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Academic Writing Manual Final

This document is a training manual for academic writing, focusing on essential skills for producing high-quality academic papers. It covers topics such as the differences between academic and non-academic writing, paragraph structure, note-making strategies, and the importance of objectivity and formality in writing. The manual aims to equip academic staff with the necessary skills to effectively communicate complex ideas and adhere to formal conventions in their writing.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

98 views66 pages

Academic Writing Manual Final

Uploaded by

Habtamu Ab

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

PART TWO OF MODULE FOUR:

ENGLISH FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES

ACADAMIC WRITING SKILLS

Prepared Haramaya University ELIC

1
Contents
UNIT ONE: ACADEMIC AND OTHER FORMS OF WRITING .............................................................. 4

1. Academic vs. Non-Academic ........................................................................................................... 4

1.1. Features of Academic................................................................................................................ 7

1.1.1. Objectivity and Impersonality ............................................................................................... 8

1.1.2. Formality ............................................................................................................................. 10

1.1.3. Clarity and Conciseness.................................................................................................... 13

Activity 15: Discussion questions ..................................................................................................... 16

1.1.4. Accuracy and Precision: ................................................................................................... 16

1.1.5. Hedging ............................................................................................................................... 19

UNIT TWO: PARAGRAPH WRITING ................................................................................................... 21

1. A Paragraph and Its Structure ......................................................................................................... 21

2. Elements of an Effective Paragraph ................................................................................................ 27

3. Academic Vs Non Academic paragraph ............................................................................................. 28

Unite Three: Note Making .......................................................................................................................... 33

1. Note Making Strategy (Quoting, Paraphrasing & Summarizing) ................................................... 37

1.1. Quotations ............................................................................................................................... 38

1.2. Paraphrasing ............................................................................................................................ 39

1.3. Paraphrasing Steps .................................................................................................................. 40

1.4. Summarizing ........................................................................................................................... 44

UNIT FOUR: PLAGIARISM AND ACKNOWLEDGING SOURCE OF INFORMATION ................... 47

1. Plagiarism and Its Types .............................................................................................................. 47

2. Citation and Referencing ................................................................................................................ 52

3. Referencing ..................................................................................................................................... 59

2
Part Two: Academic writing
Introduction to the manual

Academic writing is a cornerstone of success in higher education, research, and professional

communication. It involves crafting well-structured, coherent, and persuasive written content
that presents ideas in a clear, formal, and objective manner. This style of writing is essential for
scholars, students, and professionals to convey complex concepts, arguments, and findings
effectively.

In academic settings, writing is not just a means of communication; it is a tool for critical
thinking, analysis, and knowledge production. Whether you're working on a research paper, a
thesis, an essay, or a report, academic writing requires you to engage deeply with your subject,
present evidence to support your claims, and follow formal conventions.

This module is designed to equip academic staff with the necessary skills to produce high-quality
academic papers, research articles, and grant proposals. It covers key aspects of academic
writing, including structure, clarity, coherence, and adherence to disciplinary conventions.
Participants will also learn strategies for critical reading, citation management, avoiding
plagiarism and referencing. By the end of this training, academic staff members will have a
stronger command of academic writing principles, enhancing their ability to publish and
disseminate research effectively.

 Craft texts;
 Learn how to incorporate the work of other authors into their own writing; and
 Acknowledge sources in consistent way using a recognized citation system

Overall, this is a comprehensive guide designed to support trainees in developing essential

writing skills necessary for academic success. It serves as a foundational tool for anyone
engaging in academic writing, whether they are students, researchers, or professionals working
on scholarly projects. This manual is tailored to help trainees master the art of academic writing,
from understanding its key components to producing high-quality, well-structured, and evidence-
based papers.

3
UNIT ONE: ACADEMIC AND OTHER FORMS OF WRITING

By the end of this manual the participants will be able to:

 distinguish features and principle of academic writing;
 discuss different genre of academic writing;
 aware of scientific writing language and style; and
 identify the differences between academic and none-academic texts.

Activity 1: Form a group of 3-5 participants and work together to answer the following
questions.

a. What is academic writing?

b. Why do we write academic paper?
c. What are the differences between academic and nonacademic writing?
d. What are the differences between academic and scientific writing?

1. Academic vs. Non-Academic

Activity 2: Fill in the table below, comparing and contrasting academic and non-academic
writing based on the characteristics listed. Use your knowledge and any resources you find
helpful. Consider the tips provided when completing filling in the table.

Feature Academic Writing Non-Academic Writing

Primary Goal
Target Audience
Key Focus
Language Style
Tone
Structure/Format
Evidence/Support
Common Genres
Objectivity
Purpose

4
Tips for Completing the Table:

 Primary Goal: Think about what the writer is trying to achieve. Is it to share new
research, persuade a specific audience, or simply entertain?
 Target Audience: Who is the intended reader? A specialist in the field? The general
public? This greatly influences the style and content.
 Key Focus: What are the most important elements? Detailed analysis? Clear and concise
information? A compelling story?
 Language Style: Consider the vocabulary, sentence structure, and level of formality.
 Tone: Is the writing formal and objective? Informal and personal? Persuasive and
passionate?
 Structure/Format: Are there specific formatting requirements? Are headings and
subheadings used? Is there a clear introduction and conclusion?
 Evidence/Support: What kind of information is used to back up claims? Scholarly
sources? Personal experiences? Data?
 Common Genres: What are some typical examples of each type of writing?
 Objectivity: How important is it to avoid personal bias?
 Purpose: Why is this piece of writing being created?

Compare your answers for the above activity with the suggestions given bellow

Feature Academic Writing Non-Academic Writing

5
Varies depending on genre (essay,
Varies widely: blog posts, emails,
research paper, etc.), but generally
Structure/Format letters, reports, manuals, fiction,
includes introduction, body paragraphs,
creative writing.
conclusion.
Varies widely: personal
Scholarly sources, research, data, experience, anecdotes, statistics,
Evidence/Support
theoretical frameworks. expert opinions, common
knowledge.
Essays, research papers, theses, Blog posts, articles, emails, letters,
Common Genres dissertations, literature reviews, reports, manuals, fiction, creative
conference papers. writing.
Can be subjective; personal
Crucial; personal bias should be
Objectivity opinions and biases are often
minimized.
acceptable and sometimes desired.
To communicate information,
To contribute to a specific field of
Purpose ideas, or feelings to a specific
knowledge.
audience.

Activity 3: Discussion questions. Do it in groups and share your answers.

1. How do the goals of academic and non-academic writing influence their respective
styles?
2. Are there areas where academic and non-academic writing overlap? If so, where?
3. Why is objectivity so crucial in academic writing, and how does it differ in non-academic
writing?
4. How does the intended audience shape the language and style used in these types of
writing?
5. Can you think of examples where academic writing might incorporate elements of non-
academic writing, or vice-versa?
6. What are some potential challenges writers might face when transitioning between
academic and non-academic writing styles?
7. How does the emphasis on formal structure differentiate academic writing from non-
academic writing?
8. Why is citation and referencing so important in academic writing, and how does it
compare to non-academic writing?

6
Compare your answers with the following notes.

Feature Academic Writing Non-Academic Writing

Advance knowledge, contribute to Inform, entertain, persuade,
Primary Goal scholarly discourse, explore ideas, express opinions, provide
analyze and interpret information. instructions.
Scholars, professors, peers, students in a General public, specific interest
Target Audience
specific field. groups, clients, colleagues.
Clarity, conciseness, engaging the
Critical thinking, analysis, argumentation,
Key Focus reader, achieving a specific
interpretation.
purpose.
Informal to formal, depends on
Formal, precise, varied vocabulary, audience and purpose, simpler
Language Style
complex sentence structures sometimes. sentence structures often
preferred.
Varies widely: personal,
Objective, analytical, reasoned,
Tone subjective, persuasive,
sometimes persuasive.
informative, humorous, etc.
Varies depending on genre (essay,
Varies widely: blog posts, emails,
research paper, etc.), but generally
Structure/Format letters, reports, manuals, fiction,
includes introduction, body paragraphs,
creative writing.
conclusion.
Varies widely: personal
Scholarly sources, research, data, experience, anecdotes, statistics,
Evidence/Support
theoretical frameworks. expert opinions, common
knowledge.
Essays, research papers, theses, Blog posts, articles, emails, letters,
Common Genres dissertations, literature reviews, reports, manuals, fiction, creative
conference papers. writing.
Can be subjective; personal
Crucial; personal bias should be
Objectivity opinions and biases are often
minimized.
acceptable and sometimes desired.
To communicate information,
To contribute to a specific field of
Purpose ideas, or feelings to a specific
knowledge.
audience.

1.1. Features of Academic

In written English, academic writing has certain characteristics and needs to comply with a strict
set of requirements. It offers factual information on a given subject and it doesn‘t intend to
entertain, but for most part, to inform.

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Academic writing has more than six characteristics: objectivity& impersonality, formality,
Clarity and Conciseness, Clarity and Conciseness, Organization and Structure and Citation and
Referencing. They should all be taken into consideration when writing an academic text, but the
one that is predominant also dictates the style of that writing. No concession should be made
from these six features and they should be kept in mind at all times by anyone attempting to be
an academic writer.

1.1.1. Objectivity and Impersonality

The majority of academic writing is objective and evidence-based, so avoids personal and
emotive language.

Activity 4: Brainstorming

In pair or small groups, brainstorm your responses to the following questions. Write down
as many ideas as you can for each question. Don't worry about being 'right' at this stage;
the goal is to generate a wide range of thoughts.

1) What does it mean for writing to be "objective or impersonal‖?

2) How can writers achieve objectivity in their academic work?

3) What are some examples of subjective language that should be avoided?

Activity 5: Compare the following pair of statements in group and identify which one is
acceptable or more objective. Give justification for your answer.

1. A. "I believe that the theory is correct because it makes sense to me."

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B "The theory is supported by empirical evidence and logical consistency."

2. A. "The experiment yielded significant and reproducible results."

B. "We can see that the experiment worked really well."

3. "The reliability of the data is questionable due to methodological limitations."

"In my opinion, the data is not very reliable."

Activity 6: Read the tip given below individually and take short notes on how to avoid
subjectivity. Then, produce impersonal texts on the space provided bellow.
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9
Tips on developing an academic writing

Objectivity: Writing that is unbiased, neutral, and based on evidence rather than personal
opinions or emotions
Academic writing is not about the reader or the writer and it shouldn‟t contain referrals to any
of these. It should focus on the main theme and offer information about it, without the writer
getting involved in a personal manner. This is why nouns are more used than verbs or adverbs.

