COMPREHENSION

Comprehension is the act of understanding. That is the ability to listen and understand speech
(oral comprehension) or read and understand written language (visual comprehension).
Comprehension questions are usually designed to test your ability to understand and draw correct
answers from the facts or ideas presented in the passage.
Comprehension passage refers to the printed material that enables a person to read, understand
and answer the questions that follow. The passage meant to be read carefully and thoroughly in
order to understand all the information provided by the passage with the sole aim of being able to
answer the questions that follow immediately below the passage.
Additionally, they are meant to test your general knowledge of English grammar:
What is Grammar?
Grammar can be defined as the rules governing the use of language. Grammar includes the way
words are arranged in a sentence as well as the rules about usage. It also includes the rules for
spelling, punctuation and capitalization, the names and functions of grammatical structures,
synonyms, figures of speech, and so forth. It is very important for you to read the passage
carefully in order to have a full grasp of the main facts. You must also read the questions
carefully and ensure that you fully understand what is expected of you in each question before
answering it.
The key point in comprehension writing is precision: you must give the precise answer - a word
where a word is needed, a phrase where a phrase is demanded, a clause where a clause is
required, a sentence where a sentence is required, etc.
In the comprehension, you are expected to answer the following types of questions:

Types of Comprehension Questions

Since the purpose of the comprehension section is to test the candidates’ ability to understand,
comprehension questions will go from shallow (how old was Edet?) to deep questions to test
how you can read in between the lines. Here we have types of questions you can be asked. You
are advised to get your past questions series beside you as references may be made to some
years.
FACTUAL AND INFERENTIAL QUESTIONS
The word factual’ comes from the word “FACT’, and as the word suggests, this type of question
requires you to retrieve facts given in the passage. Examples of factual questions: who, what,
where, when, why and how questions
Factual questions ask for explicitly stated facts or ideas in the passage. In factual questions, you
get your answers directly from the passage; while inferential questions ask for the implied
meaning of a statement from the passage. in inferential questions, you get your answers by
reading between the lines.
In each case, you need to understand what the question expects you to do.
You may present your answers in short and simple sentences, in phrases or in words, depending
on the nature of the question. Let’s illustrate with question as follows:
Mention two consequences of the usual desperation of Africans to leave their countries.
Answer: The two consequences of the usual desperation of Africans to leave their countries are:
(i) They fall victim to passport and visa fraud.
(ii) Young girls end up in forced prostitution.
In the above example, the answers are presented in short and simple sentences introduced by a
preamble. In some cases, however, you may have to give your answers in phrases. Example
Question: State two experiences that Eze looked forward to.
Answer: The two experiences that Eze looked forward to are:
(i) The good life of the city.
(ii) A ride in a luxury bus.
QUESTIONS ON CONTEXTUAL SYNONYMS
These questions ask you to determine synonyms of words from their context in the passage.
It is very important for you to understand that words are basically meaningless in themselves
except when used in context. This is a very important principle in answering comprehension
questions. Both the form and function of a word depend on their context of use.
Take the word man, for instance. If you insist that the word man is a noun referring to a male
human adult, then you will give a wrong answer when asked to provide a word to replace the
underlined word in the following expression: Tunde was asked to man the power station.
Here, the word man simply means to control or operate. As a result, when a question asks you to
find another word or phrase which means the same and which can replace it in the passage, you
don’t have to rely solely on your previous knowledge of the ordinary or common meaning of that
word or phrase; you must examine how the word or phrase has been used in the passage.
To correctly answer such questions, you have to first determine the meaning of the word in the
context in which it is used before you can determine its correct synonym.
After this, you look at the position of the word in the particular sentence so as to know its
function based on the part of speech it belongs to.
Then you will be able to find its perfect replacement, that is, its true synonym. For example, if
the given word from the passage is a noun, then you must provide another noun as a
replacement.
If it is a verb, you must not only find a verb but also ensure that the verb is in the same tense and
number, e.g. a past verb must be replaced with a past verb; a singular verb must be replaced with
a singular verb, while a plural verb must replace a plural verb, etc. Let’s assume you are asked to
find another word or phrase that means the same and that can replace the word ‘awarded’ as it is
used in the following sentence: Olu was awarded a prize for being the best-behaved student.
The verb ‘give’ is a wrong answer since it is a present verb and therefore cannot replace
‘awarded’ which is a past perfect verb. The correct answer is ‘given’ because it can perfectly
replace ‘awarded’ in the sentence: Olu was given a prize for being the best-behaved student.
Having chosen ‘given’ as the answer, you have to present your answer as follows:
(i) awarded = given.
QUESTIONS ON GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURES
Some questions ask you to state the grammatical names and functions of given grammatical
structures or expressions from the passage. Your knowledge of grammatical structures and their
functions is of great importance in answering such questions. It is important for you to have a
full grasp of the basic structures of English and how each structure functions within the structure
of a larger grammatical unit. You should know that in English language, morphemes combine to
form words, words combine to form phrases, phrases combine to form clauses, and clauses
combine to form sentences (i.e. compound, complex and compound complex sentences).
You should know the basic word classes (parts of speech), such as nouns, verbs, adjectives,
adverbs and prepositions; y ou should know their functions, which will enable you to identify the
grammatical functions of phrases and clauses.
Do not make the mistake of presenting answers to questions on grammatical structures in
sentences. Just write the exact grammatical name or function as required. Let’s illustrate:
“When he came back, those who had wished him the worst got the shock of their lives…”
Questions:
(f) “When he came back…”
(i) What grammatical name is given to this expression?
(ii) What is its function as it is used in the sentence?
Answers:
(i) Adverbial Clause of Time
(ii) Modifies the verb “got”.
NOUNS
A noun is a word that is used to name a person, place, thing, or idea. A noun is the name given to
something, be it a person, a school, a country or an animal.
Nouns include the names of abstract things, such as peace, power, education, freedom, pride,
mercy, justice, etc. Nouns enable us to talk about things and people: we cannot talk about things
and people, unless we name them. This explains why almost everything and everyone in the
world has a name. All the words that name these things or people are nouns.
How do we recognize nouns in sentences? We recognize nouns in sentences by bearing in mind
that every word that names a person, place, thing or idea is a noun:
Person: The teacher asked Jim to stand up.
Place: Nigeria is made up of thirty-six states and the FCT.
Thing: The boy opened the box and stole the money in it.
Idea: Education is the greatest legacy.
Subclasses of Nouns
Common and Proper Nouns
A common noun is a general name, while a proper noun is a particular name. A common noun is
the name of a general type of person, place, thing, or idea. A proper noun, on the other hand, is
the name of a specific person, place, thing, or idea. A proper noun usually begins with a capital
letter, but a common noun does not begin with a capital letter unless it is the first word of a
sentence or forms part of a title. Examples:
Common Nouns Proper Nouns
country Nigeria
city Lagos
day Monday
football team Super Eagles
street Broad Street
language English
Abstract and Concrete Nouns
Nouns are either abstract or concrete. Concrete nouns refer to things that can be seen and
touched, e.g. man, house, table, school, student, etc. Abstract nouns, on the other hand refers to
things that cannot be seen or touched. In other words, an abstract noun names something existing
as quality, state or action, e.g.
a. quality – beauty, wisdom, love, courage, power, pride, etc.;
b. state – childhood, slavery, growth, life, manhood, womanhood, etc.
c. action – movement, education, choice, flight, establishment, laughter, etc. Examples:
Abstract Nouns Concrete Nouns
time clock
cost money
education school
leadership president
health hospital
Countable and Uncountable Nouns
Countable and uncountable nouns have been described as the two biggest groups of nouns in
English language. Countable nouns refer to persons, places or things that can be counted, such as
students, tables, plates, books, oranges or towns. Uncountable nouns, on the other hand, refer to
things that are perceived as quantity or mass, such as water, kerosene or butter.
Countable Nouns
Because these nouns are countable, they do have singular and plural forms. A singular noun is
usually preceded by a determiner, such as a/an, the, both, each. Plural countable nouns can be
used with or without a determiner, as in the following examples:
I bought a book on linguistics.
I now have about ten books on linguistics in my library.
Books on linguistics are not easy to buy.
Uncountable Nouns
As its name implies, an uncountable noun cannot be counted. It is used for something that is
thought of as a quantity or mass. Examples of uncountable nouns include water, advice,
furniture, news, information, rice, equipment, etc. uncountable nouns cannot be pluralized or
used with ‘a’, ‘an’, or ‘one’. They are normally used without determiners; however, they can be
used with specific determiners, such as much, a lot of, plenty of, a piece of, part of, half, little,
less, etc. Examples:
They give advice for people with HIV and AIDS.
Let me give you a piece of advice.
Jack ate half of the food.
Singular and Plural Nouns
Singular nouns refer to one person or thing, while plural nouns refer to two or more persons or
things.
Rules for Pluralizing Singular Nouns
There are many different ways in which English words form their plurals:
1. By adding –s, e.g. bed – beds, cow – cows, boy – boys, game –games, tree – trees, etc.
2. When the singular ends in s, sh, ch, x or z, add –es, e.g. bus buses, bush – bushes, box –
boxes, church – churches, etc.
3. Some singular nouns ending in o form their plurals by adding –s, e.g. radio – radios, studio –
studios, Eskimo – Eskimos, ego – egos, solo – solos, soprano – sopranos, etc.
4. Most nouns ending in o after a consonant form their plurals by adding –es, e.g. cargo –
cargoes, potato – potatoes, hero – heroes, echo – echoes, mango – mangoes, etc.
5. When a singular noun ends in y with a consonant before it, change y to I and add –es, e.g.
family – families, army – armies, baby – babies, hobby – hobbies, country – countries, etc.
6. When a vowel comes before the y, add –s without changing y to i, e.g. day – days, play –
plays, valley – valleys, tray – trays, boy– boys, etc.
7. Some nouns ending in f or fe form their plural by changing f into v and adding –es e.g.
thief – thieves, leaf – leaves, knife –
knives, wife – wives, shelf – shelves, etc.
8. Some are made plural by simply adding –s, e.g. chief – chiefs, belief – beliefs, roof–roofs,
cliff–cliffs, hoof–hoofs, etc.
9. Some nouns form their plurals by changing the vowels within, e.g. foot – feet, mouse – mice,
man – men, woman – women, tooth – teeth, goose – geese, louse – lice, etc.
10. Some nouns that end in –is form their plurals by changing – is to –es, e.g. basis – bases, crisis
– crises, emphasis – emphases, antithesis – antitheses, etc.
11. Some nouns are the same for both singular and plural, e.g. sheep – sheep,, fish – fish, cattle –
cattle, deer – deer, dozen –dozen, prey – prey, gross – gross, etc.
12. Some nouns ending in x add – es while some change x to – ices, e.g. Appendix – appendices,
index – indexes or indices, cervix – cervixes or cervices, pharynx – pharynges, etc.
13. Some nouns ending in –us form their plurals by changing – us to –s, e.g. radius – radii,
bacillus – bacilli, cactus – cacti, hippopotamus – hippopotami or hippopotamuses, stimulus
stimuli, terminus – termini, syllabus – syllabi or syllabuses, narcissus – narcissi, focus – foci or
focuses-, fungus – fungi, etc.
14. Some nouns have two forms as their plurals, e.g. fish – fish –
fishes, brother – brothers – brethren, scarf – scarfs –scarves, penny – pennies –pence, genius –
genuses – genii, cloth – cloths, clothes, formula – formulas – formulae, appendix appendixes –
appendices, bureau – bureaus or bureuax, corpus – corpuses – corpora, syllabus – syllabuses –
syllabi, portmanteau – portmanteaus – portmanteaux, medium – mediums – media, millennium –
millenniums – millennia, referendum – referendums –referenda, etc.
Collective Nouns
A collective noun is a word that names a group of people, things, or concepts. Oxford Advanced
Learner’s Dictionary defines a collective noun as “a singular noun, such as committee or team
that refers to a group of people, animals or things and, in British English, can be used with either
a singular or a plural verb.”
Collective nouns include: crowd, army, club, class, party, family, clan, crew, group, public, the
enemy (a hostile country), flock, herd, government, jury, committee, choir, majority, and
minority. Some collective nouns are generic, such as: the clergy, the public, the elite, the
intelligentsia, the academia, the gentry, the laity, etc. There are unique collective nouns, such as:
the National Assembly, the Congress, the African Union, the Arab League, the United States, the
United Nations, the Vatican, the Papacy, Parliament, etc.
In British English, as pointed out in the above definition, collective nouns can be used with either
a singular or a plural verb. Consider the following two sentences:
1. The team has arrived.
2. The team have spent more time fighting among themselves than training for their next match.
Both sentences are correct.
While the first sentence refers to the team as an ensemble, the second sentence refers to the
individuals that make up the team.
Rules for Using Nouns
1. As already noted above, countable nouns can be used with the indefinite article and they have
a plural form, e.g. a book, a chair, a man, books, chairs, men, etc.
2. An uncountable noun has only one form: not singular and plural forms, so it can be used with
or without a determiner. Examples: Give me water to drink; Give me some water to drink, much
water, a lot of water, plenty of water, little water, etc. But it is wrong to say a water, an advice,
*a rice, *a furniture, or *advices, *rices, *furnitures, etc.
3. You only pluralize uncountable nouns by using partitives – that is, words or phrases that show
a part or quantity of something, e.g. two slices of bread, two pinches of salt, three spoonfuls of
sugar, two pieces of meat, drops of water, bits of information, items of furniture, pieces of
jewelry, loaves of bread, etc
4. When an uncountable noun is used as the subject of a verb, the verb is singular, e.g.
a. Honey is sweet;
b. The money has been paid into the bank;
c. Water is essential to life.
Some invariable nouns ending in –s take singular verbs, e.g. news, Brussels, Wales, United
States, United Nations, Athens, Mathematics, Physics, Economics, Linguistics, Classics,
measles, rashes, rickets, etc.
6. Some abstract nouns are uncountable when used in a general sense but countable in a
particular sense, e.g.
a. Mike hasn’t got enough experience for the job (uncountable);
b. It was a strange experience (countable);
c. Time waits for nobody (uncountable);
d. The couple had a good time (countable).
7. Some uncountable nouns are plural; they have no singular forms, e.g. arms, customs,
groceries, thanks, etc.
8. Uncountable nouns are sometimes used in the plural form to convey specific meanings, e.g.
a. waters – used to refer to rivers, lakes, sea or ocean (e.g. on Nigerian waters);
b. works – used to refer to books, music, paintings or art that is produced, e.g. the works of
Chinua Achebe;
c. fishes – used to refer to different species of fish, etc.
9. Some nouns can be both countable and uncountable, e.g.
a. Rose likes coffee (uncountable);
b. Can I get you a coffee? (a cup of coffee: countable);
d. Get the idea down on paper (uncountable);
e. Candidates must answer two questions from each paper (a set of printed questions in an exam:
countable).
10. A collective noun takes a singular verb when the reference is to a group acting in a collective
fashion and a plural verb when the reference is to members of a group acting as single
individuals, e.g. a. A new family has moved in next door;
b. the family are always fighting among themselves.
