflammatory
and anti-diarrheal activities. Although the exact mechanism of action has yet to be fully
elucidated, upon administration, montmorillonite may adsorb bacteria, bacterial enterotoxins,
viruses and other potentially diarrheagenic substances. It may also bind to mucin and modify
mucus properties, thereby enhancing the mucus barrier function.
Montmorillonite is a mineral with formula of (Na,Ca)0.3(Al,Mg)2Si4O10(OH)2·nH2O. The IMA symbol is
Mnt.
17. What is relative density ?
Ans:- Relative density in soil mechanics, also known as density index or compaction index, is
a measure of the compactness or density of a soil compared to its maximum achievable
density under specific conditions. It is commonly used to assess the degree of compaction
achieved during construction activities such as earthwork and road construction.
Relative density is expressed as a percentage and is calculated using the following formula:
Relative Density (%) =Maximum dry unit weight of soil / Dry unit weight of soil in field
×100%
A relative density of 100% indicates that the soil is fully compacted to its maximum density,
while values less than 100% indicate that the soil is not fully compacted and contains air
voids. Conversely, values greater than 100% indicate over-compaction, which may lead to
reduced soil stability and permeability.
18. How sit , sand , gravel , clay and organic soil are formed.
Ans:- Each type of soil—silt, sand, gravel, clay, and organic soil—forms through distinct
geological and environmental processes, resulting in variations in their composition, texture,
and properties:
1. Silt: Silt is formed through the weathering and erosion of rocks and minerals over time. It
is finer than sand but coarser than clay, with particle sizes ranging from 0.002 to 0.075 mm.
Silt is commonly deposited by water bodies such as rivers, lakes, and floodplains, where fine
particles settle out of suspension.
2. Sand: Sand is primarily formed through the weathering and erosion of rocks, particularly
those containing quartz and other minerals resistant to weathering. It consists of granular
particles ranging from 0.075 to 4.75 mm in size. Sand is often deposited by wind, water, or
glaciers in environments such as beaches, deserts, and riverbeds.
3. Gravel: Gravel is composed of coarse, rounded, or angular rock fragments larger than 2
mm in diameter. It forms through the weathering and breakdown of larger rocks, such as
granite, limestone, or quartzite. Gravel deposits commonly occur in riverbeds, alluvial fans,
and glacial moraines as a result of transportation and deposition by water or ice.
4. Clay: Clay is formed through the weathering and decomposition of rocks rich in silicate
minerals such as feldspar and mica. It consists of very fine particles smaller than 0.002 mm in
size. Clayey soils typically develop in low-energy environments such as floodplains, lake
beds, and marine deltas, where fine particles settle out of suspension and accumulate over
time.
5. Organic Soil: Organic soil, also known as histosols, forms in waterlogged environments
where organic matter accumulates faster than it decomposes due to anaerobic conditions. It
develops in wetlands, marshes, swamps, and peatlands through the gradual accumulation and
partial decomposition of plant material such as leaves, roots, and peat mosses.
These processes of soil formation—weathering, erosion, deposition, and organic
accumulation—interact with various geological, climatic, and environmental factors to shape
the characteristics of different soil types across diverse landscapes.
19. Explain the procedure of finding liquid limit .
Ans:- The liquid limit of a soil is a crucial parameter used to characterize its consistency and
behavior. The procedure for determining the liquid limit typically follows the standardized
test method outlined in ASTM D4318 or other relevant standards. Here's a general overview
of the procedure:
1. Sample Preparation:
- Obtain a representative soil sample from the field or laboratory.
- Remove any large particles or debris and air-dry the sample if necessary.
- Thoroughly mix the soil sample to ensure homogeneity.
2. Preparation of Test Sample:
- Take a portion of the prepared soil sample and mix it with distilled water to form a
paste.
- Knead the paste on a glass plate until it becomes uniform and pliable.
3. Preparation of Grooving Tool:
- Prepare the grooving tool by forming a small groove or channel in the middle of the soil
paste using a spatula or special grooving tool.
4. Conducting the Test:
- Set up the liquid limit apparatus, which typically consists of a brass cup, a grooving
tool, and a mechanism for controlling the rate of water addition.
- Place a portion of the soil paste into the brass cup and level it off.
- Adjust the cup to a specific height and allow it to drop onto a hard surface to create a
standardized impact.
- Repeat the dropping process while gradually adding water to the soil paste.
- After each drop, use the grooving tool to check for the formation of a continuous
groove along the bottom of the cup.
- Continue adding water and repeating the dropping process until the groove closes over a
specified length when subjected to 25 blows.
5. Determination of Liquid Limit:
- Record the number of blows required for the groove to close over the specified length.
- Repeat the test at least twice more, adjusting the water content as necessary, to ensure
consistency.
- Calculate the average number of blows required to close the groove over the specified
length.
- Use a standardized chart or equation to determine the liquid limit based on the number
of blows and the moisture content of the soil sample.
6. Reporting:
- Report the liquid limit value along with any relevant details of the test procedure and
soil sample characteristics.
By following this standardized procedure, engineers and geotechnical professionals can
accurately determine the liquid limit of a soil sample, which is essential for soil classification,
engineering design, and construction projects.
20. Define soil cycle .
Ans:- The term "soil cycle" is not a widely recognized term in soil science or geology.
However, it could potentially refer to the processes involved in the formation, modification,
and degradation of soil over time, akin to the concept of a "rock cycle" in geology.
If we were to define "soil cycle" in this context, it might encompass the following stages:
1. Weathering and Soil Formation: This stage involves the physical, chemical, and biological
processes that break down parent material (rock or sediment) into smaller particles, leading to
the formation of soil.
2. Soil Development and Profile Formation: Over time, as soil accumulates organic matter
and minerals, distinct layers or horizons form within the soil profile through processes like
leaching, illuviation, and humification.
3. Soil Erosion and Transport: Soil can be transported by various agents such as water, wind,
ice, or gravity, leading to erosion and sedimentation in new locations.
4. Soil Deposition and Accumulation: Sediments transported by erosion settle in new areas,
where they may accumulate and contribute to the formation of new soil profiles.
5. Soil Degradation and Modification: Human activities, such as agriculture, urbanization,
and deforestation, can accelerate soil erosion, compaction, contamination, and depletion of
organic matter, altering soil properties and fertility.
6. Soil Restoration and Rehabilitation: Efforts to mitigate soil degradation and restore soil
health through practices such as conservation tillage, reforestation, erosion control, and soil
amendment.
Understanding the soil cycle is crucial for sustainable land management, agriculture,
ecosystem conservation, and addressing environmental challenges such as soil erosion,
desertification, and soil pollution.