Academic writing presents and evaluates issues and arrives at an objective position; a position
that focuses on and is informed by research and reasoning rather than personal feelings and
opinions. Personal pronouns, especially „I‟, „you‟ and „we‟ are usually avoided, as these are
often associated with subjective views that are influenced by personal preferences or biases.

Example : This statement sounds a bit like a personal opinion:

● You can demonstrate that climate change is a real phenomenon by studying alterations in
Antarctic ice layers.
To help establish an objective distance from the topic, instead of using a personal pronoun,
you could try:

❖ Using the topic as the subject

Alterations in Antarctic ice layers demonstrate that climate change is a real phenomenon.
❖ Using a passive verb
The reality of climate change can be demonstrated by studying alterations in Antarctic ice
layers.
❖ Using ‘it’ as an empty subject
It can be demonstrated that climate change is a real phenomenon by studying alterations in
Antarctic ice layers.

Avoiding ‘I’ does not mean you cannot express your own opinion. Your own evaluation of the
material is still extremely import.

1.1.2. Formality

Activity 7: Brainstorming

In small groups, discuss your responses to the following questions. Write down as many
points as you can.

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1. What are the characteristics of formal writing?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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---------------------------------------------------------

2. How does formal writing differ from informal writing?

Activity 8: Look at the pairs of statements below and identify the academic text.

1) a. "The researchers found out that the stuff they tested didn‘t work."
b. "The researchers concluded that the tested materials were ineffective."
2) a. "The researchers found out that the stuff they tested didn‘t work."
b. "The researchers concluded that the tested materials were ineffective."
3) a. "The test was kind a hard."
b. "The examination presented a considerable challenge."
4) a. "The team conducted the experiment in a controlled environment."
b. "The experiment was conducted in a controlled environment by the team."

Activity 9: Based on the above identification.

A. Create a definition of "formality" as it applies to academic writing.

B. What are the key characteristics that make writing "formal‖?

11
Compare your answers to the following tips;

Formality: Writing that uses precise vocabulary, complex sentence structures, and avoids
colloquial language or contractions. To make your writing more formal, try to:

1) Replace informal words that are associated with ‗chatty‘ spoken styles (such as contractions)
with more formal vocabulary
2) Avoid rhetorical questions the reader cannot answer
3) Use full words instead of contractions
4) Avoid unspecified categories
5) Avoid colloquial language

For example, this passage contains some informal words (going, good, tell, though, really),
a rhetorical question (How good…?), a contraction (can‘t), a vague category (etc.) and
a colloquialism (first-class, top notch, check out):

● The investigation has been going for four years. How good has it been? At this stage,
researchers can‟t tell, because they still need to check out the data to account for
differences in age, gender, socio-economic-status, etc. Once that work is done though,
the information will be really first-class.

Using the tips above, you could improve this passage by using more formal vocabulary, removing the
rhetorical question, writing words in full, elaborating on the vague category and removing the
colloquialism as seen below:
❖ The investigation has been underway for four years. Researchers cannot yet
determine the effectiveness of the project because it is necessary to first analyze
the data to control for age, gender, socio-economic status and other demographic
variables. Despite this, the information collected is expected to be highly valuable
for future studies

Activity 10: Read the following sentences and identify whether the following sentences
are objective/ formal or subjective/informal. Rewrite the subjective or informal sentences to make
them objective and formal.

1) "I think this experiment was a total success because the results were awesome."

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2) "The data suggests a strong correlation between sleep deprivation and decreased cognitive
performance."

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3) "You can see from the graph that the numbers went up a lot."

12
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4) "It‘s pretty obvious that climate change is causing all these crazy weather patterns."

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5) "The study concluded that the intervention had a statistically significant impact on patient
outcomes."

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Activity 11: Rewrite the following paragraph to make it more objective and formal. Ensure
that you:
 remove personal pronouns (e.g., "I," "we," "you").
 use precise and formal vocabulary.
 avoid emotional or subjective language.

Original Paragraph:

I believe that social media is really bad for mental health because it makes people feel bad
about themselves. A lot of studies show that people who use social media a lot are more
likely to be depressed. I think we should limit how much time we spend on social media to
stay happy.

The objective and formal paragraph

1.1.3. Clarity and Conciseness

Activity 12: Brainstorming questions

1) What do you think clarity and conciseness mean in academic writing?

13
2) What are some ways that writers can avoid wordiness and ambiguity from their writing?

Activity 13: Individually rewrite each sentence, making it as clear and concise as possible
like the example provided to you below. Then, in pairs or groups compare and discuss the
changes made.

Original: "It is generally understood that the implementation of a comprehensive analysis of the
various and diverse factors that are involved in the process of decision-making is of paramount
importance."

Rewritten: "Analyzing decision-making factors is crucial."

1) In the present study, an examination of the phenomena of student engagement was conducted, with a
particular focus on the utilization of digital platforms for the purposes of collaborative learning.

2) The results of the experimental investigation, which was carried out under controlled laboratory
conditions, indicated a statistically significant positive correlation between the consumption of
caffeine and the enhancement of cognitive abilities.

3) With respect to the conceptual framework that underpins this research, it is necessary to take into
consideration the potential for the presence of biases that may influence the interpretation of the data.

14
4) The author provides a detailed and comprehensive description of the methodology employed
in the collection of data, wherein a series of in-depth interviews were conducted with
individuals who possessed diverse experiential backgrounds.

Activity 14: Revise the following paragraph to make it clearer and more concise while
maintaining its original meaning. Remove unnecessary words, rephrase for clarity, and
ensure the sentences are direct and precise. Use the space provided bellow the paragraph.

Paragraph for Revision:

It is important to note that in academic writing, it is often the case that students tend to use a lot
of unnecessary words, which can make their writing appear to be less clear and more difficult to
understand. This is particularly evident when students write long, complex sentences that could
be expressed in a much simpler and more straightforward manner. In order to improve the clarity
and readability of their work, students should focus on eliminating redundant words and
rephrasing their sentences so that they are more direct and to the point.

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------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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Activity 15: Discussion questions

1. How did you improve clarity in your revision?

2. What strategies did you use to make the paragraph more concise?
3. Why is conciseness important in academic writing?

Tips: Guideline Eliminating Wordy Statements

concise writing enhances clarity and impact, making academic work more effective. Wordy
statements can obscure meaning and weaken arguments. To write concisely, eliminate
unnecessary words, avoid redundancy, and use precise language. Strategies include replacing
phrases with single words, removing filler words, and rewording passive voice sentences into
active ones. By focusing on brevity and precision, academic writing becomes clearer, more
engaging, and easier to understand.

Guideline for eliminating wordy statements:

1. Use Concise Words – Replace long phrases with single words (e.g., "due to the fact
that" → "because").
2. Avoid Redundancy – Remove unnecessary repetitions (e.g., "absolutely essential" →
"essential").
3. Cut Filler Words – Eliminate words that don‘t add meaning (e.g., "in order to" →
"to").
4. Be Direct – Use active voice and straightforward phrasing (e.g., "It is important to note
that" → "Note that").
5. Simplify Expressions – Replace overly complex phrases with simpler ones (e.g., "at
this point in time" → "now ( See details 10 rules avoiding wordy statement in
Appendix 1)

1.1.4. Accuracy and Precision:

Accuracy and precision are essential components of academic writing, ensuring clarity,
credibility, and effectiveness. Accuracy refers to the correctness of information, grammar, and

16
word choice, while precision emphasizes clear, specific, and unambiguous expression of ideas.
Together, they enhance the quality of scholarly communication, allowing readers to understand
and engage with the content effectively
Activity 16: Brainstorming questions

1) Why is accuracy essential in scientific and academic writing?

2) How can writers ensure that their information is accurate?
3) What is the importance of precise word choice?

Activity 17: Match each pair of statements with the correct accuracy type (A–G) from
the table below this chart.

Match each pair of statements with the correct accuracy type (A–G) from the table below this
chart.

Accuracy
No. Inaccurate Statement Accurate Statement
Type

Every country in the world has No country has completely eliminated poverty,
1 _______
completely eliminated poverty. but some have made progress.

Smith (2020) said 80% of students Smith (2020) found that 65% of students in the
2 _______
prefer online learning. study preferred online learning.

Around 500,000 people lost their lives in the

3 Many people died in the war. _______
war (Johnson, 2019).

All students struggle with academic Many students struggle with academic writing,
4 _______
writing. especially with structure.

Water boils at 100°C at sea level under

5 Water boils at 100°C everywhere. _______
standard pressure.

6 Smoking causes lung cancer. Smoking increases the risk of lung cancer. _______

The United States gained The United States declared independence in

7 _______
independence in 1775. 1776.

Most people in the world speak English is widely spoken, but not the most
8 _______
English. spoken native language.

17
Types of Accuracy:

A. Factual Accuracy E. Scientific /Academic Accuracy

B. Data Accuracy F. Historical Accuracy
C. Precision in Language G. Statistical Accuracy
D. Avoiding Overgeneralization

Activity 18: Each extract below has an issue with accuracy or precision. Read carefully;
find the mistakes as per the clues given, and rewrite the extracts correctly. Then, compare
your answers in groups.

Example:

Extract:
"The study found that 75% of participants reported a positive correlation between exercise and
improved mood. However, the total number of participants was 300, and 250 reported positive results."

Correction:
"The study found that 75% (225 participants) reported a positive correlation between exercise and
improved mood."

Extract - 2 "The average temperature recorded in the experiment was approximately 25 degrees
celsius." (Precision)
Correction: -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Extract -3: "The experiment involved measuring the growth of plants over a period of 5 weeks.
The average growth was 3.2 cm, with a standard deviation of 1 cm, and the minimum growth
was 2 cm, and the maximum was 60mm.‖ (Accuracy & Precision)
Correction: -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Extract -4 : "According to Smith (2023), the population of the city is 1.5 million. However,
recent census data indicates the population is 1,550,000." (Accuracy)

18
Correction: -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Extract - :"The concentration of the solution was measured to be between 0.1 and 0.2 mol/L."
(Precision)
Correction: -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1.1.5. Hedging

Hedging language refers to how a writer expresses certainty or uncertainty. Often in academic
writing, a writer may not be sure of the claims that are being made in their subject area, or
perhaps the ideas are good but the evidence is not very strong. It is common, therefore, to use
language of caution or uncertainty (known as hedging language).