11. Pluralia tantum: these are nouns that only occur in the plural and take plural verbs, e.g.
arrears, amends, archives, arms, auspices, bowels, dregs, earnings, fireworks, funds, quarters,
regards, particulars, remains, riches, savings, thanks, etc.
12. Summation Plurals: these are nouns referring to tools and articles that consist of two equal
parts joined together, and they can be used with partitives such as “a pair of scissors”, three pairs
of trousers”, etc.
Other examples include spectacles, pants, jeans, pyjamas, pliers, knickers, shorts, etc.
13. Some nouns in –(e)s can be treated as singular or plural, e.g. one/two series of lectures, a rare
species of beetle, many species of dogs, etc.
14. The noun modified by the –s genitive may be omitted if the context makes its identity clear,
e.g. a. My bag is bigger than Regina’s;
b. I shall be at the dentist’s, etc.
15. In a ‘double genitive’, an ‘of-‘genitive can be combined with the –s genitive, e.g.
a. A friend of the lawyer’s has arrived;
b. A daughter of Mrs. Okafor’s has arrived;
c. Any son of Mr. Balogun is welcome.
16. Some temporal nouns can take the –s genitive, e.g. a month’s pay, a week’s holiday, today’s
business, a moment’s thought, etc.
17. When “more than” is used with a number, the number that comes after “more than”
determines the verb, e.g.
[Link] than two teachers are required;
b. More than one teacher is required.
18. When “every” is followed by a plural noun, the verb is plural but when it is followed by a
singular noun, the verb is singular, e.g. a. Every fifty cartons of spaghetti you buy carry a bonus
of an extra carton;
b. Every carton of spaghetti you buy carries a bonus of one packet.
19. When “a number of” is used (usually with a plural noun), it takes plural verb but when “the
number of” is used, it takes a singular verb, e.g.
a. A number of robbery suspects have been arrested;
b. The number of lunatics has increased in our society.
Compound Nouns
A compound noun is a noun that consists of two or more words. It is usually formed by any of
the following combinations:
noun+noun – bedroom, bus stop, fire-fly, football, high school, crop rotation, etc.
adjective+noun – blackboard, whiteboard, red card, full moon, green light, software, etc.
verb (-ing)+noun – swimming pool, washing machine, cooking utensil, breakfast, etc.
noun+verb (-ing) – sunrise, haircut, car racing, tree planting, bush burning, play writing, etc.
noun+prepositional phrase – son-in-law, mother-in-law, son of the soil, man of the match, etc.
preposition+noun – outdoors, outfit, outbox, underdog, underworld, underground, etc.
noun+adjective suffix –spoonful, mouthful, etc.
verb+adverbial particles – layabout, takeaway, try-off, holdup, breakdown, carryover, etc
Kinds of Compound nouns
Compound nouns can be classified into three, namely:
1. The Open form (with spaces between words), e.g. post office, half sister, tennis shoes, high
school, etc.
2. The Hyphenated form (with hyphen between words), e.g. father-in-law, hold-up, master-at
arms, merry-go-round, etc.
3. The Closed or Solid form (with no space or hyphen between words), e.g. notebook,
keyboard, housefly, pickpocket, blackboard, bedroom, etc.
Rules for Using Compound Nouns
1. Most compound words created by the addition of a prefix are not hyphenated: biochemistry,
infrastructure, macroeconomics, microeconomics, hydroelectric power, hydroelectricity, etc.
2. Words prefixed with ex- (in the sense of ‘former’) and self are usually hyphenated: ex-
husband, ex-president, self-esteem, self-importance, self-preservation, self-discipline, self-
control, etc
3. Some compound words or three or more words are usually hyphenated: sister-in-law, merry
go- round, etc.
4. Comparative and superlative forms of adjectives are hyphenated when compounded with other
modifiers in a compound noun: the best behaved student, the highest paid player in Europe, the
best dressed actress, etc.
5. Many compound nouns can be written with or without a hyphen, depending on convention, the
writer’s preference or the publisher’s house style: boy-friend or boyfriend, dining-table or dining
table, etc.
6. Some compound nouns are not affected by any grammatical change: Parent-Teacher
Association (PTA), Student Affairs, Woman Affairs, Students Union, Muslim Students
Association, Christian Students Association, Boy Scout, Girl Guide, Girl Scout, etc.
7. Most compound nouns form their plurals by making the noun element plural: mothers-in-law,
passersby, etc.
8. If no words in the compound are nouns, then add –s at the end: go-betweens, grown-ups,
forget-me-nots, the have-nots, etc.
9. The most significant word –usually the noun – takes the plural form, irrespective of its
position: attorneys general, chiefs of staff, notaries public, etc.
10. In a hierarchical term the plural form belongs to the base element, regardless of its position:
lieutenant generals, deputy librarians, deputy governors, vice presidents, etc.
11. When compounded modifiers precede a noun, they are often hyphenated: part-time students,
fire-resistant curtains, sixty yard- wide field, a used-car dealer, a three-month-old baby, a once-
in-a-lifetime opportunity, etc.
12. When the suffix –ful is joined to a noun to form a compound, it can be pluralized in two
ways: spoonful or spoonfuls, mouthful or mouthfuls, etc.
13. When a plural noun with –s is joined with a noun to form a compound, the second noun is
pluralized: tribesman – tribesmen, tribeswoman – tribeswomen, statesman – statesmen,
tradeswoman – tradeswomen, etc.
14. When a noun in numerical form is hyphenated with a noun to form a compound, the
supposed compound adjective is not pluralized: a three-month-old baby, a five-man panel, etc.
15. In most compound nouns formed by a combination of verbs and adverbial particles, the
particles are pluralized: take-offs, lay-offs, hold-ups, etc.
16. When the adverbial particles come before the verb, the verb is pluralized: outbursts,
outbreaks, outcries, overlaps, overlays, etc.
17. Compound nouns referring to people in general and abstract nouns of quality are not
pluralized: mankind, womankind, womanhood, manhood, etc.
18. In some compound nouns, both words are pluralized: women lawyers, men servants, women
doctors, etc.
Functions of Nouns
Nouns perform the following functions in English sentences:
As Subject of a Verb
> Mary sang a song (‘Mary is subject of the verb ‘sang’).
As Subjective Complement.
> Ifeoma is a student (‘student’ is the complement of the subject ‘Ifeoma’).
As Direct Object of a Verb
> Olu killed an elephant (‘elephant’ is the object of the verb ‘killed’).
Indirect Object of a Verb
> Tim gave Joan a cheque
(‘Joan’ is the indirect object of the verb ‘gave’).
(b) The teacher gave Okon the book.
Object of a Preposition
> He sat on the table (‘table’ is the object of the preposition ‘on’).
Noun Phrase Modifier
> Mr. Richards is the Mathematics teacher (‘Mathematics’ modifies the noun ‘teacher’).
Possessive Modifier
That is John’s book (‘John’s’ modifies ‘book’ by indicating ownership).
Appositive
The author of Things Fall Apart, Chinua Achebe, is a gifted writer (‘Chinua Achebe’ is in
apposition to the ‘the author of Things Fall Apart’).
Adverbial
Yesterday the resident doctors went on strike (‘Yesterday’ is used as an adverbial of time).
EXERCISE 5: Past Questions on Nouns
1. The national basket ball team _ expected back from England this evening.
A. is B. are C. were D. was (WASSCE 2003, Q. 74).
2. One of the robbers who snatched the car _ been arrested by the police.
A. have B. was C. is D. has (WASSCE 2000, Q. 62).
3. The principal has already summoned all the _ on the matter.
A. heads of departments B. head of department C. heads of department D. head of departments
(WASSCE 2002, Q. 52).
4. Are you sure this is _ shop?
A. John’s and Elizabeth B. John and Elizabeth’s C. John’s and Elizabeth’s D. John and Elizabeth
(WASSCE 2006, Q. 44).
5._ pain has been taken to make the party a success.
A. Such B. Much C. Every D. Many (WASSCE 2008, Q. 42).
6. The principal has gone to Freetown and will not come back in _ time. A. two weeks B. two week C.
two week’s D. two weeks’ (WASSCE 2008, Q. 66).
7. The police _ [A. says they are. B. say it is C. say they are D. says it is] happy about the dwindling
crime rate. (JAMB 1994, Q. 65).
8. The police claim that a number of stolen cars _ [A. have been B. has been C. has being D. have being]
recovered. (JAMB 2006, Q. 26).
9. The helpless _ [A. require B. requires C. does require D. do require] our sympathy. [JAMB 1993, Q.
90].
10. A wide range of options _ made available to students in their final year last year. A. is B. were C. are
D. was. [JAMB 2010, Q. 71].
PRONOUNS
A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. The word we use to identify the person or thing we
are talking about is the noun. After mentioning or writing the name, it is normal to use another
part of speech in referring to the person or thing we are talking about. A pronoun is therefore
used to replace a noun so as to avoid repetition.
The noun which it replaces is known as the “antecedent”.
Compare the group of sentences in which the noun is used repeatedly with another group in
which the noun is replaced with a pronoun:
Theresa loves Theresa’s daughter, Jane, and Theresa is worried that Theresa’s ex-husband,
Jane’s father, might decide to withdraw Jane from Theresa.
It is clear that the repetitious nature of such a piece of writing makes it monotonous and
confusing. By using pronouns to replace nouns, the writer can express himself more concisely
and clearly. In the following, you will find how the use of pronouns can make a monotonous and
confusing sentence convey clearer meaning:
Theresa loves her daughter, Jane, and she is worried that her ex-husband, Jane’s father, might
decide to withdraw Jane from her.
Kinds of Pronoun
There are many different kinds of pronouns in English, and each performs an important function
in both written and oral communication. Learning the correct usage of various pronouns will
help to improve your English. The use of pronouns enables you to avoid the monotony of
repeating the same nouns over and over and over again. The following are the different kinds of
pronouns and their examples:
Pronoun Examples
Personal pronouns I, you, he, she, it, they, me, him, her, them
Relative pronouns who, which, that, whatever
Demonstrative pronouns this, that, these, those
Possessive pronoun mine, yours, his, hers, its, theirs
Reflexive pronouns myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, themselves
Interrogative pronoun which, who, what
Indefinite pronouns anyone, all, nobody, everyone, everything
Reciprocal pronouns each other, one another
Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns serve as replacement for nouns within the structure of a sentence. As noun
equivalents, personal pronouns perform various functions of nouns within the structure of the
sentence, such as subject, direct object, indirect object, subject complement and object of
preposition. There are four subsystems which operate with personal pronouns to make them
perform their appropriate functions within the sentence.
They are: person, number, case and gender.
Person
Three persons are recognized:
First person (the speaker),
Second person (the person spoken to) and
Third person (the person spoken about)
Personal pronouns can refer to the person(s) speaking (first person – I, me, we, us), the person(s)
spoken to (second person – you) or the person(s) spoken about (third person – he, him, she, her,
it, they, them). Examples:
First Person: 1, me, we, us
Second Person: you
Third Person: he, she, it, they, them
Number
Number is the form of a word that shows whether one or more than one person or thing is being
talked about. Thus, we have singular (one person) and plural (more than one person):
Singular: I, me, mine, you, yours, he, his, she, hers, it
Plural: we, us, you, ours, yours, they, theirs
Case
Case simply means the form or position of a pronoun that shows its relationship to another word
or other words in a sentence. In the sentence “He slapped her”, for instance, the personal
pronoun he is used as the subject of the verb slapped, while the pronoun her is used as object of
the verb slapped. There are three cases of personal pronouns: subjective, objective and
possessive. In “He took his and gave hers to her” the pronouns his and hers are used to indicate
possessors of things.
The following is a graphic overview of the three cases of pronouns in agreement with person and
number:
Subjective Objective Possessive
Singular
First Person I me mine
Second Person you you yours
Third Person he, she, it him, her, it his, hers, its
Plural
First Person we us ours
Second Person you you yours
Third Person they them theirs
Gender
Gender refers to each of the classes or sex types into which pronouns (and nouns) are divided. In
English, gender subdivides pronouns into masculine (male), feminine (female) and neuter
(neither male nor female). Only the third person forms of personal pronouns are affected by
gender as shown below:
Masculine: he, him, his
Feminine: she, her, hers
Neuter: it, its
Relative Pronouns
A relative pronoun is used to refer to an earlier noun and introduce a subordinate clause.
Relative pronouns include the wh-words like who, whom, whose, which and that. When the
subject is a person, it is normal to use ‘who,’ ‘whom,’ ‘whose’ and ‘that’; ‘which’ and ‘that’ are
usually used for things. Examples:
Ifeoma is the woman who visited us yesterday.
Her husband was the man whom we met at the airport last week.
Ifeoma is the woman whose husband has been appointed a minister.
She was the person that broke the good news to us.
John owns the house that faces the park
Dom sat at the desk which was close to the wall.
Using Relative Pronouns in Defining Relative Clauses
What is a defining relative clause?
A defining relative clause is one which defines or identifies the person or thing spoken about.
Example:
The girl who dumped her baby in a refuse heap has been arrested.
As you can see in the above example, there is no comma before the pronoun (who) introducing
the defining clause (who dumped her baby in a refuse heap).
Other pronouns used in relative defining clauses are: whom, that and which.
Among these pronouns, ‘who’, ‘that’ and ‘whom’ are used to refer to a person, while ‘which’
and ‘that’ can be used to refer to a thing. Examples: Who, that and whom:
Balogun’s daughter is the girl who I saw in the party.
Balogun’s daughter is the girl that I saw in that party.
Balogun’s daughter is the girl whom I saw in that party.
You can as well omit the relative pronoun: Balogun’s daughter is the girl I saw in that party.
Which and that:
Dan has done the work which I paid him to do.
Dan has done the work that I paid him to do.
OR Dan has done the work I paid him to do.
Whose and of which:
Whose is usually used when referring to a person to show that something belongs to him or her,
as in:
Alagba is the man whose son broke my window.
When referring to a thing, however, it is advisable to use ‘of which’ instead:
He made some utterances, the meaning of which I could not understand.
Pronouns in Non-defining Relative Clauses
What is a non-defining clause?
A non-defining relative clause gives additional information about somebody or something.
The clause is non-defining in the sense that this added information could be removed and the
sentence would still make sense. A non-defining clause – that is, the additional information – is
usually separated from the main clause by commas, as in the following example:
> The players, who fought like wounded lions, won the cup.
The following pronouns can be used in non-defining relative clauses: who, whom, whose and
which.
As earlier noted, who, whom and whose are used to refer to a person, while which is used to
refer to a thing.
Examples of how they are used in non-defining relative clauses:
Dom, who hates noise, walked away from the room.
Joseph, who had been a prisoner, became the prime minister of Egypt.
Joseph, whom his brothers sold into slavery, became their saviour.
The man, whose car was stolen, has reported the incident to the police.
The strike, which lasted for three days, has been called off.
Pronouns and Prepositions in Relative Clauses
When a preposition is used in a relative clause, it can be placed before the relative pronoun or at
the end of the relative clause.
The latter is common in spoken English, while the former is a more formal alternative.
Examples:
The man who she ran to was very helpful to her.
The man that she ran to was very helpful to her.
The man to whom she ran was very helpful to her (formal).
The house that the family lived in has been demolished.
The house in which the family lived has been demolished (formal).
Demonstrative Pronouns
A demonstrative pronoun is used to point out or identify the person or thing that is being referred
to. They are also known as location pointers. Basically, demonstrative pronouns are this and that,
and their plural forms are these and those respectively. Examples:
This is my book.
That is John’s book.
These are our books.
Those are their books.
Demonstrative Pronouns and Demonstrative Adjectives
The same demonstrative pronouns mentioned above can function as adjectives. In other words,
they can be used to modify nouns, as in: This house belongs to my father. Instead of functioning
as a subject as a demonstrative pronoun does, the word this is used here as a modifier of the noun
house.
When they serve as modifiers in this way, demonstrative pronouns become demonstrative
adjectives. Other examples are: these days, that man, those people.
Possessive Pronouns
A possessive pronoun shows that something belongs to somebody or something.
Possessive pronouns were referred to under case. Their basic function is to indicate the owner of