Recognizing Hedging

Activity 19: Identify the hedging language in the following sentences and explain the
possible reasons why hedging languages are important.

1) "The results suggest that there may be a link between exercise and cognitive function."

2) "It is possible that the observed effects are due to other factors not accounted for in the
study."

3) "Further research is needed to confirm these findings."

Tips on headings

Why We use hedging?

Hedging is crucial in academic writing because it:
 Demonstrates caution: It shows that researchers are aware of the limitations of their
work and are not making unsubstantiated claims.
 Promotes objectivity: It helps maintain an objective tone by avoiding overly assertive
language.

19
 Encourages further research: It highlights the need for more investigation and
contributes to the ongoing scholarly conversation.
 Maintains credibility: Overstating findings can damage a researcher's reputation.
Hedging helps maintain credibility by presenting results in a balanced and nuanced
way.

Activity 9: Read the following sentences and identify whether they contain hedging. If they
do not, rewrite them to include hedging. (refer to the tips bellow the question)

1) Climate change is causing an increase in extreme weather events.

2) Online education is always more effective than traditional classroom learning.
3) The study proves that a high protein diet leads to weight loss.
4) This treatment cures all cases of the disease.
5) Artificial intelligence will replace all human jobs in the future.

Tips on hedging in Academic Writing

Purpose of Hedging Technique Example

Presenting Hypotheses Modal Verbs (possibility) "The results may indicate..."

Discussing
Adverbs of Probability "This is probably significant."
Probabilistic Data

Interpreting Complex
Verbs of Tentativeness "The data suggests a correlation."
Phenomena

Acknowledging
Quantifiers (scope) "Many participants reported..."
Limitations

Anticipating Introductory Phrases

"It could be argued that..."
Counterarguments (distance)

"This data suggests the theory may

General Hedging Combined Techniques have some validity" (instead of "This
proves...")

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UNIT TWO: PARAGRAPH WRITING

By the end of this unit the participants will be able to:

 identify key principles of paragraphing;
 distinguish coherent, unified meaningful paragraph; and
 analyze paragraph structures.

Activity 1: Brainstorming questions

1) What is a paragraph?
2) How long should a paragraph be?
3) How do academic paragraphs differ from nonacademic?
4) What are the structures or the components of a paragraph?
5) What is unity in a paragraph? How about coherence?

1. A Paragraph and Its Structure

Compare your answers with the tips

The meaning of a paragraph

A paragraph is the basic unit of composition, made up of related sentences that develop a
single main idea. It consists of three parts: a topic sentence, supporting sentences with
evidence, and a concluding sentence. In academic writing, each paragraph should introduce
one clear idea, elaborate on it with supporting details, and include in-text references to
strengthen the argument.

Feature Description Guidance

One paragraph = one
Core Idea Each paragraph focuses on a single main point.
idea
Topic
States the main point Every paragraph starts with a clear topic sentence.
Sentence
Evidence and Details (examples, definitions, etc.) support the topic
Support
elaboration sentence. Use in-text citations.
Unity Focus and coherence All sentences relate to the topic sentence.
Flexible, content- Length depends on the idea. Avoid overly long
Length
driven paragraphs.
Sentences Varied length Mix short, medium, and long sentences.
Single-sentence
Avoid Generally avoid these.
paragraphs

21
Activity 2: Answer the following questions and compare your answers in pairs.

1) How many sentences typically make up a paragraph?

Compare your answers with the tips on the feature of a paragraph

ASPECT DETAILS

Paragraph Length - No absolute rule for length

- Begin with a topic sentence

- Follow with supporting sentences (as many as needed)

- End with a concluding sentence

- Short paragraphs are rare in academic writing

- Aim for consistent paragraph lengths within an essay

(e.g., if one paragraph is half a page, others should match)

Rules Taught by Educators - Some suggest 100–200 words or 5–6 sentences per paragraph

- However, focus on the idea rather than word/sentence count

- Childhood teaching of 3–5 sentences aimed to emphasize support for ideas

Sentence Length - Recommended average: 20–25 words

- Balance complexity and readability

- Use punctuation to create mental pauses

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Variety in Sentence Length - Mix short, medium, and long sentences

- Avoid consistently long or short sentences

- Break down sentences over 40–50 words into shorter ones

- Combine back-to-back short sentences when necessary

Activity 3: Paragraph analysis in terms of structure. Analyze the structure of the

following paragraph considering the questions below. Focus on how effectively it is
organized and developed.

Steps for Analysis:

 Read each paragraph carefully.

 Answer the questions below to evaluate the structure of each paragraph.
 Provide specific examples from the paragraphs to support your answers.
 Be prepared to discuss your findings in small groups or present them to the class.

Read the following paragraph and answer the questions. Use the numbers in front of the
sentences to answer.

1) Identify the topic sentence. Does it clearly state the main idea?

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2) List down the major supporting sentences of the paragraph?

3) List down the minor supporting sentences of the paragraph if it has any?

23
4) Is there a concluding sentence? If so, what is its purpose? Does it summarize the main points,
re-state the topic sentence, suggest the authors view, or transit to the next paragraph?

A Paragraph to be analyzed

Social media's influence on adolescent development is a complex issue with both

potential benefits and drawbacks. 2) While concerns exist regarding excessive
screen time and its potential displacement of outdoor activities, research
suggests that social media can also foster social connection and identity
formation (John, 2021). 3) Furthermore, cyberbullying is a serious concern, and
its negative impact on mental health is well-documented (Dagne, 2022). 4)
However, it's important to avoid generalizations about all adolescents, as
individual experiences with social media vary widely Oxford ,2017). 5) Rather
than simply condemning social media, exploring strategies to mitigate risks and
maximize its positive potential is crucial. 6) This includes efforts by social media
companies, parents, educators, and adolescents themselves to promote
responsible online behavior and digital literacy."

.
Activity 4: Read the following three paragraphs and provide an appropriate topic sentence
for each.

1. ________________________________________________________________________.
He was only five when his parents were forced to leave the country and had to send him
away to boarding school. This was difficult enough, but two years later his father went
bankrupt and Mark was sent to live with his grandparents. Then, at the age of sixteen, he had
a serious riding accident and had to spend six months in hospital.

2. ___________________________________________________________________________
. For one thing, I had to work much longer hours. I often worked form six in the morning

24
until eight at night. Another thing which was different was my social life. In England I had a
very active social life, whereas in Africa I found that there was little for me to do after work.
Compared to my previous existence, I suppose my life in Africa was much healthier but it
was not so much fun.

3. __________________________________________________________________________.
For one thing, you should always remove your shoes when you enter a Japanese home, and
you should leave them pointing toward the door. Another suggestion is to make sure that you
bring a gift for your Japanese hosts, and to be sure to wrap it. A third recommendation is to
be appreciative of things in a Japanese house, but not too appreciative. Finally, remember
that when you sit down to eat, you do not have to accept every kind of food you are offered,
but you are expected to finish whatever you do put on your plate.

Activity 5: Read the paragraph below and write a concluding sentence.

1. Many people enjoy reading in their spare time. The mystery and suspense of Agatha
Christie and the horror and surprise twists of events found in novels written by Stephen
King make them among the most popular authors in America. Danielle Steele is a
tremendously successful author who appeals to readers who enjoy love stories and
intrigue
_______________________________________________________________________

2. Technology has transformed the way people live, work, and communicate. With the rise
of smartphones and the internet, information is now easily accessible from anywhere in
the world. Businesses use technology to improve efficiency, while individuals rely on it
for daily tasks such as shopping and entertainment. Additionally, advancements in
medical technology have improved healthcare, increasing life expectancy and enhancing
the quality of life.

________________________________________________________________________

3. Many people enjoy reading in their spare time. The mystery and suspense of Agatha
Christie and the horror and surprise twists of events found in novels written by Stephen
King make them among the most popular authors in America. Danielle Steele is a

25
tremendously successful author who appeals to readers who enjoy love stories and
intrigue
________________________________________________________________________

Activity 6: the order of the sentences in each group is not logical. In the space provided,
write the sentence letters in the order in which they should be arranged to form a coherent
paragraph.

1. Order of sentences should be: ___________________________________

A. When it is hot, we ride as fast as we can so the cool breeze will cool us off.

B. I enjoy riding my bike through the park on warm summer morning with my best
friend.

C. Not only is bike riding a fun thing to do in summer, but also it is a great way to stay in
shape.

D. Sometimes we ride slowly looking at the pretty flowers and trees.

2. Order of sentences should be:

a. By the end of the overtime, the Tigers clearly emerged as the superior team,
winning the game by four points.

b. One of the most exciting games of the season took place last night.

c. When the halftime buzzer sounded, the Tigers led the Blue Jays by ten points.
d. But the Blue Jays, full of fire, returned from the locker room and quickly
closed the gap.
e. During the first half, the Tigers controlled the ball and the boards.
f. No one expected the game to end in a tie, so the fans went wild when the final
buzzer sounded.

26
2. Elements of an Effective Paragraph

Activity 7: Discussion questions

1. What are the elements of an effective paragraph?

2. What do you know about unity, and coherence in developing a paragraph?

Tip on effective paragraph

A good paragraph contains three features: unity, coherence, and good development:

✔ A paragraph is unified when all of its sentences are concerned with a central, controlling
idea.
✔ It is coherent when its sentences are arranged in a clear order according to some definite
plan.
✔ It is well-developed when it contains specific details that help explain and illustrate the
controlling idea and when readers have all the information, they need to make sense of the
paragraph.
paragraphs should have both coherence and unity. A paragraph with unity develops a single idea
thoroughly and links it to the rest of the paper. Paragraph coherence is achieved when sentences are
ordered in a logical manner and when clear transitions link sentences.
Paragraph unity:
 Develop a paragraph around a major idea. Express this idea in the topic sentence.
 Make the relationship between the main idea of the paragraph and the thesis of the paper clear.
Don‘t assume that the reader will ―get it.‖ Spell it out for him/her.
 Support the main idea of the paragraph with details.
 Create separate paragraphs for those details that explore your topic from different perspectives.
 Eliminate sentences that do not support the main idea. Alternately, you may revise the main idea to
include those sentences.

Paragraph coherence:
Decide on an order for your sentences that will best develop the paragraph‘s main idea. Your supporting
sentences are raw materials. They will not make sense to a reader unless they are put in order.

This order could be based on several factors:

 Chronological sequence. This is useful for describing a sequence of events.
 Modified chronology. Sometimes a major idea presented early in a paragraph can be supplemented
with necessary background information.
 Spatial position of different objects. This method is useful for description.
 ‗Conversation‘ between different experts. By moving between a series of key positions, a writer
can establish a sense of dialogue and develop a complex argument.
 Logical form of argument. Some form of logical proof, like a syllogism, can serve as the basis for
order.
Once you have put your sentences in order, express the connections between them with transitional

27
words or phrases. Think of these as signposts to guide the reader through your paragraph. They should
be clear.

Activity 8: Choose ONE of the following topics and write a well-developed paragraph (4-6
sentences). Be sure to include a clear topic sentence, relevant supporting sentences, and a
strong concluding sentence.

1. The importance of teamwork

2. The benefits of reading
3. A place I would like to visit

3. Academic Vs Non Academic paragraph

Activity 9: Read the following two paragraphs, and answer the questions. Share your ideas
in a group.

1) What are the key differences in the language used in each paragraph?
2) How does the tone differ between the two paragraphs?
3) Who do you think is the intended audience for each paragraph?
4) What is the main purpose of each paragraph?

1. The prevailing hypothesis regarding the decline in pollinator populations centers on

the synergistic effects of habitat loss and pesticide exposure. Empirical studies, such as

28
those conducted by Goulson et al. (2015), have demonstrated a statistically significant
correlation between neonicotinoid pesticide use and reduced bee colony survival.
Furthermore, fragmentation of natural habitats, as documented by Fahrig (2003), has
been shown to decrease biodiversity and limit foraging resources. It is therefore posited
that a comprehensive approach, integrating both habitat restoration and sustainable
agricultural practices, is necessary to mitigate the observed pollinator decline."

2. So, like, basically, the bees are totally dying out, right? It's super bad. People are
saying it's because we're killing all their homes and, you know, spraying stuff all over
the place. I saw this thing online where they showed how the chemicals mess with the
bees' brains or something. And then, like, they can't find their way home. We really
need to do something about it, or we're gonna be in big trouble, you know?

Activity 10: Discus the following questions in terms of the principles of academic
paragraph

1) Identify examples of hedging language in the academic paragraph and explain why they
might have been used.
2) What evidence is used to support the claims made in the academic paragraph?
3) Identify any examples of formal vocabulary.
4) What are the examples of citations used in the academic paragraph? And what is the purpose
of those citations.

Activity 11: Discuss the following questions based on non-academic paragraph

specification

1) Identify examples of informal language or colloquialisms in the non-academic paragraph.

2) How does the non-academic paragraph attempt to engage the reader?
3) What are the examples of subjective language used in the non-academic paragraph?
4) Does the non-academic paragraph contain accurate information? How can you tell?

Sample Academic Paragraph & Analysis

Activity 12: Read the academic paragraph below and answer the following key questions in
a group of three or four.

29
1) What is the central idea of this paragraph?
2) What evidence or examples can support this idea?
3) How does this evidence relate to the broader topic?
4) What linking words or phrases will improve coherence?
5) Does the paragraph contribute to the overall argument of the paper?

The increasing use of artificial intelligence (AI) in healthcare is transforming

patient care and diagnosis. A recent study by Johnson & Lee (2022) found that
AI-powered diagnostic tools improved early detection rates of diseases like
cancer by 30%. Similarly, AI-driven predictive models are helping hospitals
allocate resources more efficiently, reducing patient wait times and improving
treatment outcomes (Smith et al., 2023). These advancements demonstrate how
AI not only enhances medical accuracy but also optimizes healthcare operations.
Consequently, integrating AI into healthcare systems is becoming a necessity
rather than an option, as it addresses critical challenges in modern medicine.

Activity 11: In small groups, read the tip provided in the table below. Then,
compare and contrast the nature of academic and non-academic paragraphs in
terms of components and characteristics such as formality … etc by responding
to the following questions.

1) What are the key components of a well-structured paragraph?

2) How do academic and non-academic paragraphs differ in their use of topic sentences and
supporting statements?
3) What are the structural similarities and differences between academic and non-academic
paragraphs regarding language use?
4) What are the key differences between academic and non-academic paragraphs in terms of
formality and objectivity?
5) How do academic and non-academic writing compare in terms of idea organization?

Tip on structure of academic and nonacademic paragraph

Aspect Academic Paragraph Non-Academic Paragraph

Introduces the main idea or
Topic Sentence Often presents an idea or personal opinion.
argument formally.

30
Uses research findings,
Supporting Includes personal anecdotes or general
statistics, quotes, or
Evidence observations.
examples.
Explains relevance of
Explanation evidence and links to Elaborates with an informal tone.
argument.
Concluding Summarizes key point and Restates the point simply or adds a personal
Sentence transitions to the next idea. reflection.
Uses formal language;
Formality Uses casual and conversational language.
avoids colloquialisms.
Relies on data, studies, or Based on personal experiences or informal
Basis of Support
expert opinions. evidence.
Organized structure with
Logical Flow Structure is flexible and may vary.
clear progression.
Objective; avoids personal Subjective; includes personal thoughts and
Perspective
opinions unless necessary. feelings.
Informs, argues, or analyzes Engages, entertains, or shares personal
Purpose
based on evidence. experiences.

Activity 13: Go through the following analyzed academic text, and discuss with your
partners how it is different from the none-academic one.

Sample Academic Paragraph analysis

The portrayal of female officers on television has been shown to influence
public perceptions of male and female police officers The first sentence
(Goodall, 2012). Female officers are often presented in a caring role introduces the focus of
rather than a crime fighting role and frequently as a character who discussion in this
is subordinate to a male officer (Callais and Szozda, 2006). As paragraph.
Davidson (2012) notes, police TV shows overemphasize crime If the writer just said
fighting and the use of physical force in every day policing in an “Davidson (2012)
attempt to produce interesting programmes: this association of notes that…,” she
strength with successful police work may reinforce public concerns would simply be
about female officers‘ physical capacity for police work. The caring reporting the source.
role of police officers is hinted at in a number of ways. In a study of “As Davidson (2012)
the portrayal of female officers in US police reality television notes,…” is a way of
programmes, Rabe-Hemp (2011) found that the marital and showing that the writer
parental status of female officers is often emphasized which may agrees with Davidson.
highlight the perceived deviation from gender norms and the The rest of the
difference between male and female officers. She also points out paragraph provides
that female officers tend to be shown discussing gendered issues research evidence to
such as motherhood, as opposed to male officers who were primarily develop this argument.
discussing work-related issues. This may present male officers as
more focused and dedicated to their police careers than women, The final concluding
whose priorities appear to be divided. Cox (2012) obtained similar sentence refers back to

31
findings in another US study about reality programmes. Such the issue identified in
depictions on TV encourage stereotypical perceptions of the work of the first paragraph
male and female police officers as not having equal value or
attracting equal status.

Activity 14: Based upon the above analyzed paragraph develop an academic text
using one of the following topics in the box.

a. AI in education. c. Renewable energy and climate change.

b. Challenges of remote work. d. Social media and mental health. e.
Importance of cyber security.

Make sure that your paragraph:

2. has a topic sentence: state your main idea clearly.
3. has supporting details: include 2-3 pieces of evidence (data, examples, or
quotes) to support your idea.
4. has conclusion: summarize your key point in a final sentence.
5. uses formal language: avoid slang or contractions.

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Unite Three: Note Making
By the end of this manual the participants will be able to:

 overview the differences between note-taking and note-making.

 identify some techniques to take/make effective notes.
 summary main points from a text.

Activity 1: Brainstorming

Before we begin discussing this topic, take a few minutes to respond to the
following questions individually. Then, discuss your answers with your partners.

1) What is the purpose of note-making in academic writing?

2) What are the key differences between note-making and simple note-taking?
3) How do you decide what information is important when making notes?
4) What difficulties do you face when trying to take effective notes during lectures or while
reading?
5) What strategies do you use to improve the clarity and organization of your notes?

Activity 2: Use the following note under this task to read and do the jigsaw activity
following the procedures indicated here.

Procedure for the jigsaw activity

1. Form Expert Groups (4 attendees per group)

Each group will be assigned to one of the five topics depicted here:

 Group 1: Meaning and Concept of Note-Making

 Group 2: Note taking vs, Note making
 Group 3: Purpose and Benefits of Note-Making
 Group 4: Significant Challenges of Note-Making
 Group 5: Guidelines for appropriate Note-Making

2. Expert Group Discussion

33
 Read and discuss based on the assigned topic.
 Summarize key points and prepare to share your understanding with others.
 Use bullet points, diagrams, or examples to aid explanation.

3. Reorganize into Jigsaw Groups

 Form new groups with one member from each expert group (each new group now will
have 5 trainees each representing a different topic).
 Each candidate will take turns to explain their topic to the group.
 Other members listen, take notes, and ask questions for clarity.

Note for the jigsaw activity on key issues of Nate making

1. Meaning and Concept of Note-Making

Note-making is the practice of recording important information from various sources

(like lectures, readings, or discussions) in a condensed and organized format. It is an
active process that requires selecting, summarizing, and paraphrasing key points to
make the material more manageable and easier to review later.

The goal is to create a set of notes that capture the essence of the material without
overwhelming the writer with excessive details. This process helps in deepening
understanding, promoting retention, and aiding in future recall. Effective note-making
isn‘t just about writing down everything you hear or read but focuses on picking out the
most relevant and significant information.
Concept of Note-Making
The concept of note-making goes beyond simple transcription of words or ideas. It
involves:
1) Selection of Key Points – Identifying the central ideas and essential details from the
source material.
2) Condensation and Summarization – Paraphrasing and shortening lengthy
explanations into succinct and understandable points.
3) Organization – Arranging information logically (e.g., in bullet points, diagrams, or
hierarchical structures) to make it easier to follow and understand.
4) Personalization – Writing the information in one‘s own words, which helps in
better understanding and retention.
5) Effective note-making is an active learning strategy. It involves more than simply
copying text verbatim; it requires synthesizing and reworking the material to fit
one‘s learning style.

2. Note taking vs, Note making

Similarity Between Note-Taking and Note-Making
1) Purpose: Both note-taking and note-making are used to record important

34
information for future reference, aiding in learning and understanding.
2) Active Engagement: Both involve actively processing and engaging with the
material being studied, whether it‘s a lecture, reading, or discussion.
3) Summarizing: Both methods aim to condense large amounts of information into
a more digestible format for easier recall and review.