a thing. Possessive pronouns are used in place of possessive nouns. The possessive noun
(brother’s) in the sentence ‘this is my brother’s house,’ can be replaced with a possessive
pronoun (his), as in ‘this is his house. Possessive pronouns are affected by person and number as
shown in the following:
1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person
Singular mine yours his, hers, its Plural ours yours theirs
Possessive Pronouns and Possessive Adjectives
It should be noted that possessive pronouns are different from possessive adjective forms, such
as my, your, his, her, its and their. While possessive pronouns can stand by themselves without
nouns, possessive adjectives, like other adjectives, must be used together with nouns. In the
sentence ‘this book is mine’, the possessive pronoun (mine) functions as complement of the verb
‘is’. However, in the sentence ‘this is my book’, the possessive adjective (my) functions as
modifier of the noun ‘book’.
Reflexive Pronouns
As the name implies, a reflexive pronoun reflects a noun earlier mentioned in a sentence. It refers
back to the subject, indicating that the action of the verb affects the doer of the action. Thus, the
use of a reflexive pronoun is an indication that the subject acts upon himself or herself, as in the
following sentences:
She looked at herself in the mirror.
John hurt himself when he tried to jump over the fence.
Look at what you have done to yourself.
Reflexive pronouns are affected by person, number and gender as can be seen in the following:
Singular Plural
First Person myself ourselves
Second Person yourself yourselves
Third Person:
Masculine himself themselves
Feminine herself themselves
Neuter itself themselves
Reflexive pronouns can function as object, as in:
Judas killed himself.
They can also function as object of a preposition, as in:
He gathered a lot of wealth to himself.
Intensive/Emphasizing Pronouns
An intensive form of the pronoun is placed near the subject of the verb for emphasis - it
intensifies or emphasizes the noun that it comes after. Examples:
> The president himself signed the document.
> She gave me the letter herself.
> I myself did it.
The intensive form of the pronoun looks exactly like the reflexive form. However, the reflexive
form is used when the subject and object of a verb refers to the same person, as in the sentence:
> She saw herself in the mirror.
Interrogative Pronouns
Interrogative pronouns are used for asking non-polar or wh questions.
Interrogative pronouns are: who, whom, which, what, whose. They occupy the subject position
in interrogative clauses as shown the following examples:
> Who broke this window?
> Which of them is yours?
> What is your name?
Interrogative Pronouns Functioning as Determiners:
> What conference is going on here?
> Which drugs did the doctor prescribe?
> Whose car is this?
As Complements
I know what to do.
We don’t know which is older than the other.
Indefinite Pronouns
An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that does not refer to a specific person or thing. Such
pronouns take the place of nouns that are understood by the listener or reader, even though they
may not have been mentioned in the sentence.
Some indefinite pronouns are singular, while some are plural.
Singular:
One somebody everyone someone
Everybody everything anyone every
Nobody nothing something anything
Anybody everyone no one another
None much each one another
All each other either any
Many a neither some
Plural
Several others
Few many
Both few
Using Indefinite Pronouns:
Someone is knocking on the door.
Nobody is exempted.
All is well.
Something is wrong somewhere.
Several have been told to come.
Many are called but few are chosen.
Indefinite Pronouns that may be
Singular or Plural:
All
All of the food was eaten (singular).
All of the tickets were sold (plural).
Some
> Some of the house has been altered.
> Some of the houses have been sold.
> Some of the money is missing.
> Some of the tickets were not sold.
None
> None of the salad was left (singular).
> None of the members were willing to vote for him (plural).
Indefinite Pronouns Used as the
Antecedent for Another Pronoun:
> All of the players got their match bonuses.
> Every one of them received his new jersey as well.
> Every one of the students submitted his or her project (where the gender of the indefinite
pronoun is not clear).
What is a Distributive Pronoun?
A distributive pronoun is a pronoun that separates one person or thing from a group.
Distributive pronouns are normally used with singular verbs. Other pronouns referring to
distributive pronouns must also be singular. Examples:
> Each of the girls is crying.
> Every one of them wants to have university education.
> Any one of the three bags is good enough.
> None of them is bad.
> Either John or Andrew has been chosen to represent the company.
> Neither Olu nor Adamu has the required credentials.
> The two sisters behave differently; one gets angry very easily, the other endures all things.
What is a Reciprocal Pronoun?
Reciprocal pronouns are pronouns which are used to express reciprocal actions – that is, an
exchange of action from one person or group of people to the other. While ‘each other’ is used to
indicate the relationship between two antecedents, ‘one another’ is used for more than two
persons.
Examples:
> Mr. Jacobs and his wife have great respect for each other.
> Their four children have also learnt to respect one another.
Rules for Using Pronouns
1. When the pronoun is the subject of the sentence, the subjective form of the pronoun is used,
e.g. He wrote the book
(I, you, she, it, we, and they are other examples of subject pronouns – i.e. pronouns that can be
used as the subject of a sentence).
2. Subject pronouns are used to rename the subject in a sentence, usually after ‘to be’ verbs like
am, is, was, are, were and will be, e.g. a. It is I; b. It is she speaking; c. It is we who are supposed
to be paid first.
3. When a pronoun is used as direct or indirect object, or object of the preposition, the objective
form of the pronoun is used, e.g.
a. I spoke to her about this problem;
b. The letter was addressed to me;
c. He paid us our salaries yesterday.
4. When a pronoun comes after the words than or as, complete the sentence mentally to decide
whether to use the subject or object pronoun, e.g. a. Jack is as clever as she/her (Jack is as clever
as she is); b. Mark is taller than I/me (Mark is taller than I am).
5. Reflexive pronouns – myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, and themselves –
should be used only when they refer back to another word in the sentence, e.g. a. Jane looked at
herself in the mirror;
b. “It was John and myself that did the work” is wrong because myself does not refer back to
another work in the sentence: the correct thing is to say “It was John and I that did the work.”
6. A pronoun used as the subject of an infinitive is in the objective case, e.g.
Dad wants my sister and I/me to wash his clothes: the correct pronoun here is ‘me’ because it is
the subject of the infinitive ‘to wash’.
7. A pronoun used in apposition to a noun is in the same case as the noun, e.g. Two Nigerians,
Obi and he (not him) did very well at the Olympics.
8. When a pronoun is used to show ownership, it should be in the possessive case, e.g. a.
Jane insisted that the book was hers; Dad disapproves of my (not me) attending parties.
9. When the subject is a relative pronoun, the verb should agree with its antecedent, e.g.
a. She is one of those women who peddle (not who peddles) rumour;
b. This is one of the errors that were (not was) corrected during the revision.
10. When an indefinite pronoun requires a possessive case, this is done by simply adding‘s’ after
or before the apostrophe, e.g
a. This is somebody else’s book not mine;
b. It was not your shop alone; others’ shops were demolished;
C. One should be sure of one’s source of information before publishing it.
11. Personal pronouns do not require an apostrophe‘s’ in order to form their possessive case, e.g.
a. The dog wagged its (not it’s) tail;
b. Jane said the purse was hers (not her’s);
c. The pen is yours (not your’s).
VERB
A verb can be described as a word that expresses an action, an event or a state of existence. The
verb is a key word in a sentence. In fact, it is the heart of a sentence: every sentence must have a
verb. In other words, a sentence is incomplete without a verb. Some verbs describe events, as in:
Mary sang a song; Dan repaired the generator; Olu ate all the food; Kanu kicked the ball into the
net. Other verbs describe states such as: Mark knows Rose; Rose likes rice; The earth is
spherical.
Lexical and Auxiliary Verbs
Lexical Verbs
A lexical verb, also known as main verb, is a single word that can independently express the
action or state of the subject in a sentence. It is a content word and does not have to combine
with another verb in order to perform its function in a sentence. Examples of lexical verbs are:
work, play, sing, speak, give, cook, sleep, seem, appear, plant, harvest, swim, sweep, etc.
Auxiliary Verbs
An auxiliary verb is normally used with a main verb, as it cannot function alone in a sentence. It
is called a helping verb, because it helps to give further information about the verb. The auxiliary
adds something to the basic meaning of the main verb by helping to perform various functions,
such as passive voice, progressive aspect, perfect aspect, modality and emphasis.
Kinds of Auxiliaries
There are two kinds of auxiliaries in English: Primary and Modal. Primary auxiliaries differ from
modals in the sense that the primary auxiliaries can function as auxiliaries and also as main
verbs, while the modals can only function as auxiliaries.
Primary Auxiliaries
There are three primary auxiliary verbs: Be, Have and Do. Their major function is to express
mood and tense in the verbal phrase structure. The following examples help to illustrate the
capacity of the primary auxiliaries to function as auxiliaries and also as main verbs:
Forms Finite Main Verb Auxiliary
Am I am a Nigerian. I am singing songs.
Is Jesus is the good Shepherd. He’s doing it.
Are Jane and Rose are sisters. They are dancing.
Was The president was here. She was rejoicing.
Were They were in there. We were playing.
Has Joe has a house. He has won the prize.
Have I have a personal computer. I have bought a house.
Had I had the right to leave. It had been agreed.
Do I do exactly as he directs. I do not like boxing.
Does John does a lot of singing. He does not play piano.
Did I did a course in Economics. I did not like Mathematics.
Modal Auxiliaries
A modal auxiliary verb, also known as a modal verb or simply a modal, is a verb which modifies
another verb, so that the modified verb conveys more information. As its name implies, a modal
verb expresses modality. The modal verbs are: will, would, shall, should, can, could, may, might,
must, ought to, dare and need.
Functions of the Modals
The modal auxiliaries perform many communicative functions; they can be used to express the
mood of the speaker in various ways. Mood Examples
Willingness: I will help you with your homework later.
Will you help me carry this carton?
Intention: I’ll travel to Enugu tomorrow.
Insistence: Junior, why will you keep making a noise?
Prediction: Joan will have got the bad news by now.
A cube of sugar will dissolve in water.
Would
Mood Examples
Willingness Would you pay for my ticket?
She asked if I would help her with her homework.
Insistence: He stressed that he wouldn’t rescind the decisionn.
She said she would keep criticizing the bad policies of the
government.
Habitual: Every morning, the family would pray and sing.
She would go home once the class was dismissed.
Possibility: That would be my wife coming.
That would be the sound of a gunshot.
Hypothetical: If the lecturers had not embarked on The long strike, I
would have completed my university programme
before now.
If he had not gone into drug abuse, he wouldn’t have gone
mad.
Politeness: Would you shut the door, please?
I would like to have it in cash, if possible.
Purpose: Dick hid his money under the seat so that the robbers
would not take it from him.
The dubious cashier set the office ablaze so that people
would not discover the fraud.
Offer: Would you like a bottle of malt?
Would you come for dinner?
Preferences: I’d (I would) like a glass of water.
They’d rather die than worship a man-made god.
Shall
Legal: Members shall obey the rules and regulations of the
association.
All citizens shall obey the constitution of the land.
Promise: The first ten subscribers shall get a bonus.
He that endures till the end shall be saved.
Intention: I shall travel to Kano tomorrow.
 I shan’t be long.
Threat: Anyone who plays with fire shall be hurt.
No one shall escape!
Prediction: This time next week, I shall be in Enugu.
Unless business improves, we shall have no alternative but
to close the factory.
Offers: Shall I pay the money into your account?
Shall I get you a bottle of malt?
Instruction: Candidates shall remain in their seats until all the scripts
are collected.
Applicants shall come with their CV and relevant
credentials.
Should
Necessity: Pregnant women should visit the antenatal regularly.
Patients should obey their doctor’s instructions.
Obligation: Children should obey their parents.
Men should have only one wife.
Unexpectedness You shouldn’t say such a thing about Mary.
You shouldn’t have left your baby with a total stranger.
Advice: People should desist from smoking Indian hemp.
Youths should avoid premarital sex.
Hypothetical: I should move to a mansion in Ikoyi if I had money.
If I were asked to give bribe, I should reject the
contract.
Tentativeness: Should anyone want to see me, please tell them
I’m in a meeting.
If you should require further information, do let me
know.
Purpose: The teacher explained the topic more clearly so
that the students should understand.
 The police used teargas so that the rioters should
disperse.
Surprise: I arrived at the seminar and who should be
standing on the podium but Jude?
I opened the envelope and what should I find but a
letter of employment?
Politeness: I should be grateful if you would send me your
price list.
I should like to see the director, if you wouldn’t
mind.
Can
Ability: I can speak French.
John can drive.
Permission: You can use the car whenever you want.
Members can park their cars anywhere in the
premises.
Possibility: The Super Eagles can win the match if they show
greater determination.
We can complete the work on schedule.
Request: Can I use your pen?
Can you mend the tap for me?
Could
Ability: John could run well when he was a student.
I could speak Hausa well when I was working in
Kaduna.
Possibility: Emma could have just forgotten to call back, I
suppose.
The match could end a goalless draw.
Permission: Junior could stay behind.
Martha could come in and live with us.
Request: Could you shut the door, please?
 Could you lend me your pen?
May
Permission: May I come in?
You may come in if you wish.
Possibility: You may miss the flight if you don’t hurry up.
The contractor may discontinue the work if he is not
paid the money.
Purpose: There is need for more Federal universities, so that
our children may find it easier to gain
admission into the university.
The government should increase the minimum
wage so that workers may enjoy a better
standard of living.
Parents should instill discipline in their children so
that they may grow up as responsible
adults.
Politeness: May I ask why you changed your mind?
If I may just add one thing, there is a need for
urgent action in the power sector.
You look cute, if I may say so.
Wishes/Hopes: May your days be long!
May God grant you peace!
May peace reign in our land!
Information: Which village may she be from?
How much may he be asking for?
Who may have sent this text?
Might
Possibility: There might be some truth in what he said.
He might catch the flight, but I can’t be sure.
Permission: Might I use your pen?
Students might come with their parents.
 Might I go to the bathroom?
Polite Suggestion: You might try calling the customer care center.
I thought we might visit the beach this weekend.
You might consider finishing your degree.
Must
Compulsion: Drivers must desist from drinking alcohol while
driving.
Candidates must answer only two questions.
Necessity: I must go to the bank and get some money.
Cars must not park in front of the entrance.
All visitors must report to the reception.
Recommendation We must get together soon for lunch.
You simply must read this book.
We must send Junior to the boarding school.
Strong Prediction: Austin must have missed his flight, since he is still
here.
You must be hungry after all that walking.
Ought
Necessity/Obligation: They ought to have apologized.
Such things ought not to be allowed.
Helen ought to have written to say thank you.
Expectation: Children ought to be able to speak their mother
tongue at the age of seven.
Doctors ought to be adequately remunerated.
Recommendation We ought to be leaving now.
You ought to try and persuade your sister to come
with you.
Probability: If he started out at four, he ought to be here by
now.
That ought to be enough food for two of us.
Oughtn’t the water to have boiled by now?
Dare
The modal ‘dare’ usually occurs in negated clauses and interrogatives; it is used to express
threat, anger and probability.
Threat: Don’t you dare say anything to anybody.
You dare not enter this room.
Dare you exchange words with me?
Anger: How dare you talk to me like that?
How dare she imply that I was lying?
How dare you slap my wife?
Probability: I dare say you know about it already.
I dare say Dan lied about his qualification.
I dare say the director is economical with the truth.
Need
Necessity: You need not go there in person.
You need not obey ungodly instructions.
Need you have paid so much?