Difference Between Note-Taking and Note-Making

1) Level of Engagement:
 Note-Taking: It is more passive, simply recording what is said or written,
often verbatim. The focus is on capturing details as they appear.
 Note-Making: It is more active and involves processing the material. The
focus is on organizing, summarizing, and synthesizing information in your own
words.
2) Structure:
 Note-Taking: The notes are usually written in a linear, unorganized format,
often just a direct transcription of what‘s being said.
 Note-Making: The notes are typically organized with headings, bullet
points, summaries, or diagrams, aiming for clarity and easy revision.
3) Purpose:
 Note-Taking: Primarily used to capture all details without immediate
filtering or analysis. It‘s often done during lectures or reading sessions.
 Note-Making: It‘s done after actively engaging with the material. It‘s meant
to distill key points and concepts for better comprehension and long-term
retention.
3. Purpose and Benefits of Note-Making

Note-making is a valuable skill that serves various purposes and offers multiple
benefits, whether you're studying, working, or engaging in personal development.
Here‘s an overview:
Purpose of Note-Making

1) Organization of Information: It helps in structuring information clearly and logically,

making it easier to understand and review later.
2) Retention and Recall: Writing down key points enhances memory retention by engaging
both visual and cognitive processes. The act of writing helps solidify the material in your
mind.
3) Clarification of Understanding: When you take notes, you process the information, which
can help clarify difficult concepts and improve your understanding.
4) Focus and Attention: The process of note-taking forces you to actively listen or read
attentively, filtering out distractions and focusing on essential details.
5) Study and Review Aid: Notes serve as a condensed version of the material, making it
easier to review and revise for exams or meetings. They are great tools for quick refreshers.
6) Creative and Critical Thinking: By condensing and summarizing information, you may
discover connections, patterns, and insights that were not immediately obvious.

Benefits of Note-Making
7) Improved Memory: Writing down notes in your own words boosts retention compared to

35
passive listening or reading, as it involves processing the information.
8) Active Learning: Note-making encourages active engagement with the material, which is
known to improve comprehension and recall.
9) Efficient Revision: Well-organized notes allow for quicker and more effective review. You
can easily identify key concepts, terms, and ideas.
10) Better Focus: The act of taking notes helps you focus on the most relevant information and
stay engaged in the topic.
11) Clarification and Understanding: When you take notes, you often need to paraphrase or
summarize the material, which deepens your understanding and clears up any confusion.
12) Personalized Learning: Note-making allows you to tailor your notes to your own learning
style, ensuring that the content is organized in a way that works best for you.
13) Effective Communication: Notes can help in communicating ideas clearly, whether
in meetings, presentations, or group discussions, because they serve as a quick
reference to key points.
In summary, note-making is not just about writing things down—it's a process that
enhances comprehension, aids memory, and promotes more effective learning and
communication.
4. Significant Challenges of Note-Making
While note-making is an essential skill, it comes with its own set of challenges. Here are some
of the key difficulties people face:
1) Time-Consuming: Note-making can be time-intensive, especially if you're trying to capture
every detail during lectures or while reading. Finding a balance between writing and
listening or reading can be tricky.
2) Difficulty in Distilling Key Information: Sometimes, it‘s hard to know what information
is essential and what is not. Overloading notes with too much detail can make them
overwhelming, while leaving out important points can lead to gaps in understanding.
3) Inconsistent Organization: Poorly organized notes can become chaotic and hard to follow.
Without a clear structure, it can be difficult to locate and review key information later on.
4) Legibility and Clarity: If notes are rushed or disorganized, they can be hard to read and
comprehend later, especially if abbreviations or shorthand are used inconsistently.
5) Distractions and Multitasking: In fast-paced environments like lectures or meetings, it's
challenging to focus fully on both writing notes and understanding the material at the same
time. Distractions or multitasking can lead to missing key points.
6) Lack of Review and Revision: Without regular review, notes can become ineffective.
Simply writing things down isn‘t enough—notes need to be revisited and actively studied
for maximum benefit.
7) Technological Dependence: While digital tools offer convenience, reliance on devices like
laptops or tablets can cause distractions, and technical issues like battery life or software
problems can hinder note-making.
Despite these challenges, note-making can be greatly improved with practice and effective
strategies such as active listening, summarization, and using templates or digital tools to stay
organized.

5. Guidelines for appropriate Note-Making

Effective note-making is crucial for enhancing learning and retention. Here are some

36
key guidelines to make your note-taking more efficient and organized:
1) Be Selective: Focus on key points, concepts, and ideas rather than trying to write everything
down. Capture the essence of the material, such as main ideas, important details, and
supporting evidence.
2) Use Your Own Words: Paraphrasing helps you process and understand the material better.
Avoid copying verbatim, as it may lead to passive learning and reduce comprehension.
3) Organize and Structure: Use headings, subheadings, bullet points, and numbering to
structure your notes. This will help you identify the most important sections and make your
notes easy to review.
4) Use Abbreviations and Symbols: Create your own shorthand for common words or
phrases (e.g., ―&‖ for "and," ―b/c‖ for "because"). This speeds up note-taking while keeping
the material concise.
5) Be Consistent: Use a consistent format throughout your notes. Whether you prefer bullet
points, outlines, or diagrams, consistency makes it easier to find and review information
later.
6) Highlight Key Information: Use colors, underlining, or boxes to highlight crucial points.
This will make important details stand out when you revisit your notes.
7) Review and Revise: After taking notes, spend time reviewing and organizing them. Add
any missing details or clarify points that may be unclear. Regular review helps reinforce
learning.
8) Stay Engaged: Actively listen or read while taking notes. Avoid distractions and focus on
understanding the material as you note it down.
9) Use Visuals: Incorporate diagrams, charts, or mind maps when necessary. Visual aids help
simplify complex information and make your notes more memorable.
By following these guidelines, your notes will be more effective, organized, and easier to use
for future study and review.

1. Note Making Strategy (Quoting, Paraphrasing & Summarizing)

Activity 3: Be in a group of four or five participants, and discuss the following
questions.

1) How would you define and differentiate between quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing in
the context of note making?
2) Can you explain why each technique is important and in what situations one might be
preferred over the others?
3) Describe a real-life example from your teaching practice where using a direct quote was
essential for clarity. What was the impact?
4) How do you ensure that a paraphrase maintains the original meaning without copying the
source‘s structure?

37
1.1. Quotations

Quotations must be identical to the original, using a narrow segment of the source. They must
match the source document word for word and must be attributed to the original author. Using
quotation is the easiest way to include source material, but quotations should be used carefully
and sparingly. There are several ways to integrate quotations into your text. Often, a short quotation
works well when integrated into a sentence. Longer quotations can stand alone. Remember that quoting
should be done only sparingly; be sure that you have a good reason to include a direct quotation when you
decide to do so.

Ways to avoid plagiarism:

 Use quotation marks around the author‘s words.
 Use a signal or identifying phrase that tells who and what you are quoting.
 Add an in text (parenthetical) reference at the end of the passage.
 Include a citation at the end of your paper (Works Cited)

Activity 4: Read the following quotations and write down the application of these quotes in
the bank spaces given bellow. Examples are given in bold.

Quotation Author Potential Application in Academic Writing

―Education is the most
Can be used to discuss the impact of education
powerful weapon which
Nelson Mandela on social change, personal empowerment, or
you can use to change the
global development.
world.‖
―The only way to do great -----------------------------------------------------------
work is to love what you Steve Jobs
------------------------------------------------------------
do.‖
―Injustice anywhere is a
Martin Luther Can support arguments related to civil rights,
threat to justice
King Jr. justice, equality, or social activism.
everywhere.‖
―The only impossible -----------------------------------------------------------
journey is the one you Tony Robbins
------------------------------------------------------------
never begin.‖
―Research is formalized -----------------------------------------------------------
Zora Neale
curiosity. It is poking and
Hurston ------------------------------------------------------------
prying with a purpose.‖

38
Quotation Author Potential Application in Academic Writing
―Success is not final,
-----------------------------------------------------------
failure is not fatal: It is the Winston
courage to continue that Churchill ------------------------------------------------------------
counts.‖

Activity 5: Write 50 to 60 words long paragraph based on one of the ideas covered by the
above mentioned scholars, and support your argument with their quotations. Use the space
provided bellow.

1.2. Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing is one way to use a text in your own writing without directly quoting
source material. Anytime you are taking information from a source that is not your own,
you need to specify where you got that information.

Paraphrasing is a valuable skill because...

 It is better than quoting information from an undistinguished passage.

 It helps you control the temptation to quote too much.

 The mental process required for successful paraphrasing helps you to

grasp the full meaning of the original.

In order to paraphrase well, you must read the passage carefully, understand the meaning of the
passage, and rewrite the passage in your own words. This process will help you improve both
your reading and writing skills, for it forces you to read the passage closely and allows you to
practice your writing skills.

39
1.3. Paraphrasing Steps

Paraphrasing involves taking a passage - either spoken or written - and rewording it. Writers
often paraphrase to deliver information in a more concise way. When paraphrasing, it is
important to keep the original meaning so that the facts remain intact. Basically, you are writing
something in your own words that still expresses the original idea.

Step 1: Understand what you are reading. If you don't understand it, you can't paraphrase it
correctly. That's guaranteed.
Step 2: Think about the ideas, especially how the ideas may relate to your specific topic.
Step 3: Not looking at the original, write down the ideas.
Step 4: Look back at the original to see if you have changed the grammar and vocabulary. If not,
change them now

Example of a paraphrasing:

Original:

Named for James Brady, the White House press secretary who was shot and
wounded by John Hinckley Jr. during the attempted assassination of President
Ronald Reagan in March 1981, the Brady Bill establishes a national waiting period
and background check for the purchase of a handgun. (Bender, 1995: 137)

Phrases to avoid from the original are in bold:

Named for James Brady, the White House press secretary who was shot and wounded by
John Hinckley Jr. during the attempted assassination of President Ronald Reagan in
March 1981, the Brady Bill establishes a national waiting period and background check for
the purchase of a handgun. (Bender, 1995: 137)

Ideas:

Brady bill = named for White House press secretary James Brady

Brady was shot during an assassination attempt on President Reagan

Brady bill provisions = people who want to buy handguns have a waiting period and check
on their backgrounds

40
Changing the order of ideas, grammar, and vocabulary:
Bender (1995) explains that people who want to buy handguns in the US now have a
waiting period and a background check as a result of the Brady Bill. The bill was named
after White House press secretary James Brady, who was wounded during an assassination
attempt on President Reagan. (137).

Notice how the grammar and vocabulary have been changed wherever possible in the
paraphrase.