Finite and Nonfinite Verbs

A finite verb form shows a particular tense, person and number, while a nonfinite form shows no
particular tense, person or number. The verb ‘be’, for instance has its finite forms as: am, is, are,
was and were; its nonfinite forms are: being and been.
A finite verb is needed in every main clause. It is marked for tense and aspect and needs a
subject, as in “He waited in front of the gate.” A nonfinite verb is not marked for tense or aspect
and does not need a subject, as in “having waited”, “waiting patiently”, “to wait”.
Another way of explaining the difference between finite and nonfinite verbs is that finite verbs
change in form according to person and number: I sing, he sings, you sing and they sing;
nonfinite verbs do not change: I like to sing, he likes to sing, you like to sing and they like to
sing.
The word ‘finite’ means limited and this implies that finite verbs are limited or affected by other
words in a sentence. Nonfinite verbs, on the other hands, cannot be changed or limited by other
words in a sentence.
Finite verbs obey certain rules, such as agreement with the subject, tense, aspect, voice and
mood. Nonfinite verbs, on the other hands, do not obey these rules; instead, they act like nouns,
and sometimes like adjectives, as in: “Singing is my delight”, “She has a beautiful singing
voice.” Moreover, nonfinite verbs do not make complete sense without taking other verbs, as
exemplified by the verbs working, written, cooking in the asterisked structures among the
following sentences:
 Christie works in the bank.
 She writes books.
She written many books.
She cooking.
Regular and Irregular Verbs
Regular verbs change their form in the same way as most other verbs. Regular verbs have the
following similar forms:
1. V-base base form work call talk
2. V-s -s form works calls talks
3. V-ed1 past worked called talked
4. V-ing pres. Participle working calling talking
5. V-ed2 past participle worked called talked
As shown above, the base of a regular verb is used to predict other forms of the verb. The base is
the form listed in dictionaries, and you can predict the s-form from this base, as in: work > he
works. As Quick and Greenbaum point out, the s-form “has three spoken realizations: /iz/, /z/
and /s/, and two spellings, -s and –es.
The (iz) pronunciation is used after bases ending in voiced or voiceless sibilants, and they are
spelled –es unless the base already ends in –e: push ~ pushes camouflage ~ camouflages pass ~
passes budge ~ budges catch ~ catches lodge ~ lodges
The /z/ pronunciation comes after bases ending in other voiced sounds, and they are spelled –s:
move ~ moves grab ~ grabs wag ~ wags call ~ calls term ~ terms scrub ~ scrubs
The /s/ pronunciation, which is spelled –s, is used after bases ending in other voiceless sounds:
tap ~ taps cut ~ cuts work ~ works lock ~ locks sap ~ saps dig ~ digs
The –ing form is added directly to the base, as in: pass ~ passing, call ~ calling, and push ~
pushing.
As earlier noted, the past and past participle of regular verbs are spelled –ed unless the base ends
in –e; they have three spoken realizations:
Pronounced /id/ after bases ending in /d/ and /t/, e.g. add ~ added, pat ~ patted.
Pronounced /d/ after bases ending in voiced sounds other
than /d/, e.g. budge ~ budged, lodge ~ lodged.
Pronounced /t/ after bases ending in voiceless sounds other
than /t/, e.g. lock ~ locked, pass ~ passed.

What can be deduced from the above examples is that regular verbs obey both phonological and
spelling rules. The spelling rule of doubling the consonant, for instance, applies to final base
consonants spelled with a single letter and preceded by a vowel letter which is stressed, as in:
permit ~ permitting ~ permitted, bar ~ barring ~ barred. On the other hand, the doubling rule
does not apply when the vowel is unstressed or written with two letters, e.g. enter ~ entering ~
entered, dread ~ dreading ~ dreaded. The deletion of –e before the –ing and –ed inflections is
another spelling rule obeyed by regular verbs, e.g. shave ~ shaving ~ shaved; move ~ moving ~
moved;
There are however various exceptions to these rules, and there are also cases where BrE spellings
vary from AmE, e.g. signal ~ signalling ~ signaled (BrE) and signal ~ signaling ~ signaled
(AmE); travel ~ travelling ~ travelled (BrE) and travel ~ traveling ~ traveled (AmE); worship ~
worshipping ~ worshipped (BrE) and worship ~ worshiping ~ worshiped (AmE).
Irregular Verbs, on the other hand, are verbs that have an irregular past simple and an irregular
past participle. Unlike the regular verbs which are spelled –ed, irregular verbs do not follow a
regular pattern of change. Examples:
Infinitive Past Simple Past Participle
arise arose arisen
awake awoke awoken
bear bore borne (US ALSO born)
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
drink drank drunk
eat ate eaten
sing sang sung
write wrote written
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
Transitive verbs must have an object, while intransitive verbs do not take an object.
Transitive Verbs
Transitive verbs, such as steal, kick, slap, kill, break, build, etc., require an object to make them
complete in a sentence. Examples:
Jack slapped Judith.
Okocha kicked the ball into the net.
Obi stole a piece of fish.
Transitive Verbs and Passive Voice
Transitive verbs can take passive voice e.g.
a. Judith was slapped by Jack;
b. The ball was kicked into the net by Okocha;
c. A piece of fish was stolen by Obi. Intransitive verbs cannot take passive voice.
Monotransitive and Ditransitive Verbs
Transitive verbs which take one object are called monotransitive verbs e.g.
a. He broke the cup;
b. She won the race;
c. I saw the flames.
Ditransitive verbs are those which take two objects e.g.
a. Mark gave Mary a ring; John bought her a car. Thus, monotransitive verbs take only a direct
object, while ditransitive verbs take both a direct object and an indirect object.
Transitive Verbs that Take a Clause as Object
Some transitive verbs usually take a clause instead of a noun or a pronoun.
Used with that-clauses
Verbs such as know, think, believe, discover, find, observe, see, hope, expect, say, answer,
explain, decide, resolve, etc can be used with a finite that-clause e.g.
Anya dreamed that he was driving a jeep.
I discovered that my handset was missing.
We hope that you will visit us during the holiday.
The Minister explained that the fuel subsidy removal was good for the economy.
The students regret that Mr. Wise left.
Used with Wh-clauses
Verbs that express verbal or mental processes, such as insist, ask, realize, explain, believe, etc
can take a wh-clause as their direct object or prepositional object e.g.
 Julie believed what her husband told her.
 The director asked why the factory was closed.
 You can’t imagine how much she knows about the matter.
I don’t know whether you have heard the sad new.
Intransitive Verbs
Intransitive verbs do not take an object. In other words, only one participant is involved in the
action expressed by the verb.
Intransitive verbs can be subdivided into two major groups: pure intransitives, and intransitives
requiring a complement.
Pure Intransitives
Some verbs like rain, disappear, rise, fade, materialize, snow, elapse, etc. are always used
without any object. Most pure intransitives are used to express involuntary or semi involuntary
behavior, such as sneeze, yawn, cough, sleep, collapse, die, cry, tremble, blink, blush, scream,
faint, etc. Examples:
It’s raining.
The clouds disappeared.
The sun rose.
It is snowing.
Mabel fainted. Okonkwo coughed.
The baby is crying. The man died.
The woman screamed.
Intransitives Requiring a Complement
Verbs of position like live, stand, hang, lie and verbs of movement such as stroll, walk, sail, slip,
usually require a locative or directional complement to complete their meaning, e.g.
 She strolled towards the beach.
 The Museum stands near the lake.
The ship sailed out of the harbour.
 The baby was lying in a manger.
Verbs Used both Transitively and Intransitively
Many English verbs can be used with or without an object. In other words, they can be used both
transitively and intransitively. Examples:
Intranistive Use Transitive Use
Can you drive? I can drive a car.
Joe doesn’t drink. Henry drinks alcohol.
I have started saving. He saves money.
Mike teaches. I teach English.
Ngozi writes. She writes novels.
The boy was waving. She wave her hand.
She told me. She told me the truth.
He promised me. I promised him a car.
Inchoative, Causative and
Ergative Verbs
These are terms used in describing verbs according to the type of action or change they express.
Inchoative Verbs
Verbs are described as inchoative if they express a change of state that happens on its own, e.g.
The door opened.
The bell rang.
The window broke.
The balloon burst.
The branches shook.
The water boiled.
The cakes burned.
The kite flew.
The ball rolled.
Causative Verbs
Causative verbs are verbs that express a cause. Such verbs indicate that somebody or something
is indirectly responsible for an action. The subject doesn’t perform the action itself, but causes
someone or something else to do it. Causative verbs include: let, make, have, get, etc.
Examples:
 She won’t let her daughter attend the party.
 Mary made her children do their homework.
 Mr. Williams had the mechanic service his car.
They are to get people to stop smoking.
 I had my computer fixed.
Ergative Pairs
The word ergative is used to describe verbs that can be used in both a transitive and an
intransitive way with the same meaning, where the object of the transitive verb is the same as the
subject of the intransitive verb. Examples:
Open: James opened the door.
The door opened.
Ring: Grace rang the bell.
The bell rang.
Break: Oyodo broke the pot.
The pot broke.
Burst: Junior burst the balloon. The balloon burst.
Shake: The wind shook the branches. The branches shook.
Boil: Esther boiled the water.
The water boiled.
Burn: Judith burned the cakes. The cakes burned.
Fly: The child flew the kite.
The kite flew.
Roll: Henry rolled the ball. The ball rolled.
Grow: Lucy grew flowers.
Flowers grew in her garden.
Stative and Dynamic Verbs
Verbs in English can be divided into two classes: stative and dynamic.
Stative Verbs
As the name implies, stative verbs usually refer to a state or condition which is static or
unchanging. They can be subdivided into the following classes:
Relational verbs: be, belong, consist, cost, depend, own. Seem, sound, possess, etc.
Verbs of perception: see, hear, smell, feel, taste
Verbs of cognition: know, think, understand, recognize, etc.
Verbs of affectivity: love, hate, like, dislike, detest
Stative verbs CANNOT be used in progressive or continuous forms. Examples:
Dangote owns many trailers.
Not: Dangote is owning many trailers.
 Can you hear me? Not: Are you hearing me?
 I know the answer. Not: I am knowing the answer.
 Jane likes rice. Not: Jane is liking rice.
Dynamic Verbs
Dynamic verbs describe actions we can take or things that can happen. They are sometimes
called ‘action verbs’. Dynamic verbs can be classified as either durative or punctual. Durative
verbs express actions or events that have ‘duration’ (i.e. that continue for some time), e.g. play,
walk, sing, read, cook, write, dance, eat, wash, rain, sing, etc. Punctual verbs on the other hand,
express actions that take place within a short time (i.e. momentary actions), e.g. jump, blink,
drop, sneeze, catch, kick, hit, slap, stab, shoot, smash, break, slam, explode, etc.
When a durative verb is put into a progressive tense, it means that the event is (or was) going on
over a period of time. On the other hand, the progressive tense of a punctual verb has a special
meaning, since the event referred to, does not continue for a period of time.
Thus, when used in the continuous or progressive tense, they indicate either repetition or
approach of the event, e.g. Jack was throwing stones at us (i.e. doing it repeatedly or doing it
habitually. Similarly, ‘Jane told us that her father’s plane was arriving’ does not refer to
‘arriving’ as an ongoing event but to the approach of the event (i.e. the plane would arrive very
soon).
It is therefore necessary to differentiate between durative and punctual verbs when reporting
specific events in which the duration of the action is significant. This is done by the use of –ing
form for durative verbs and the base form for the punctual verbs, e.g.
 I watched my elder sister cooking supper.
 We watched the python swallow a big hen.
 I saw Mike dive into the river.
 I watched him swimming towards the bank.
 I saw Jack listening to the radio.
 I later saw him smash the radio to pieces.
 We all saw Veronica hit
Jude on the head with her umbrella.
Did you see him jab her in the ribs with his finger?  I watched Jack and Jude arguing with each
other about money.
 I saw Jack slap Jude hard across the face.
Linking Verbs
A linking verb is a verb that connects a subject with its complement, usually an adjective or a
noun. The complement comes after the linking verb, such as be or become, and it describes the
subject, e.g.
 Mr. Okon was our sales He became a director last year.
 Susan felt ashamed.
As shown above, a linking verb connects the subject to a word in the predicate part of the
sentence. Consider the following sentence patterns with linking verbs:
Subject+Linking Verb+Adjective= Jude is fat.
Subject+Linking Verb+Noun or Pronoun= Jude is a man.
Other Linking Verbs are:
Appear become feel get
Grow seem taste smell
Remain stay look turn
Sound prove
Verbs used as either Linking or Action Verbs:
Verb Linking Action
Appear: He appears healthy. He appeared here.
Look: She looked sad. She looked for food.
Taste: The soup tasted good. John tasted the soup.
Grow: Jane grew tired.
She grew flowers in her garden.
State-of-Being Verbs
A state-of-being verb is usually a linking verb. It does not tell what the subject is doing but
simply states what it is. Stateof-being verbs are intransitive – that is, they cannot take a direct
object. They are forms of be: is, am, was, are, were, be, being, been.

State-of-being verbs can function as the main verb of a sentence, and they can also be used as a
helping verb.
 Rose is a girl (as a main verb).
 She is writing a letter (as a helping verb).
Helping verbs do not stand alone; they ‘help’ the main verb with which they combine to form a
verb phrase. Examples of commonly used helping verbs are:
am: I am writing a book.
is: John is working in the garden.
was: Mark was doing his homework when I entered his room.
are: They are singing at the assembly now.
been: The children have been playing since morning.
were: Students were told to come with their school fees.
may: You may go home now.
being: The road is being constructed by Julius Berger.
might: He studied hard that he might pass the exam.
must: We must leave at once.
do: Do write and let me know how you are getting on.
be: I will be traveling to London.
ADJECTIVES
An adjective is a word which modifies or gives more information about a noun or pronoun.
Adjectives give details about size, shape, colour, number, quality and various other descriptors.
Consider the following sentence: A big black cat ran into the small hut.
The adjectives big and black tell us about the size and colour of the cat. On the other hand, the
word small describes the size of the hut. As we can see here, the work of adjectives is to give
more information about the nouns cat and hut respectively.
Examples of adjectives are: a/an, the, beautiful, big, interesting, old, young, etc.
Consider the underlined words in the following: My father was an honest man. I love and respect
honest persons. It is interesting to find an old or young person who is honest.
Adjective can be attributive, as in ‘This is a fascinating novel. It can be predicative: ‘This novel
is fascinating. It can also be substantive: ‘There is a great disparity between the rich and the poor
in this country.’
There is also post-positive adjective: ‘Give me something reasonable.
An adjective can be modified by an adverb, or a phrase, or a clause serving as an adverb. In the
sentence, ‘Blossom is an absolutely stunning woman,’ for example, the adverb ‘absolutely’
modifies the adjective ‘stunning’.
Types of Adjectives
Adjectives of Quality: They describe the quality which a person or thing has:
The Lord is good.
The woman is kind.
Adjectives of Size: They tell us about the size of the person or thing being talked about:
That tall boy is the class captain.
They live in a large house.
Adjectives of Shape:
These glasses suit people with round faces.
People used to think the earth was flat or round, but the earth is spherical.
Adjectives of Age:
The young man greeted the old man.
Mr. Okon bought a new car yesterday.
Adjectives of Colour, e.g. white, black, green, red, yellow, blue, orange, purple, pink, etc.
Adjectives of Nationality or Origin:
He bought a Japanese car.
He married an American woman.
Possessive Adjectives: These are identical to possessive pronouns (my, your, his, her, its, our
and their), but they are used as modifiers:
Your house is not far from the venue of our next meeting.
Mrs. Williams represented her husband on the occasion; she also received the prize on his behalf.
Demonstrative Adjectives: This, that, these and those are like demonstrative pronouns but when
they are used to modify nouns or noun phrases, they are known as demonstrative adjectives:
This house belongs to Uncle Eze; those women at the gate are his wives.
These files should be kept inside that drawer.
Interrogative Adjectives: Interrogative adjectives (which and what) are like interrogative
pronouns, but are used to modify nouns and noun phrases
Which boys broke the windscreen?
What book did the lecturer recommend?
Indefinite Adjectives: These resemble indefinite pronouns, but they are used as modifiers:
Many men beat their wives.
Some wives beat up their husbands.
All dogs are animals.
Jesus fed the multitude with a few loaves of bread.
Using Adjectives to Make Comparisons
Adjectives can be used to compare nouns or pronouns.
Their forms are positive, comparative and superlative:
John is tall.
James is taller than John.
Peter is the tallest.
Some adjectives have irregular forms of positive, comparative and superlative usage:
Good/better/best.
Bad/worse/worst.
Little/less/least.
Rules for Using Comparatives
1. Most one-syllable words add ‘r’ and ‘st’ (or ‘er’ and ‘est’) to form the comparative and
superlative respectively: fine-finer-finest, large-larger-largest, small-smaller-smallest, quick-
quicker quickest, slow-slower- slowest, cheap-cheaper- cheapest, etc.
2. If the adjective ends in a consonant-vowel-consonant combination (CVC), double the final
consonant before adding ‘er’: wet-wetter-wettest, hot-hotter-hottest, big-bigger-biggest, fat-
fatter- fattest, thin-thinner-thinnest, etc.
3. If the adjective ends in ‘y’ change ‘y’ to ‘ier’ and ‘iest’ for the comparative and superlative
respectively:
happy-happier-happiest, friendly-friendlier-friendliest, ugly-uglier-ugliest, dirty-dirtier-dirtiest,
smelly-smellier-smelliest, etc.
4. Adjectives with two or more syllables take more/most or less/least: careful-more careful-most
careful, intelligent-more intelligent, most intelligent, difficult-more difficult-most difficult,
dangerous-more dangerousmost-dangerous, etc.
5. Adjectives ending in ed, ing, re, ful, ous and those with the stress on the first syllable usually
take more and most: interesting-more interesting-most nteresting, famous, learned, obscure,
wonderful, dangerous, etc.
6. Adjectives ending in er, y, le, ow and those with stress on the second syllable add er and est to
the positive degree: narrow-narrower-narrowest, clever-cleverer-cleverest, pretty-prettier-
prettiest,etc.
7. Some two-syllable adjectives can take either ‘er/est’ or more/most:
wealthy-wealthier wealthiest (more/most wealthy), handsomehandsomer-handsomest (more/most
handsome),
simple-simpler-simplest (more/most simple) deadly-deadlier-deadliest (more/most deadly) etc.
8. Some adjectives form their comparative and superlative degrees in an irregular way: good-
betterbest, bad-worse-worst, much-more-most, little-lessleast, in-inner-innermost, out-outer-
outermost, farfarther- farthest, etc.
9. Some adjectives cannot be compared because of their fixed meaning: round, square, wrong,
right, empty, circular, monthly, etc.
10. Double comparative – that is, both ‘er’ and more, cannot be used at the same time:
Wrong: Honey is more better than sugar.
Correct: Honey is better than sugar.
Compound Adjectives
A compound adjective is an
Adjective that consists of more than one word. In other words, compound adjectives are two or
more words to modify a noun (e.g. twelve-year-old girl, part-time student, etc).
Compound adjectives are usually hyphenated when they precede a noun (e.g. a well deserved
award) but not when they come after a noun (the award was well deserved.
Compound adjectives are formed in a variety of ways:
1. Adjective+Adjective, e.g. red-hot, dark blue, bright yellow, light brown, etc.
2. Adjective+Present/Past Participle, e.g. goodlooking, easy-going, coldblooded, absent-minded,
big-headed, quick-witted,
etc.
3. Noun+Adjective, e.g. airtight, sky-blue, trouble-free, world famous, etc.
4. Adverb+Participle, e.g. ready-made, far-fetched, socalled, etc.
5. Number+Noun, e.g. one eyed man, seven-man committee, eleven-man team, ten-and-a-half-
yearold child, sixteen-week
semester, three-bedroom flat, etc.
6. Number+Past Participle, e.g. four-footed beast, three-legged stool, etc.
7. Noun+Present Participle, e.g. heart-warming, mindblowing, mouth-watering, money-making
venture, football-loving fans, thought-provoking, etc.
8. Noun+Past Participle, e.g. home-made, hand-woven, machine-made, man-made, London-
trained, homegrown, etc.
9. Preposition+Noun, e.g. overdue, underhand, etc.
10. Preposition+Participle, e.g. outspoken, outstanding, outstretched, overdeveloped,
overcrowded,
underprivileged, underrepresented, underresourced, etc.
Adjectives Word Oder
There is an appropriate word order for adjectives. In other words, adjectives fall into different
categories, which determine the one that comes before the other within the structure of a noun
phrase. This is why we can say “the beautiful new red Japanese car” but not “the Japanese red
beautiful new car.”
Sometimes you may want to use more than one adjective to describe a noun. You cannot just put
the wherever you want.
Always remember there is a proper way of arranging them in order. Let’s assume you want to
describe a car that is new and is also green. Will you say a new green car or a green new car? A
new green car is correct. From this example we can see there a particular order in which
adjectives are to be arranged in a sentence. A green new car doesn’t sound correct naturally.
So let’s look at the exact order of adjectives before a noun in a
sentence. The order is as follows: Determiner > Opinion > Size > Age > Shape > Colour >
Origin > Material > Purpose, e.g some fine small new round brown Chinese metal frying pans =
DOSASCOMP.
Some adjectives usually come only after a linking verb: the order is to-be + adjective, e.g. is
afraid, is alive, is asleep, is ill, is sure. Other adjectives that are used only after a linking verb are:
alone, glad, content, sorry, well, bored, annoyed, finished, pleased, thrilled, etc. Other adjectives
that usually come before a noun are sometimes used after a linking verb as well, e.g. Rose is
brilliant, Damian is tall. Adjectives can appear before a noun: the order is adjective + noun, e.g.
good boy, beautiful girl.
Note that the order of adjectives before a noun is not fixed. What we have discussed is to serve
as a guide. It’s rare for people to use more than two or three adjectives in their everyday
conversations.
Simple rules:
1. Opinions come before facts, e.g. She wore a beautiful blue silk blouse.
A. He gave an interesting new idea about the project.
2. General ideas come before specific ideas, e.g.
A. A long wooden table
B. A small Japanese car
More Examples of DOSASCOMP:
Determiner: the, a/an, and other limiters, as in the man, a dog, his wife, etc.
Opinion/Observation: a beautiful woman, an interesting book, a flashy car, etc.
Size: big, small, little, large, etc.
Age: old, young, new, antique.
Shape: long, short, square, long stemmed, etc.
Colour: red, brown, white, blue, sea-green, etc.
Origin: Japanese, Nigerian,Italian, American, English, Chinese, French, etc.
Material: wooden, silk, silver, copper – describing what something is made of.
Purpose: race car, vacation resort, touring car, basketball players, wedding dress, etc. It is often
an integral part of the noun.
The following are examples of how the royal order of adjectives is applied:
> The tall old English man.
> An expensive new American sports car.
> Her long-flowing brown hair.
> A dilapidated large yellow bus.
Five handsome tall young men.
> A big round old wooden mortar.
> Some delicious Chinese food.
> A beautiful little young Nigerian girl
The Use of Commas
Equal adjectives should be separated by commas, as in: “a beautiful, expensive new Italian car.”
The words “beautiful” and “expensive” are equal adjectives – that is, both of them belong to the
same category (opinion or observation adjectives) in the royal order. This means that when using
a string of adjectives, you have to be mindful of both the proper order and of the fact that you
need to use commas to separate only adjectives that belong to the same category. You need not
use commas to separate adjectives which belong to different categories, e.g. an expensive red
Japanese car.
ADVERBS
An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb. Adverbs tell us about
the action – that is, they modify verbs. They can disclose how, when, where, why or to what
extent an action is taken.
Adverbs can modify adjectives and adverbs as well. Examples: honestly, quietly, very, well,
slowly, etc. Consider the underlined words in the following: Moses was very angry. He angrily
struck the rock instead of speaking to it as instructed by God.
Consequently, he missed the Promised Land.
Most adverbs (but not all) end in –ly, such as quickly, beautifully, sincerely, etc. As can be seen
here, an adjective can be made into an adverb by adding –ly.
Other examples are: honest > honestly, nice > nicely, absolute > absolutely, complete >
completely, etc. It should be noted, however, that not all words that end in –ly are adverbs.
Examples: friendly, lovely and ugly are adjectives; supply and reply are verbs, etc.
Kinds of Adverbs
There are different kinds of adverbs, such as adverbs of time, frequency, place, manner, degree,
relative and interrogative adverbs.
Adverbs of Time
These include adverbs which answer the question “when?”
Examples are today, tomorrow, now, then, soon. Adverbs of time can also tell us of the duration
of something, such as since, for, briefly, etc.
> I will travel to Enugu tomorrow.
> Jesus is coming soon.
Adverbs of Frequency
These tell us about frequency of occurrence – that is, how often something happens. Examples
are: once, twice, usually, daily, always, often, never, frequently, occasionally, sometimes,
regularly, etc.
> I take my bath daily.
> He comes here twice a week.
Adverbs of Place
These adverbs indicate the place where something occurs, thus answering the question “where?”
Examples are: here, there, everywhere, and somewhere.
> Mark hid his purse somewhere.
> We went there for shopping.
Adverbs of Manner
Adverbs of manner usually provide answer to the question “how?” Examples are: quickly,
slowly, gently, honestly, happily, well, fast. Such adverbs usually come after the verbs they
modify:
> Johnson ran quickly into the room.
> You have spoken well.
Adverbs of Degree
They answer the question “how much?” or “to what extent?”
Examples: very, quite, rather, etc.
She is very beautiful.
Tim works extremely fast.
Relative Adverbs
These are: when, where, and why, as in:
> I saw Adamu when he was boarding the bus.
> I met Olu where he was playing with Folu.
> I wondered why he did such a thing.
Interrogative Adverbs
These are similar to relative adverbs – when, where, why and how. The difference is that
interrogative adverbs are used for asking questions. They are usually placed at the beginning of a
question:
>Why didn’t you come to school yesterday?
> When does the station open?
> How are you?
> Where do you live?
Mobility of Adverbs
Most adverbs can occur at the initial, middle or final positions in a sentence. They are mobile, as
in the following examples:
> Occasionally, I visit the library.
> I occasionally visit the library.
> I visit the library occasionally.
Comparisons with Adverbs
Some adverbs are similar to adjectives in terms of comparability. Adverbs like these can be used
to compare actions as to time or manner.
Like adjectives, they have three degrees of comparison – positive, comparative and superlative:
Positive Comparative Superlative
Late later latest
Soon sooner soonest
Hard harder hardest
High higher highest
Early earlier earliest
Some adverbs do not add –er and –est, but they use “more” or “less” before them for their
comparative form and “most” or “least” for their superlative form. Examples are: gracefully,
more gracefully, most gracefully; beautifully, less beautifully, least beautifully; etc.
Some adverbs are irregular in the formation of their comparative and superlative forms, such as:
well, better, best; much, more, most; far, farther, farthest (for distance); far, further, furthest (for
distance, time and abstract).
Rules for Using Adverbs
1. Most adverbs are formed by adding –ly to adjectives, changing e to y, changing y to i and
adding –ly, etc., e.g. honest-honestly, beautiful beautifully, humble-humbly, easy-easily, etc.
2. Some adverbs retain the same form as the adjectives, e.g. fast, hard, late, daily, early, etc.
3. When an adverb modifies an adjective or another adverb, it usually comes before the word it
modifies, e.g. she is a stunningly beautiful girl, he was ostentatiously dressed, it rained very
heavily yesterday, etc.
4. When an adverb modifies a verb, its position is not usually fixed, e.g. Occasionally, I visit the
library, I occasionally visit the library, I visit the library occasionally, etc.
6. An adverb comes before or after a verb used intransitively, e.g. the team performed well in
their last match, some people erroneously believe that the earth is round, etc.
7. An adverb usually comes after the direct object of a verb which is used transitively, e.g they
sang the song badly, the robbers beat Jack mercilessly, Junior threw the cup away, etc.
8. An adverb is usually placed after a prepositional phrase, e.g. he looked at us angrily, she spoke
to her uncle rudely, etc.
9. Adverbs of frequency (such as always, often, never, sometimes, etc.) usually come before the
main verb, e.g. Dad doesn’t usually travel by night, Aboki often comes late to school, etc.
10. Adverbs of frequency usually come after the verb ‘to be’, e.g. Jude is sometimes late for
work, Jane has proved to be very serious in her studies, etc.
11. Adverbs are usually placed between an auxiliary verb and its participle, e.g. he just
completed the project,
I have never been to Kafanchan, etc.
12. The words ‘good’ and ‘well’ are used as adjective and adverb respectively in Standard
British English: they are not interchangeable, e.g. ‘I did good in the exam’ is wrong, but ‘I did
well in the exam’ is correct; you can say ‘I obtained good marks in the exam’ (here, ‘good’ is
correctly used as an adjective).
13. Adverbs are sometimes placed at the beginning of a sentence, e.g. Quickly, I changed my
mind, etc.
PREPOSITIONS
A preposition is a word which shows relationships among other words in the sentence. It links
nouns, pronouns and phrases to other words in a sentence. The word preposition is derived from
a Latin word meaning ‘placed before.’
Prepositions are usually placed before a noun or pronoun to show direction, place, source,
position, time, cause, manner or amount. Examples:
Eze went to the market (direction).
Jude came by bus (manner).
Mary is inside the room (place).
The President will visit Lagos on Monday (time).
The lecturer will be here at two (time).
The car was manufactured in Japan (source).
As shown above, a preposition usually goes with a noun or pronoun, which functions as the
object of the preposition. A preposition shows the temporal, spatial or logical relationship of its
object to other words in the sentence. The preposition and its object together constitute a
prepositional phrase. The prepositional phrases in the above sentences are: (1) to the market,
(2) by bus, (3) inside the room, (4) on Monday, (5) at two, and (6) in Japan.
Prepositions may be single words such as in, at, on, to or they may consist of two or more words
such as in spite of, instead of, in front of, apart from, because of, etc.
Some prepositions, such as within, over, out, along, through, behind, about, by, down, outside,
in, up, etc., function as adverbs:
 Obi looked out.
 Benson walked outside.
Rules for Using Prepositions
1. Prepositions are usually followed by a noun or a pronoun, a verb with –ing, or a wh-
clause, e.g. a. the book is on the table; b. on getting home, I saw…; c. there is no point in
waiting for them; d. she is interested in music; e. he punished Junior for breaking the cup; f. let’s
talk about what we are going to do; g. this is my beloved son in whom I am well pleased, etc.
2. Prepositions can sometimes be used at the end of a clause or sentence, especially with wh-
questions, relative clauses, exclamations, passives and some infinitive clauses, e.g. a. Which
one are you interested in? b. This is the book I was talking about. c. Who are you talking to? d. It
has been taken care of, etc.
3. Prepositions can be used to express different kinds of relationship, such as reason, situation,
manner, means, purpose, destination, agent, instrument, reaction, e.g. a. Christ died for me
(reason); b. she spoke in a soft voice (manner); c. Cynthia was preparing for the party (purpose);
d. he left for Enugu (destination); e. she cut the rope with a knife (instrument); f. the book is on
the table (position), g. I once lived in Kaduna (location); h. I saw the boys running across the
field (movement); i. the meeting will start at 4.00 p.m., etc.
4. Prepositions Showing Place: Preposition Used For Examples
a. IN continents in Asia, in Africa countries in Ghana, in France, states in Ogun, in Abia, cities,
towns in Enugu, in Owerri, buildings in the Glass House,
b. ON streets on Martins Street on Awolowo Road, on Ring Road, Benin on Market Road,
c. AT numbers at 66 Kiri-Kiri Road, of houses at 12 Effurun Road, buildings at the State House
at Louis Edet House
Prepositions Showing Time: Preposition Used For Examples
a. IN months in April, in October, years in 1960, in 1984, period in the evening length of time in
a week’s time,
b. ON days of the week on Mondays, dates on October 1st,
c. AT time of day at seven thirty; at noon; at dusk;
5. Sundry Prepositions and Their Uses Preposition Used For Examples
a. FOR period of time I was there for two days.
destination Is this the bus for Kano?
Reason/cause an award for bravery.
Purpose/function a pot for cooking food.
support for or against the proposal
recipient There’s a letter for you.
help What can I do for you?
Representation I am speaking for the youths.
Responsibility It’s for you to decide.
b. BEFORE point of time We’ll leave at 5 p.m.
position He knelt before the throne.
future task The task before us is a daunting one.
presence He was brought before the judge.
reaction They retreated before the enemy.
c. SINCE time duration She has been off work since
Monday.
d. FROM point of departure Has the bus from Owerri arrived?
starting time He was blind from birth.
origin The letter is from my brother.
She is from Togo.
distance Our house is a few meters from the road.
removal The party was ousted from power.
prevention She was saved from drowning.
reason She felt sick from tiredness.
judgment From what I heard Jack is in deep trouble.
e. WITH company Jane lives with her parents.
carrying The man with a suitcase is my uncle.
instrument Cut it with a knife.
contents The bag was stuffed with dirty clothes.
opposition I had an argument with my boss.
manner He behaved with great
dignity. result Her fingers were numb with cold.
Skill comes with practice.
possession The keys are with the gateman.
physical features The girl with a red hair is an air hostess.
f. AFTER point of time They arrived shortly after seven.
reason I’ll never forgive him after what he said.
pursuit The police are after him.
concern/inquiry He asked after you.
resemblance Lucy takes after her mother.
g. ON possession friend of mine; the works of Soyinka.
membership a director of the company
subject/reflection a story of passion; a map of Africa.
measurements/ 5 kilos of potatoes; a discount of 10%
expression of time the tenth of March
h. BEHIND back position We live behind the stadium.
Less progress He is behind the rest of the class.
Support Whatever you decide, we’re behind you.
Initiator He was behind the plan to build the bridge.
i. UNDER position The cat is lying under the table.
Quantity/age/time His annual income is under N2m.
It’s illegal for anyone under
18.
It took him under an hour.
Authority/control She has a staff of 20 working
under her.
Process The matter is still under investigation.
Reason/result Her health broke down under the pressure of work.
j. IN point in space It’s in that drawer; a country in Europe.
Position She’s lying in bed; sitting in an armchair.
Inward movement He dipped his brush in the paint; he got in his car
and drove off.
Period of time in the 19th century; in May, in 1981; in the Morning.
length of time It will be ready in a week’s time; she learnt to drive in three
weeks.
Dressing They were dressed in their best clothes; Anne was all in
black.
Physical surroundings Junior went out in the rain; he was sitting alone in darkness.
State/condition They are in love with each other; put your house in
 order; a man in his forties.
Participation to act in a play
Job/profession He is in the army; she’s into computers.
Shape/quantity a novel in three parts; people flocked in their thousands to see her.
arrangement They sat in rows.
Language Say it in English.
Material I paid in cash; put it in writing; he wrote in pencil.