Activity 6: Below are three texts: an ORIGINAL, a LEGITIMATE PARAPHRASE, and a

PLAGIARIZED PARAPHRASE. Compare the two paraphrases to the original and
explain why they are considered legitimate and plagiarized. Discuss your analysis with a
partner.

The original passage:

Students frequently overuse direct quotation in taking notes, and as a result they
overuse quotations in the final [research] paper. Probably only about 10% of
your final manuscript should appear as directly quoted matter. Therefore, you
should strive to limit the amount of exact transcribing of source materials while
taking notes. Lester, James D. Writing Research Papers. 2nd ed. (1976): 46-47.

A legitimate paraphrase:
In research papers students often quote excessively, failing to keep quoted
material down to a desirable level. Since the problem usually originates during
note taking, it is essential to minimize the material recorded verbatim (Lester
46-47).
A plagiarized version:
Students often use too many direct quotations when they take notes, resulting in
too many of them in the final research paper. In fact, probably only about 10% of
the final copy should consist of directly quoted material. So it is important to limit
the amount of source material copied while taking notes.

Tips on Paraphrasing Techniques

Here are some of the paraphrasing techniques we are going to look at.
A. Using Synonyms
The most basic paraphrasing technique is replacing words with synonyms. Example
● studies > research investigate >examine
● “Big in size” > “very large”. “Tertiary institutions”, > universities

41
When You can’t find a Synonym
Sometimes you can‘t find a synonym. When this happens, replace the word with a
short definition. Asking yourself question will help you define words.Example:
―what is a stallion?” Answer “ a male horse. Ethiopian > the people of Ethiopia
B. Changing word class:
Sometimes you may see a way to replace a noun with a verb and an adverb. adverb instead of an
adjective also do the reverse.
– Ethiopia (n.) > Ethiopian (adj.)
– mountainous regions (adj. + n.) > in the mountains (n.)
– Chaltu is an accurate typist. (V) Chaltu types accurately.(n)
C. Changing world order:
Example : Ancient Egypt collapsed > the collapse of Egyptian society began
D. Change or reverse the order of ideas

– Technology can improve the quality of life if we plan carefully for the future
– If we plan carefully for the future, technology can improve the quality of life (still
plagiarism)
– Carefully forward planning can ensure that technology will meet our future needs
(Better).
E. Combine Sentences
You may combine two or three simple sentences if one verb and adjective can be
found that says the same thing for all as in the example.
Dogs make nice pets. Cats are good pets too. Many people like birds and fish.
>Dogs, cats, birds, and fish are popular pets.
F. Split Sentences

Of course, if you can combine the sentences, you can also divide them. Example
Although Kedir thought Mahlet was attractive, he decided not to go out with her
anymore.
Kedir liked Mahelet. However, he chose to stop dating her.
NB You have to use these techniques in combination. Usually, two or three techniques used together
will work.

Activity 7: Read the original statement carefully. Then, select the option below that best
paraphrases the statement.

1. Original Text: "Due to rapid technological advancements, the way we work and
communicate has evolved significantly in the past few years."

42
A. The recent progress in technology has greatly changed how we interact and perform our
jobs."
B. Despite rapid technological developments, our methods of working and communicating
have remained unchanged."
C. Recent technological breakthroughs have only slightly modified the ways we work and
communicate."
D. Technological advancements over the past few years have created new challenges,
though the basic ways we work and communicate are still intact."
.
2. Original Text: "Despite facing numerous setbacks, the team persevered and ultimately
achieved victory."
A. The team faced setbacks but won.
B. Although the team experienced many difficulties, they continued to strive and eventually
were victorious.
C. The team was victorious because they persevered despite setbacks.
D. Setbacks did not stop the team from winning.

3. Original Text: "The rapid growth of technology has significantly altered the way we
communicate."
A. Technology has grown quickly and changed our communication.
B. Communication methods have been drastically transformed by the swift development of
technology.
C. We communicate differently because of technology's fast growth.
D. Technology's growth has made communication faster.

Activity 8: Paraphrase the following sentences using synonyms and change the sentence structure

1. The scientist conducted an experiment to test the effectiveness of the new drug.

43
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------
3. Eating a balanced diet is essential for maintaining good health.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------
Activity 9: Go back to activity 6, and paraphrase the paragraph correctly after you
read the original text again. Use the space provided bellow.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1.4. Summarizing

A summary is a condensation of a passage, an article or a book. There is no correlation between

the length of a text and the length of a summary of it. An entire book can be summarized in one
sentence! It all depends on your purpose as a writer. Of course, it is essential to understand the text
and have a clear purpose for summarizing it, in whatever detail you choose to do so.

Points to note:

● Only the main points have been included.

● The text is condensed without losing the essence of the material. Examples and
explanations have been omitted.
● The summary writer‘s own words are used. (NOTE: Do not change technical
terms.)
● Reporting verbs - ‗suggests‘ ‗contends‘ – are used to discuss the text.
● In–text citation is provided.
● Page numbers can be provided if the summarised material appears in specific
pages, chapters or sections.

44
● This source should have a reference list entry giving full bibliographic details –
see the example provided later.

Activity 10: Read the original text carefully. Then, select the option below that best
summarizes the main ideas of the text.

Original Text "In recent years, the urban landscape has changed drastically. In many
cities, traditional neighborhoods are being replaced by modern buildings
and high-tech infrastructure. Local communities are adapting by blending
old cultural practices with new economic opportunities. Despite
challenges like gentrification and increased living costs, there are efforts
to preserve historical sites and promote sustainable urban development."
A. "The text describes how cities are evolving as modern architecture replaces old
neighborhoods, while local communities adapt by preserving cultural traditions and historic
sites."
B. "The text explains that technological advances have led to the replacement of traditional
neighborhoods with modern high-tech buildings, which has solely improved economic
opportunities in urban areas."
C. "The text discusses the process of gentrification in cities and highlights only the negative
impacts of modern developments on local communities."
D. "The text focuses on the preservation of historical sites in cities, without mentioning any
modern developments or the challenges associated with urban change.

Activity 11: Read the following text carefully and summarize it properly using the
following space.

Climate change is one of the most pressing issues of our time. Scientists have observed
rising temperatures, increasing sea levels, and more frequent extreme weather events. In
response, governments around the world are implementing policies aimed at reducing
greenhouse gas emissions. Additionally, communities are taking local actions, such as
promoting renewable energy and sustainable practices, to combat environmental
degradation.

Summary :
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

45
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

46
UNIT FOUR: PLAGIARISM AND ACKNOWLEDGING SOURCE OF INFORMATION

By the end of this manual the participants will be able to:

 define plagiarism and explain why it is unethical and unacceptable in academic,

professional, and creative work.
 identify various forms of plagiarism, including direct plagiarism, self-plagiarism, mosaic
plagiarism, and accidental plagiarism.
 comprehend the significance of proper citation and referencing in maintaining academic
integrity and intellectual honesty.
 demonstrate the ability to use APA citation styles properly acknowledge sources in their
work.
 avoid plagiarism, including effective note-taking, and paraphrasing.

Activity 1: Brainstorming questions

1) What is plagiarism?
2) In what ways, and for what reasons, might individuals commit plagiarism?
3) What are the potential consequences of committing plagiarism in academic writing?
4) What strategies can be employed to avoid plagiarism?

1. Plagiarism and Its Types

Activity 2: Below are four student paraphrases (A–D) derived from the text provided in the
table below. Read each text carefully and determine which ones contain plagiarism, and
say why.

Students ‘paraphrased texts

Student- A: The Education Act of 1870 put down the basis for providing primary education for
every child in the United Kingdom. It was not, however, until the establishment of the
1944 Education Act that all male and female children were given the right to
education at secondary school.

47
Student -B: The right to elementary education for every child in England and Wales was
established in the 1870 Education Act. However, the right to secondary education
had to wait until the implementation of the 1944 Education Act. Following that act, in
many countries of the world, there was such a rapid increase in educational provision
that it was called the 'educational explosion' of the 1950s and 1960s.

Student-C: While the Education Act of 1870 laid the groundwork for the provision of elementary
or primary education for all children in England and Wales, it was not until the
implementation of the 1944 Education Act that all girls and boys were entitled to a
secondary education. Indeed, the decades immediately following the Second World
War saw such a rapid increase in educational provision – in the USA, and many
countries of Western and Eastern Europe, as well as in Britain - that some writers
refer to the 'educational explosion' of the 1950s and 1960s.

Student D: In England and Wales, all 5 year all children have had the right to an education
since 1870. This has not, however, been the case for 11 year olds, who had to wait
until 1944 for a national system of secondary education. Once this system was
established, though, secondary education expanded rapidly in the decades
immediately following the Second World War.

Original text
While the Education Act of 1870 laid the groundwork for the provision of elementary or primary
education for all children in England and Wales, it was not until the implementation of the 1944
Education Act that all girls and boys were entitled to a secondary education. Indeed, the decades
immediately following the Second World War saw such a rapid increase in educational provision - in the
USA, and many countries of Western and Eastern Europe, as well as in Britain - that some writers refer to
the 'educational explosion' of the 1950s and 1960s. The minimum school-leaving age was extended from
14 to 15 years (in 1947) and raised to 16 (in 1971-2), but the proportion of people choosing to pursue
their studies beyond this age hurtled upward; by 1971, 30 per cent of 17- year-olds were in full-time
education in schools or colleges, compared with 2 per cent in 1902, 4 per cent in 1938, 18 per cent in
1961 and 22 per cent in 1966. The Robbins Report (1963) undermined the view that there was a finite
pool of ability - a limited number of people who could benefit from advanced education - and provided
ammunition for the expansion of higher education. This expansion took place through the establishment
of new universities and growth of existing ones, as well as through the conversion of colleges into
polytechnics which could offer degree courses, and the founding of the Open University. In 1970, 17.5
per cent of 18- year-olds entered further or higher education on a full-time basis (compared with 1.2 per
cent in 1900, 2.7 per cent in 1938, 5.8 per cent in 1954, and 8.3 per cent in 1960); another three million
people enrolled for part-time day classes, evening classes or sandwich courses


Bilton, Bonnett, Jones, Stanworth, Sheard & Webster (1981, p. 381)

Activity 3: Individually match the type of plagiarism in Column A with the description in
Column B. Then, get into a group of three and compare your answers.