More on Prepositional Patterns

It should be noted that prepositions collocate with certain words for harmony. How prepositions
combine with other words in English sentences is known as prepositional patterns.
1. Prepositions with Verbs: abstain from alcohol, account for something, accuse (someone) of
stealing, agitate for salary increase, ask for a person, believe in God, boast of an achievement,
communicate with someone, dream of the future, rely on a person, wait for someone, etc.
Prepositions with Adjectives: absent from work, afraid of somebody or something, ashamed of
one’s action, familiar to somebody, familiar with something, loyal to a person, jealous of
someone, ready for work, qualified for a position, terrified of spiders, etc.
3. Prepositions with Nouns: admission to a school, authority on African Literature, debate on a
motion, doubts about his honesty, experience of teaching, key to success, taste of something,
solution to a problem, victim of racism, witness an event, etc.
CONJUNCTIONS
A conjunction can be defined as a linking word – one that
connects words, word groups, sentences or sentence groups.
Examples of conjunctions are: and, but, or, however, through, although, so, etc. Unlike adverbs,
conjunctions do not modify a verb or any other word.
They are used solely for the purpose of connecting. A conjunction is the glue which sticks words,
phrases and clauses together. In the sentence, Odo and Eze are friends, the conjunction ‘and’ is
used to connect the two proper nouns in the sentence. A conjunction can also be used to connect
two verbs: Will you drive or fly?
Kinds of Conjunctions
Four kinds of conjunctions can be identified: coordinating conjunctions, subordinating
conjunctions, correlative conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs.
Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions are used to connect two equal parts
of a sentence. They can be summarized by the acronym FAN
BOYS: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, SO. They perform different functions:
Additive Coordinating Conjunctions
The word ‘and’ is used to perform the additive function. It is used to add or join words together
in a sentence:
> Jim and I attended the seminar.
> We ate and drank at the restaurant.
Contrastive Coordinating Conjunctions
The word ‘but’ is used to perform the contrastive function. It used to show opposite or
conflicting ideas.
> Naaman was a mighty man of valour but he was a leper.
> Jane is small but strong.
“Yet” is similar to “but”, as it is used to introduce a contrasting
idea that follows the preceding idea logically:
> He comes to work everyday,
yet he never does any meaningful thing.
> He claims to be a Christian, yet he womanizes a lot.
Alternative Coordinating Conjunction
The coordinator “or” does this job. It is used to show choice or possibilities:
> Take it or leave it.
> The team will arrive today or tomorrow.
The word “nor” is used to present an alternative idea to an already stated negative idea:
> I do not like boxing nor wrestling. I just like football.
> Not a building nor a tree was left standing.
Subordinating Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction is used to introduce subordinate clauses; it joins the subordinate
clause to the rest of the sentence. Examples are: when, before, while, because, although, as, if,
how, as much as, since, in order that, in as much as, unless, provided, whenever, after, until,
though, so that, as if, as long as, even if, even though, till, where, than, that, if only, now that,
once, rather than, wherever, whereas.
A subordinating conjunction usually comes at the beginning of a subordinate or dependent
clause:
> Unless you hurry up, you’ll miss the flight.
> If I am elected president, I’ll construct a second bridge across the Niger.
> The rat plays when the cat is away.
Some of the subordinating conjunctions, such as before, since, after, until, also function as
prepositions. They function as subordinating conjunctions whenever they are used to begin a
subordinating clause. Their major function in a sentence is to link a noun clause or adverbial
clause (i.e. a subordinate clause) to a main clause to form a complex sentence. In doing this, they
express different ideas, such as place, time, manner, condition, purpose, result, cause or reason,
concession, etc. Thus, we can classify subordinating conjunctions according to the ideas they are
used to express; Place Conjunction: where, wherever, whither, whence, e.g.
a. Do you know where Davelives?
b. they were not mindful of whence they had come;
c. your shadow follows you wherever you go.
Time Conjunction: after, before, since, while, as, when, until, whenever, now that, till, as soon
as, etc., e.g.
a. he shot himself after he had shot his wife;
b. as soon as the teacher came in, the class became quiet;
c. before Jane went to bed, she prayed.
Manner Conjunction: as, as if, as though, so…as, than, e.g.
a. hetalks as if he were God;
b. he drank so much alcohol that he fell into the gutter on his way home;
c. Moses did as the Lord commanded him.
Condition Conjunction: if, unless, provided that, only if,
e.g. a. If it rains, the match will be cancelled;
b. we won’t go back to work unless we are paid our salaries;
c. you may be given admission provided that you meet the entry requirements.
Purpose Conjunction: that, in order that, in case, so that, lest, e.g. a. we eat that we may live;
b. he studied hard lest he should fail the exam;
c. Regina took an umbrella in case it rained.
Reason or Cause Conjunction: because, as, since, for, e.g.
a. as it was raining, I did not go anywhere;
b. I trust in God, for He is faithful;
c. Jack failed the test because he did not study.
Concession Conjunction: although, though, while, even if, nevertheless, whether…or, e.g.
a. although Lazarus is poor, he is honest;
b. he refused to give bribe even if he was sent to jail;
c. while I am willing to help, I do not have much time available.