Column A: Column B:
Types of Plagiarism Description

48
A. Intertwining someone else‘s work with your original
1. Direct Plagiarism
research and opinions.
B. Copying all or a large chunk of your own previous original
2. Mosaic Plagiarism
work without citing it as a source in your new paper.
C. Omitting one or more sources from your references list or
3. Paraphrasing Plagiarism
falsifying sources and making up facts and data.
D. Making mistakes in the citation, such as leaving out the
4. Self-Plagiarism
quotation marks, or forgetting to include the source.
5. Accidental Plagiarism E. Copying your sources word for word without citing them.
F. Altering a few phrases from your source material while still
6. Source-Based Plagiarism
keeping most of the structure and meaning intact.
G. failure to cite other work so as to give an improper
impression of priority

Tips to avoid plagiarism in academic writing

Tip Description
Whenever you use someone else's ideas, data, or quotations, make
1. Always Cite Your
sure to properly cite the source using the appropriate citation style
Sources
(e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago).
When paraphrasing, ensure you rewrite the information completely
2. Paraphrase Effectively in your own words and sentence structure, not just changing a few
words.
3. Use Quotation Marks If you're using an exact quote, put it in quotation marks and cite the
for Direct Quotes source. This distinguishes the original text from your own work.
4. Keep Track of Your While conducting research, take detailed notes on where you found
Sources information. This will help ensure you cite everything correctly.
Plagiarism isn't just copying verbatim; it includes failing to give
5. Understand the
credit to original ideas, paraphrasing too closely, and not citing
Definition of Plagiarism
sources.
Don't reuse your own previous work without permission or proper
6. Avoid Self-Plagiarism
citation, as it can also be considered plagiarism in academic settings.
7. Use Plagiarism Before submitting your work, use plagiarism detection software to
Detection Tools check for any accidental copying or improper citations.
8. Quote and Cite While common knowledge (e.g., historical facts) doesn‘t need
Common Knowledge citation, when in doubt, it‘s always best to cite the source to avoid
Carefully confusion.
9. Plan Your Writing Start early to avoid rushing. Properly integrating sources,
Process paraphrasing, and citation requires time and careful attention.
10. Consult Your If you're unsure about proper citation or paraphrasing, ask your
Instructor instructor for clarification to avoid unintentional plagiarism.

49
Activity 4: Analyze/ evaluate the scenarios below, determining whether plagiarism has
occurred or if sources are cited correctly. Base your analysis on the provided
procedures/questions.

 Key Points to Consider When Evaluating Scenarios:

 Proximity to the Original: How close is the student's wording and sentence structure to the
original source?
 Attribution: Is the source acknowledged, even if paraphrasing has occurred?
 Common Knowledge: Is the information generally known, or does it require citation?
 Context: How much of the student's work relies on the source? A single sentence close to the
original might be less problematic than an entire paragraph.
 Citation Style: Is the citation format appropriate for the context (e.g., MLA, APA, Chicago)?

Example : Scenario-1 : The history paper

Original Source: "The invention of the printing press in the 15th century revolutionized
communication, democratizing access to information and fueling the Renaissance." (Smith,
2020, p. 45)
Student's Text: "The printing press, invented in the 1400s, changed communication forever. It
made information available to more people and helped start the Renaissance."

Analysis:

 Plagiarism: Yes. While the student changed a few words, the sentence structure and core
ideas are very close to the original. This is considered paraphrasing plagiarism, even though
there's no direct quotation.
 Citation: No citation is provided. Even if the student had changed the wording more
effectively, a citation would still be required because the ideas originated from Smith.

Scenario 2: The Science Report

Original Source: "Mitochondria are often referred to as the 'powerhouses of the cell' due to their
role in cellular respiration." (Jones & Davis, 2018, p. 120)
Student's Text: "Mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell." (Jones & Davis, 2018)
Analysis:

Plagiarism:__________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
__
Citation:
______________________________________________________________________________

50
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

Scenario 3: The Literature Essay

Original Source: "Shakespeare's Hamlet is a complex character driven by indecision and a
profound sense of grief." (Brown, 2015, p. 78)
Student's Text: "Hamlet is a complicated character who struggles with making choices and is
deeply saddened."
Analysis:
Plagiarism:__________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
__
Citation:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

Scenario 4: The Online Article

Original Source: "Climate change is a global crisis requiring immediate action." (United
Nations, 2022)
Student's Text: "The UN has stated that climate change is a global crisis that needs immediate
attention."
Analysis:
Plagiarism:__________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
__
Citation:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

Scenario 5: The Blog Post

Original Source: "Effective time management is essential for productivity." (Johnson, 2019,
para. 3)
Student's Text: "Johnson (2019) argues that being productive requires good time management
skills."
Analysis:
Plagiarism:__________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
__
Citation:
______________________________________________________________________________

51
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

2. Citation and Referencing

Activity 5: Discussion questions

1) Are there any differences between citation and referencing?

2) What are the benefits of citing or referencing?
3) How do you cite a text
4) Which type of citation style or formatting guideline are you familiar with?

4.2.1. In-text Citations

Within academia, different disciplines have their own conventions for citing authors. One of the
most common conventions at Massey is the American Psychological Association‘s referencing
system, otherwise known as APA.

APA follows an author-date pattern for citing authors. In the body of your assignment, this
involves recording the author‘s surname (or family name) followed by the year in which their
work was published. This author-date pattern can be used in the body of a sentence, or in
brackets at the end of the sentence. It is worth noting that by using the former, the reference
becomes part of the sentence, and, therefore, clarity of attribution is often increased in the mind
of the reader.

If there are two or more authors with the same surname, regardless of year of publication,
include their first initials to distinguish the publications. Example

In the body of a sentence

According to R. B. Holmes (1995) and J. S. Holmes (1995), management principles underlie
many organizational practices.

Management principles underlie many organizational practices (R. B. Holmes, 1995; J. S.

Holmes, 1995)

52
NB: When listing two or more authors in brackets, use a semi-colon to separate each reference

There are two broad types of citation; information-prominent and author-prominent.

Information-prominent citation is used when what (i.e. the information) you want to
convey is more important to your purpose than telling the reader who (i.e. the author)
wrote that information. In this case the citation follows the content. For example:
By focusing on the observable manifestations of mental processes, natural science is at risk of
being defined too narrowly as the ―science of meter reading‖, thereby diminishing the
importance of the underlying cognitive processes that behaviour is based on (Chomsky, 2006, p.
57).

Author-prominent citation is used when the primary importance is given to who (i.e.
the author) has written the information, findings or opinion you are presenting in your
writing rather than what is presented. In this case the author is usually mentioned in the
subject of the sentence. Instances when author-prominent citation is useful include:
when the author is a noted authority on the topic
when tracing the historical or chronological development of new thinking or discoveries
when comparing differing expert opinions.For example:

The eminent linguist, Noam Chomsky has warned that a narrow definition of the natural sciences
as the ‗science of meter reading‘, fails to acknowledge the complex cognitive processes that
observable behaviour is based on (2006, p. 57).

If there are two or more publications written by the same author in the same year, then add
the letter ―a‖ immediately after the year of the fi rst publication mentioned in the text, and
add the letter ―b‖ after the second, and so on. Ensure the same detail is reflected in your
Reference List.

Example
McMillan (1992a) illustrates cross-cultural awareness in organisations, while
McMillan (1992b) argues for the significance of gender in cross-cultural awareness.

53
Page numbers should be added to your citations whenever you cite a direct quote or a
specific element from a long document. This is to help readers to find the element you
mention if they go to look up the source. It also allows you to include a book just once in the
reference list, but cite different specific pages or sections at various points in your work.

Sources like journal articles, conference papers and short reports don‘t necessarily need a
page reference and can be presented in the standard

Activity 6: Find and correct the errors in the following in-text citations according to APA
referencing conventions.

1. (Sheret, Sultana and Sotir 2016) -------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. (Yeo, Oh, Pyke, McDonald 1998) ------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. (Charman 2007) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. (Smith 2009 p 7) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. (Brown nd) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6. According to Sotir (2016), academic literacy is ‗critical for survival‘ at university. ---------------
---------------------------------------------------
7. (Seven news 1994) -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8. (Turnbull in Shorten 2003) -------------------------------------------------------------------------
9. (Minogue 1968, Lopez 1971) -------------------------------------------------------------------------
10. (Dickinson 2009, a) -------------------------------------------------------------------------

Tips on in text citation

Citing a work by one author

When you refer to a single author, include the author‘s family name and year of publication,
using one of the forms shown here.

Clay (2003) argues that having a planned approach to writing essays can be of great benefit.
or Essay writing can be made much more manageable if a planned approach is taken (Clay,
2003).

54
Repeated citations of a study within one paragraph

In any one paragraph, if you cite a particular reference more than once, include the year only the first time. In subsequent
citations in the same paragraph you need only the family name, provided studies cannot be confused. (This also applies to
a citation with any number of authors.)

Citing a work by two authors

Again, include the family name of both authors and year each time - except where there is a
repeated citation in the same paragraph, as noted earlier.

Citing a work by three, four or five authors

In these cases, cite all authors the first time, then in subsequent citations of this work use the
family name of the first author plus ‗et al.‘ and the year, as shown below.

55
Citing a work by six or more authors

Use only the family name of the first author plus ‗et al.‘ in all citations including the first. Use
date as appropriate according to the rules above.
Mahon et al. (1997) reviewed how nursing diagnosis content is presented in nursing textbooks.
In the reference list, however, provide the family name and initials of the first six authors, and
shorten any remaining authors to ‗et al.‘

Citing from secondary sources

That is, you read one author (secondary) who cites another (primary). In the example that
follows, you have read Savage who referred to a 1998 publication by Lupton, but you did not
read Lupton yourself.

Citing an author from an edited book

That is, a book that consists of chapters or articles written by different authors.

You need to acknowledge the author of the chapter or article you used. This author is cited in
text (that is, in the body of the paper) in the same way as for one, two, three or more authors, as
shown earlier.

56
In the example below, Naidoo has written a chapter in a book edited by Thorogood and
Coombes. In the body of your assignment cite only Naidoo.

Naidoo (2000) claims that risk factor simulation models…

The entry in the reference list, however, gives full details of the publication. Under the name of
the author (Naidoo) you need to give the details of the chapter you read plus the details of the
book. So, in the ‗References‘ Naidoo is listed ‗in‘ Thorogood and Coombes. (See the reference
list entry for this source in Part 2.)

Group authors

Where the author is a government agency, association, etc. that has a familiar or easily
understandable acronym, it as cited as follows:

The entry in the reference list is under National Health and Medical Research

Council.

Activity 7: Read the following in text citations and identify the mistakes if they have any.
Then, rewrite the correct version using the spaces given (use APA style).

1. According to Brown (2001), he states that the Internet is a useful research tool.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. Brown(2001), he states that the Internet is a useful research tool.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. In writing any type of critical essay or research paper, you have probably been warned
against plagiarism ( Kity and Davis, 2001).

57
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4. According Mahon, Spies, Aukamp, Barrett, Figgins, Meyer (1997). In the field of language
education a significant shift has taken place resulting a great emphasis on the learner and
learning, and less attention to teachers and teaching

Activity 8: Use an introductory phrase and/or citations to complete each sentence.

Information for the in-text citations is provided.

Author: Randy Sonoma

Publication date: 2011
Page number: 138
__________________________________________ ―the incidence of high suicide rates is
partly due to a lack of sufficient intervention programs‖ __________.

Publication date: not found

Author: Bryan Curtis

Curtis __________________________________________ ―to lose one pound, an individual

must burn an extra 3500 calories.‖

Activity 9: Read the paragraph and find out the error of in-text citation and correct all
according to APA referencing conventions.

Incorrect Version:

Recent studies (Johnson 2020) highlight that social media has a direct impact on mental health.
For example, "teenagers who spend more than three hours a day on social media are twice as
likely to experience anxiety" (Smith 2019, page 45). Research by Brown, Green & White (2021)

58
found that social media contributes to self-esteem issues. However, another study (Doe et al.
2018) argues that social media can also have positive effects. As noted, "connecting with peers
through online platforms improves socialization" (Taylor, 2017).

Corrected Version:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

3. Referencing
Having referred to sources by author in the body of your assignment, you will also need to
provide a detailed list of these sources at the end of your assignment. If you are using APA
conventions, then this is referred to as a Reference List and is headed up References.You should
also note that the term ‗reference list‘ is often used interchangeably with ‗bibliography‘, but has
a slightly different meaning.

 A reference list (or ‗works cited‘ list) should only include items you have referenced
in your work, even if you read other sources while researching he topic.

 A bibliography should cover all sources you consulted in preparing your work, even
if you did not end up making use of them; or sometimes, a bibliography may be
presented as a comprehensive annotated list of further reading on a topic. However,
you should always distinguish works you have actually made use of from any others
you are simply listing.
Formatting Your Reference List

 References are in alphabetical order according to the first author‘s surname.

 With two or more publications by the same author, list the earliest dated publication
first.

59
 The reference list should be double spaced (no line spaces between references) with
hanging indents used for the second and subsequent lines of each entry.
 A hanging indent is where the left line starts at the left margin and subsequent lines
are indented (approx. 1.3 cm or five spaces).
 Italics is the preferred format for titles of books, journals and videos. Article and
chapter titles are not italicized or put in quotation marks. Volume numbers are
italicized but issue numbers are not.
 With two or more authors, an ampersand (&) is required before the last author. The
publication date appears in brackets, with a full stop after it
Key issues to be considered

Your reference list should include details of all sources cited in your work. APA follows an
author-date style for listing references at the end of your assignment. This involves placing the
authors surname first, followed by initials

Activity 10: Using the information given below write reference list for each of them using the APA
style.

1. Book by Lyle Bachman and Adrian Palmer written in 1996. The title is: Language testing in
practice. It is published by Oxford University Press in Oxford.

2. In January 2006 ,an article in titled ‗extension and prosperity‘ was written by famous article
writers whose name are Peter Spector Stern and John Cox Alexander, the article was
published in Journal called ‗Indian Journal of Agriculture ‗ of volume 3 and issue number
6 . The article is found in page 45-67.

60
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3. Newspaper article without the name of author found in the Guardian newspaper on
Saturday November 6th this year publication.. The heading or the title of the article is:
Divorced couple fights for frozen embryos. This article is found on page 11.

Tips on referencing

1. Book

Author, A., & Author, B. (Year). Title of book. City: Publisher.

Crawford, P., Brown, B., & Nolan, P. (1998). Communicating care: The language of nursing.
Cheltenham: Stanley Thornes
2. Chapter or article in an edited book
Author, A., & Author, B. (Year). Title of chapter. In C. Editor, & D. Editor (Eds.), Title of book
(pp. xx-xx). City: Publisher.
Naidoo, B. (2000). Evaluating the use of public health risk factor simulation models. In M.
Thorogood, & Y. Coombes (Eds.), Evaluating health promotion: Practice and methods
(pp. 99-109). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
3. Journal article
Author, A., & Author, B. (Year). Title of article. Title of Periodical, volume number (issue
number), page numbers.
(The issue number is given only if each issue of a journal begins on page 1.)
Antonakos, C. L., & Kazanis, A. S. (2003). Research process in the health sciences: A focus on
methods. Research and Theory for Nursing Practice,17, 257-264.
Clay, G. (2003). Assignment writing skills. Nursing Standard,17(20), 47-52.
Savage, J. (2004). Researching emotion: The need for coherence between focus, theory and
methodology. Nursing Inquiry,11, 25-34.
4. Newspaper Article, Authored
Author, A. (year, month day). Title of article. Title of Newspaper, p. x.
Wroe, D. (2004, June 24). Canberra enlists GPs in war on smoking. The Age, p. 3.

61
5. Newspaper Article, No Author
Title of article. (year, month day). Title of Newspaper, p. x.
Embryo study nod, OK say IVF couples. (2004, May 31). Herald Sun, p.10.
6. Author designated as ‘Anonymous’
Anonymous. (Year). Details of the work as appropriate to its form.
Anonymous. (2001). Meeting health-care needs. London: Longman.
7. Group as author
Organisation Name. (Year). Details of the work as appropriate to its form.

National Health and Medical Research Council. (1997). Acting on Australia‟s weight: A strategic
plan for the prevention of overweight and obesity. Canberra: Australian Government
Publishing Service

8. Six or more authors

Provide family names and initials of the first six authors and shorten any remaining authors to
‗et al.‘
Author, A., Author, B., Author, C., Author, D., Author, E., Author, F., et al. (Year).
Details of the work as appropriate to its form.

Mahon, S. M., Spies, M. A., Aukamp, V., Barrett, J. T., Figgins, M. J., Meyer, G. A., et al.
(1997). Presentation of nursing diagnosis content in fundamentals of nursing textbooks.
Nurse Educator, 22 (1), 17-22.

9. Internet document, no author, no date

If a document has no author or date, begin the reference list entry with the title and use
abbreviation n.d. - no date.
Title of document. (n.d.). Retrieved month day, year, from web address Obesity. (n.d.)
Retrieved May 12, 2004, from
http://www.geocities.com/nutriflip/Diseases/Obesity.html.

10. Article in Internet-only journal, authored, not from database

In an Internet-only journal, page numbers may not be provided and volume and issue
numbers are often not relevant. In the reference list entry, provide the details you can
determine.

Author, A. (Year, month day). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number (issue number),

62
page numbers. Retrieved month day, year, from web address

Rego, P. (2003, August). Confronting embodiment. Nuritinga, 5, 1-6. Retrieved June 20, 2004,
from http://www.healthsci.utas.edu.au/tson/nuritinga/issue5/confrontingt.pdf

11. Electronic copy of a journal article, authored, from database

Author, A. (Year). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number (issue number), page
numbers. Retrieved month day, year, from database name.

Elder, R., Neal, C., Davis, B. A., Almes, E., Whitledge, L., & Littlepage, N. (2004). Patient
satisfaction with triage nursing in a rural hospital emergency department. Journal of
Nursing Care Quality, 19, 263-268. Retrieved June 30, 2004, from Academic Search
Premier database

Activity 11: Complete the following activities to work on your paraphrasing, summery and citation
skills. Then, compare your answers with your classmates.

a. Paraphrasing One Sentence

This activity consists of three steps:

1. Read the following published sentence and then paraphrase it—that is, rewrite it in your own
words. You do not need to repeat every element. Instead, try changing the focus of the
sentence while preserving the meaning of the original.

2. Write an APA Style reference list entry for the published work using the source information
provided. Look up the document type in Chapter 10 of the Publication Manual and follow the
appropriate reference example.

3. Figure out the in-text citation that corresponds to the reference list entry. Then add a
parenthetical citation to your paraphrased sentence. Use the standard citation formats shown
in Table 8.1 of the Publication Manual.

Published paragraph

63
Leaders who lack emotional and social competence undoubtedly can become a liability to
organizations, directly leading to employee disengagement, absenteeism, stress-disability claims,
hostile-workplace lawsuits, and increased health care expenses.

Source Information
 Document type: Journal article (Section 10.1)
 Authors: Kenneth Nowack and Paul Zak
 Publication year: 2020
 Article title: Empathy enhancing antidotes for interpersonally toxic leaders
 Journal information: Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, Volume 72,
 Issue 2, pages 119–133
 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/cpb0000164

Your paraphrased sentence and parenthetical in-text citation:

Your reference list entry:

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

b. Summarizing multiple sentences

This activity consists of three steps:

1. Read the following published sentences and summarize the authors' findings in your own
words in one sentence.

64
2. Write an APA Style reference list entry for the published work using the source information
provided

3. Figure out the in-text citation that corresponds to your reference list entry. Then add a
narrative citation to your paraphrased sentence. You do not need to re-cite the works that
are already cited in the published sentences

Published Paragraph
Obesity is primarily caused by an imbalance between calorie intake and energy expenditure,
often due to poor dietary habits, lack of physical activity, genetic predisposition, and
environmental factors. The excessive consumption of high-calorie, processed foods combined
with a sedentary lifestyle leads to weight gain over time. Additionally, hormonal imbalances and
certain medical conditions can contribute to obesity. The effects of obesity are severe and include
an increased risk of chronic diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, hypertension, and certain
cancers. It also impacts mental health, leading to low self-esteem, depression, and anxiety.
Addressing obesity requires a combination of lifestyle changes, including a balanced diet,
regular exercise, and medical interventions when necessary.

Source Information
 Document type: Edited book chapter
 Chapter authors: T. Lindsey Burrell, William Sharp, Cristina Whitehouse, and
 Cynthia R. Johnson
 Publication year: 2019
 Chapter title: Parent training for food selectivity in autism spectrum disorder
 Book editors: Cynthia R. Johnson, Eric M. Butter, and Lawrence Scahill
 Book title: Parent training for autism spectrum disorder: Improving the quality
 of life for children and their families
 Chapter page range: 173–202
 Publisher: American Psychological Association

65
Your summery and parenthetical in-text citation:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Your reference list entry:

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