Apposition Conjunction: that, e.g.

a. the theory that love is blind does not make sense to me;
b. the news that the war had ended came as a relief to the citizens;
c. he was arrested despite the fact that he was not present at the scene of the crime.
Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions are usually used in pairs to connect two or more linguistic constituents
that should be treated as grammatically equal.
Examples are: “both… and”, “either…or”, “neither…nor”, “whether…or”, as in:
Both Mary and Martha were friends of Jesus.
Either the president or his representative is expected at the occasion.
Whether you drive or fly doesn’t really matter as long as you arrive before the meeting starts.
Olu not only slapped Folu but also kicked her.
Conjunctive Adverbs
As earlier noted, conjunctions do the job of joining words, phrases or clauses together to clarify
what the speaker or writer is saying. They help to provide smooth transition from one idea to
another.
A conjunctive adverb is an adverb which does the job of connecting ideas. Conjunctive adverbs
include: also, then, accordingly, moreover, besides, nevertheless, consequently, next, conversely,
nonetheless, finally, otherwise, furthermore, similarly, hence, still, however, subsequently,
instead, therefore, likewise, thus, meanwhile.
A conjunctive adverb can join two main clauses – that is, it can behave like a coordinating
conjunction:
The team could not win the gold trophy; however, it won the silver.
> Joe didn’t have the relevant qualification for the job; otherwise, he would have been picked for
the job.
> The bride’s mother died a week before the wedding; hence, the wedding was postponed.
INTERJECTIONS
An interjection is a word or short group of words used to express strong feeling. The word
interjection is derived from a Latin word meaning ‘thrown between.’ It is therefore an
exclamation thrown into a sentence to express some strong feeling, such as surprise, joy, sadness,
pleasure, disappointment, pain, etc. It may be a real word or merely a sound. An interjection is
usually followed by an exclamation mark (!). Examples:
Feeling Interjection
Greeting Hello Jane, how are you? Hi, there! How are you doing?
Pain Oh! You’ve wounded me. Ouch! I’ve cut my finger.
Sadness Alas! I have no money.
Joy Hurrah! I’ve been picked for the job.
Surprise Gosh, is that the time? What! Good Heavens

QUESTIONS ON FIGURES OF SPEECH

Such questions ask you to identify figures of speech from the passage. Again, do not write your
answers to figurative expressions in sentences. Let’s illustrate:

(g) “…as solid as a rock”

What figure of speech is contained in this expression?
Answer: (g) Simile.
The Figures of Speech
A figure of speech has been described as a way of using language to convey or suggest meaning
beyond the literal meaning of the word(s). It has also been described as a word or phrase used in
a different way from its usual meaning in order to create a particular mental picture or effect.
There are many kinds of figures of speech. Let us take a look at some of them.
Hyperbole
Hyperbole is a figure of speech that uses exaggeration or overstatement for special effect.
It makes something sound better, greater, more exciting, or more dangerous etc. than it really is.
Examples:
 I’ve told you a million times to stop smoking.
 I was so hungry I could eat an elephant.
Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia is the use of words whose sounds suggest their meaning. It is the use of words
that imitate the sounds associated with the objects or actions they refer to. Such words contain
sounds similar to the noises they describe. Examples: bubbling, murmuring brooks, hiss, bang,
murmuring of innumerable bees, etc.
Simile
A simile is a word or phrase that compares something to something else using the words ‘like’,
‘as’, etc. Examples:
 The man was like a rock in those perilous times.
 Her dress was as white as snow.
Metaphor
A metaphor is a figure of speech that makes a comparison between two things without using any
word of comparison: like or as. Examples:
 Life is a dream.
 You are the light of the world.
 Jude is a tiger.
Personification
This is a figure of speech in which objects and animals are given human qualities. In
personification, an inanimate object or an abstraction is endowed with human qualities or
abilities. In other words, an object is portrayed as performing certain human activities like
smiling, sleeping, eating, singing, clapping, talking, etc. Examples:
 The sun smiled at us.
 Peace has fled the state since the terrorists began their bombings.
Irony
Irony is a form of expression in which the intended meaning is the opposite of what is said. It is
the use of words which say the opposite of what you really mean, often in order to make a
critical comment. When a writer or speaker says one thing and means something entirely
different, this is irony. Examples:
 You’ve broken the pot! What a careful person you are!
 People are dying of hunger now that we have the best government in our country.
Paradox
Paradox is a statement containing two opposite ideas that make it seem impossible or unlikely,
although it is probably true. It is a statement that seems to contradict itself. By saying two
opposite things, a paradox seems absurd at first sight but it reveals a kind of truth. Examples:
 If you want peace, you must go to war.
 Attack is the best form of defence.
 There is no crown without a cross.
Oxymoron
Oxymoron is like a paradox in the sense that it also combines opposite or contradictory terms.
In this figure of speech, two contradictory terms are placed side by side. It suggests a paradox,
but it does so very briefly, say in two or three words. Examples:
 The matter is an open secret.
 He can keep on talking for the whole night. He’s the probably the wisest fool I’ve ever seen.
 It was really a bitter sweet experience.
Antithesis
The word antithesis means the opposite of something. Love, for instance, is the antithesis of
selfishness. Antithesis as a figure of speech is the use of words or clauses which are the opposite
of each other, in order to express a contrast of ideas. Examples:
 To err is human and to forgive divine.
 United we stand, divided we fall.
 Wisdom builds a house but foolishness pulls it down.
Climax
The word climax is the most exciting or important event or point in time. As a figure of speech,
climax is made up of words that gradually move from the less important to the most important
point in the statement.
 I came, I saw, I conquered.
 Some liked him, some loved him, and others adored him.
Euphemism
Euphemism is an indirect word or phrase that people use to refer to something embarrassing or
unpleasant, sometimes to make it seem more acceptable than it really is. It is the use of a
favourable word or expression in place of an unpleasant or offensive one. In other words,
euphemism substitutes an inoffensive term for one considered offensively explicit. Examples:
 Mr. Williams passed on last night (died).
 Is there a gents near here? (public toilet for men)
 Could you tell me where the ladies is? (public toilet for women)
Synecdoche
Synocdoche is a figure of speech in which a part is used to represent the whole or the
whole for a part. Examples:
 All hands must be on deck (everybody).
 Two heads are better than one (two persons).
 Nigeria beat Ghana by two goals (Nigeria and Ghana are used to represent their teams
respectively).
Allusion
An allusion is a reference to a person, place, event, or other source meant to create an effect or
enrich the meaning of an idea.
 The man is seen as the Solomon of our time.
 I’ve discovered that he is really an Oliver Twist; give him what he asks for and he comes back
for more.
Metonymy
Metonymy is referring to something by the name of something else that is closely connected
with it. Examples:
 The pen (writer) is mightier than a sword (soldier).
 The youths of today have no respect for the gray hair (an aged person).
 The White House hasn’t taken an official stand on the issue.
USEFUL STEPS TO TAKEWHEN ANSWERING COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
1. Read the passage quickly to get an overview of what the passage is about.
2. Read the questions to know what exactly you are to look for in the passage.
3. Read the passage again, this time, more carefully, in order to get a full understanding of the
facts.
4. Go back to the questions; make sure you understand what is expected of you in each question:
look for the answer to each question from the passage.,
5. Write out your answers in a proper manner.
PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
WASSCE JUNE 2008 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 1 THEORY QUESTIONS
SECTION B COMPREHENSION
6. Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions on it.
I have great sympathy for the common fear that is suffered by young people when examinations
are looming ahead. Sometimes it is the actual examination they face but equally likely to excite
fear are the expectations of the parents who are keen on their offspring achieving good results.
Pressure in these circumstances only leads to more fear and often results in failures which could
be avoided.
My very last examination was an oral and I knew that everything depended on the kind of
impression I made on the government representative who, I expected, had difficult questions for
me. This, though, was not the only reason for my apprehension. As a youth, I was often teased
because I was small in stature. I was obsessed with it. I was very selfconscious, therefore, about
meeting this important man.
Fortunately, the previous day I had learned another lesson from nature, one which was to help
me in my face-to-face encounter with the examiner. I had been staying with my aunt and uncle in
order to do some last-minute preparations. I went through my books that afternoon, sitting
outside in the sunshine until about three o’clock when the weather took a turn for the worse. The
sky looked menacing and, as the clouds gathered in the distance, I heard the rumble of thunder.
The lovely sunny afternoon was changing to a dark and dismal evening. Several times I broke
my concentration to look at a very beautiful water lily in the pond. As I quickly gathered up my
books, I remembered the lily and went over to see it for the last time that day. I was just in time
to see the flower close its petals as the rumble of the distant thunder grew louder. I didn’t mind
getting wet as I realized that the rain could do nothing to damage the delicate, inner beauty of the
lily.
This simple act of nature restored my confidence and I realized that I too could muster courage
to face the examiner. I could, in fact, protect the inner me from the outside world. My new found
philosophy worked! Of the eight people who sat for the examination that day, only two
succeeded and the government representative congratulated me on being the youngest candidate
ever to have passed. I was lucky for I had learnt to control my obsession with my stature.
Questions
(a) According to the writer, what two things excite fear in young people going for examinations?
(b) Give two reasons for the writer’s apprehension before the examination.
© Why was the writer almost obsessed with his small stature?
(d) How did the observation of the lily affect the writer?
(e) What proof is there in the passage that the writer actually passed the exam?
(f) “The sky looked menacing…”
What figure of speech is contained in this expression?
(g) “…because I was small in stature”
(i) What grammatical name is given to this expression?
(ii) What is its function?
(h) For each of the following words find another word or phrase which means the same and
which can replace it as it is used in the passage:
(i) excite, (ii) offspring, (iii) apprehension, (iv) dismal, (v) delicate, (vi) muster.
Answers
(a) The two things that excite fear in young people going for examinations are:
(i) The examinations themselves.
(ii) The pressure from parents.
(b) The two reasons for the writer’s apprehension before the examination are:
(i) He expected that the examiner had difficult questions for him.
(ii) He was worried about his small stature.
© He was often teased because of his small stature.
(d) It restored his confidence and gave him the courage to face the examiner.
(e) The government representative congratulated him on being the youngest candidate ever to
have passed the exam.
(f) Personification.
(g) (i) Adverbial Clause of Reason.
(ii) Modifies the verb “teased”.
(h) (i) excite = cause
(ii) offspring = children
(iii) apprehension = anxiety
(iv) dismal = gloomy
(v) delicate = tender
(vi) muster = summon
VERB
A verb can be described as a word that expresses an action, an event or a state of existence. The
verb is a key word in a sentence. In fact, it is the heart of a sentence: every sentence must have a
verb. In other words, a sentence is incomplete without a verb. Some verbs describe events, as in:
Mary sang a song; Dan repaired the generator; Olu ate all the food; Kanu kicked the ball into the
net. Other verbs describe states such as: Mark knows Rose; Rose likes rice; The earth is
spherical.
Lexical and Auxiliary Verbs
Lexical Verbs
A lexical verb, also known as main verb, is a single word that can independently express the
action or state of the subject in a sentence. It is a content word and does not have to combine
with another verb in order to perform its function in a sentence. Examples of lexical verbs are:
work, play, sing, speak, give, cook, sleep, seem, appear, plant, harvest, swim, sweep, etc.
Auxiliary Verbs
An auxiliary verb is normally used with a main verb, as it cannot function alone in a sentence. It
is called a helping verb, because it helps to give further information about the verb. The auxiliary
adds something to the basic meaning of the main verb by helping to perform various functions,
such as passive voice, progressive aspect, perfect aspect, modality and emphasis.
Kinds of Auxiliaries
There are two kinds of auxiliaries in English: Primary and Modal. Primary auxiliaries differ from
modals in the sense that the primary auxiliaries can function as auxiliaries and also as main
verbs, while the modals can only function as auxiliaries.
Primary Auxiliaries
There are three primary auxiliary verbs: Be, Have and Do. Their major function is to express
mood and tense in the verbal phrase structure. The following examples help to illustrate the
capacity of the primary auxiliaries to function as auxiliaries and also as main verbs:
Forms Finite Main Verb Auxiliary
Am I am a Nigerian. I am singing songs.
Is Jesus is the good Shepherd. He’s doing it.
Are Jane and Rose are sisters. They are dancing.
Was The president was here. She was rejoicing.
Were They were in there. We were playing.
Has Joe has a house. He has won the prize.
Have I have a personal computer. I have bought a house.
Had I had the right to leave. It had been agreed.
Do I do exactly as he directs. I do not like boxing.
Does John does a lot of singing. He does not play piano.
Did I did a course in Economics. I did not like Mathematics.
Modal Auxiliaries
A modal auxiliary verb, also known as a modal verb or simply a modal, is a verb which modifies
another verb, so that the modified verb conveys more information. As its name implies, a modal
verb expresses modality. The modal verbs are: will, would, shall, should, can, could, may, might,
must, ought to, dare and need.
Functions of the Modals
The modal auxiliaries perform many communicative functions; they can be used to express the
mood of the speaker in various ways. Mood Examples
Willingness: I will help you with your homework later.
Will you help me carry this carton?
Intention: I’ll travel to Enugu tomorrow.
Insistence: Junior, why will you keep making a noise?
Prediction: Joan will have got the bad news by now.
A cube of sugar will dissolve in water.
Would
Mood Examples
Willingness Would you pay for my ticket?
She asked if I would help her with her homework.
Insistence: He stressed that he wouldn’t rescind the decisionn.
She said she would keep criticizing the bad policies of the
government.
Habitual: Every morning, the family would pray and sing.
She would go home once the class was dismissed.
Possibility: That would be my wife coming.
That would be the sound of a gunshot.
Hypothetical: If the lecturers had not embarked on The long strike, I
would have completed my university programme
before now.
If he had not gone into drug abuse, he wouldn’t have gone
mad.
Politeness: Would you shut the door, please?
I would like to have it in cash, if possible.
Purpose: Dick hid his money under the seat so that the robbers
would not take it from him.
The dubious cashier set the office ablaze so that people
would not discover the fraud.
Offer: Would you like a bottle of malt?
Would you come for dinner?
Preferences: I’d (I would) like a glass of water.
They’d rather die than worship a man-made god.
Shall
Legal: Members shall obey the rules and regulations of the
association.
 All citizens shall obey the constitution of the land.
Promise: The first ten subscribers shall get a bonus.
He that endures till the end shall be saved.
Intention: I shall travel to Kano tomorrow.
I shan’t be long.
Threat: Anyone who plays with fire shall be hurt.
No one shall escape!
Prediction: This time next week, I shall be in Enugu.
Unless business improves, we shall have no alternative but
to close the factory.
Offers: Shall I pay the money into your account?
Shall I get you a bottle of malt?
Instruction: Candidates shall remain in their seats until all the scripts
are collected.
Applicants shall come with their CV and relevant
credentials.
Should
Necessity: Pregnant women should visit the antenatal regularly.
Patients should obey their doctor’s instructions.
Obligation: Children should obey their parents.
Men should have only one wife.
Unexpectedness You shouldn’t say such a thing about Mary.
You shouldn’t have left your baby with a total stranger.
Advice: People should desist from smoking Indian hemp.
Youths should avoid premarital sex.
Hypothetical: I should move to a mansion in Ikoyi if I had money.
If I were asked to give bribe, I should reject the
contract.
Tentativeness: Should anyone want to see me, please tell them
I’m in a meeting.
 If you should require further information, do let me
know.
Purpose: The teacher explained the topic more clearly so
that the students should understand.
The police used teargas so that the rioters should
disperse.
Surprise: I arrived at the seminar and who should be
standing on the podium but Jude?
I opened the envelope and what should I find but a
letter of employment?
Politeness: I should be grateful if you would send me your
price list.
I should like to see the director, if you wouldn’t
mind.
Can
Ability: I can speak French.
John can drive.
Permission: You can use the car whenever you want.
Members can park their cars anywhere in the
premises.
Possibility: The Super Eagles can win the match if they show
greater determination.
We can complete the work on schedule.
Request: Can I use your pen?
Can you mend the tap for me?
Could
Ability: John could run well when he was a student.
I could speak Hausa well when I was working in
Kaduna.
Possibility: Emma could have just forgotten to call back, I
suppose.
 The match could end a goalless draw.
Permission: Junior could stay behind.
Martha could come in and live with us.
Request: Could you shut the door, please?
Could you lend me your pen?
May
Permission: May I come in?
You may come in if you wish.
Possibility: You may miss the flight if you don’t hurry up.
The contractor may discontinue the work if he is not
paid the money.
Purpose: There is need for more Federal universities, so that
our children may find it easier to gain
admission into the university.
The government should increase the minimum
wage so that workers may enjoy a better
standard of living.
Parents should instill discipline in their children so
that they may grow up as responsible
adults.
Politeness: May I ask why you changed your mind?
If I may just add one thing, there is a need for
urgent action in the power sector.
You look cute, if I may say so.
Wishes/Hopes: May your days be long!
May God grant you peace!
May peace reign in our land!
Information: Which village may she be from?
How much may he be asking for?
Who may have sent this text?
Might
Possibility: There might be some truth in what he said.
He might catch the flight, but I can’t be sure.
Permission: Might I use your pen?
Students might come with their parents.
Might I go to the bathroom?
Polite Suggestion: You might try calling the customer care center.
I thought we might visit the beach this weekend.
You might consider finishing your degree.
Must
Compulsion: Drivers must desist from drinking alcohol while
driving.
Candidates must answer only two questions.
Necessity: I must go to the bank and get some money.
Cars must not park in front of the entrance.
All visitors must report to the reception.
Recommendation We must get together soon for lunch.
You simply must read this book.
We must send Junior to the boarding school.
Strong Prediction: Austin must have missed his flight, since he is still
here.
You must be hungry after all that walking.
Ought
Necessity/Obligation: They ought to have apologized.
Such things ought not to be allowed.
Helen ought to have written to say thank you.
Expectation: Children ought to be able to speak their mother
tongue at the age of seven.
Doctors ought to be adequately remunerated.
Recommendation We ought to be leaving now.
You ought to try and persuade your sister to come
with you.
Probability: If he started out at four, he ought to be here by
now.
That ought to be enough food for two of us.
Oughtn’t the water to have boiled by now?
Dare
The modal ‘dare’ usually occurs in negated clauses and interrogatives; it is used to express
threat, anger and probability.
Threat: Don’t you dare say anything to anybody.
You dare not enter this room.
Dare you exchange words with me?
Anger: How dare you talk to me like that?
How dare she imply that I was lying?
How dare you slap my wife?
Probability: I dare say you know about it already.
I dare say Dan lied about his qualification.
I dare say the director is economical with the truth.
Need
Necessity: You need not go there in person.
You need not obey ungodly instructions.
Need you have paid so much?

Finite and Nonfinite Verbs

A finite verb form shows a particular tense, person and number, while a nonfinite form shows no
particular tense, person or number. The verb ‘be’, for instance has its finite forms as: am, is, are,
was and were; its nonfinite forms are: being and been.
A finite verb is needed in every main clause. It is marked for tense and aspect and needs a
subject, as in “He waited in front of the gate.” A nonfinite verb is not marked for tense or aspect
and does not need a subject, as in “having waited”, “waiting patiently”, “to wait”.
Another way of explaining the difference between finite and nonfinite verbs is that finite verbs
change in form according to person and number: I sing, he sings, you sing and they sing;
nonfinite verbs do not change: I like to sing, he likes to sing, you like to sing and they like to
sing.
The word ‘finite’ means limited and this implies that finite verbs are limited or affected by other
words in a sentence. Nonfinite verbs, on the other hands, cannot be changed or limited by other
words in a sentence.
Finite verbs obey certain rules, such as agreement with the subject, tense, aspect, voice and
mood. Nonfinite verbs, on the other hands, do not obey these rules; instead, they act like nouns,
and sometimes like adjectives, as in: “Singing is my delight”, “She has a beautiful singing
voice.” Moreover, nonfinite verbs do not make complete sense without taking other verbs, as
exemplified by the verbs working, written, cooking in the asterisked structures among the
following sentences:
 Christie works in the bank.
 She writes books.
She written many books.
She cooking.
Regular and Irregular Verbs
Regular verbs change their form in the same way as most other verbs. Regular verbs have the
following similar forms:
1. V-base base form work call talk
2. V-s -s form works calls talks
3. V-ed1 past worked called talked
4. V-ing pres. Participle working calling talking
5. V-ed2 past participle worked called talked
As shown above, the base of a regular verb is used to predict other forms of the verb. The base is
the form listed in dictionaries, and you can predict the s-form from this base, as in: work > he
works. As Quick and Greenbaum point out, the s-form “has three spoken realizations: /iz/, /z/
and /s/, and two spellings, -s and –es.
The (iz) pronunciation is used after bases ending in voiced or voiceless sibilants, and they are
spelled –es unless the base already ends in –e: push ~ pushes camouflage ~ camouflages pass ~
passes budge ~ budges catch ~ catches lodge ~ lodges
The /z/ pronunciation comes after bases ending in other voiced sounds, and they are spelled –s:
move ~ moves grab ~ grabs wag ~ wags call ~ calls term ~ terms scrub ~ scrubs
The /s/ pronunciation, which is spelled –s, is used after bases ending in other voiceless sounds:
tap ~ taps cut ~ cuts work ~ works lock ~ locks sap ~ saps dig ~ digs
The –ing form is added directly to the base, as in: pass ~ passing, call ~ calling, and push ~
pushing.
As earlier noted, the past and past participle of regular verbs are spelled –ed unless the base ends
in –e; they have three spoken realizations:
Pronounced /id/ after bases ending in /d/ and /t/, e.g. add ~ added, pat ~ patted.
Pronounced /d/ after bases ending in voiced sounds other
than /d/, e.g. budge ~ budged, lodge ~ lodged.
Pronounced /t/ after bases ending in voiceless sounds other
than /t/, e.g. lock ~ locked, pass ~ passed.

What can be deduced from the above examples is that regular verbs obey both phonological and
spelling rules. The spelling rule of doubling the consonant, for instance, applies to final base
consonants spelled with a single letter and preceded by a vowel letter which is stressed, as in:
permit ~ permitting ~ permitted, bar ~ barring ~ barred. On the other hand, the doubling rule
does not apply when the vowel is unstressed or written with two letters, e.g. enter ~ entering ~
entered, dread ~ dreading ~ dreaded. The deletion of –e before the –ing and –ed inflections is
another spelling rule obeyed by regular verbs, e.g. shave ~ shaving ~ shaved; move ~ moving ~
moved;
There are however various exceptions to these rules, and there are also cases where BrE spellings
vary from AmE, e.g. signal ~ signalling ~ signaled (BrE) and signal ~ signaling ~ signaled
(AmE); travel ~ travelling ~ travelled (BrE) and travel ~ traveling ~ traveled (AmE); worship ~
worshipping ~ worshipped (BrE) and worship ~ worshiping ~ worshiped (AmE).
Irregular Verbs, on the other hand, are verbs that have an irregular past simple and an irregular
past participle. Unlike the regular verbs which are spelled –ed, irregular verbs do not follow a
regular pattern of change. Examples:
Infinitive Past Simple Past Participle
arise arose arisen
awake awoke awoken
bear bore borne (US ALSO born)
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
drink drank drunk
eat ate eaten
sing sang sung
write wrote written
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
Transitive verbs must have an object, while intransitive verbs do not take an object.
Transitive Verbs
Transitive verbs, such as steal, kick, slap, kill, break, build, etc., require an object to make them
complete in a sentence. Examples:
Jack slapped Judith.
Okocha kicked the ball into the net.
Obi stole a piece of fish.
Transitive Verbs and Passive Voice
Transitive verbs can take passive voice e.g.
a. Judith was slapped by Jack;
b. The ball was kicked into the net by Okocha;
c. A piece of fish was stolen by Obi. Intransitive verbs cannot take passive voice.
Monotransitive and Ditransitive Verbs
Transitive verbs which take one object are called monotransitive verbs e.g.
a. He broke the cup;
b. She won the race;
c. I saw the flames.
Ditransitive verbs are those which take two objects e.g.
a. Mark gave Mary a ring; John bought her a car. Thus, monotransitive verbs take only a direct
object, while ditransitive verbs take both a direct object and an indirect object.
Transitive Verbs that Take a Clause as Object
Some transitive verbs usually take a clause instead of a noun or a pronoun.
Used with that-clauses
Verbs such as know, think, believe, discover, find, observe, see, hope, expect, say, answer,
explain, decide, resolve, etc can be used with a finite that-clause e.g.
Anya dreamed that he was driving a jeep.
I discovered that my handset was missing.
We hope that you will visit us during the holiday.
The Minister explained that the fuel subsidy removal was good for the economy.
The students regret that Mr. Wise left.
Used with Wh-clauses
Verbs that express verbal or mental processes, such as insist, ask, realize, explain, believe, etc
can take a wh-clause as their direct object or prepositional object e.g.
 Julie believed what her husband told her.
 The director asked why the factory was closed.
 You can’t imagine how much she knows about the matter.
I don’t know whether you have heard the sad new.
Intransitive Verbs
Intransitive verbs do not take an object. In other words, only one participant is involved in the
action expressed by the verb.
Intransitive verbs can be subdivided into two major groups: pure intransitives, and intransitives
requiring a complement.
Pure Intransitives
Some verbs like rain, disappear, rise, fade, materialize, snow, elapse, etc. are always used
without any object. Most pure intransitives are used to express involuntary or semi involuntary
behavior, such as sneeze, yawn, cough, sleep, collapse, die, cry, tremble, blink, blush, scream,
faint, etc. Examples:
It’s raining.
The clouds disappeared.
The sun rose.
It is snowing.
Mabel fainted. Okonkwo coughed.
The baby is crying. The man died.
The woman screamed.
Intransitives Requiring a Complement
Verbs of position like live, stand, hang, lie and verbs of movement such as stroll, walk, sail, slip,
usually require a locative or directional complement to complete their meaning, e.g.
 She strolled towards the beach.
 The Museum stands near the lake.
The ship sailed out of the harbour.
 The baby was lying in a manger.
Verbs Used both Transitively and Intransitively
Many English verbs can be used with or without an object. In other words, they can be used both
transitively and intransitively. Examples:
Intranistive Use Transitive Use
Can you drive? I can drive a car.
Joe doesn’t drink. Henry drinks alcohol.
I have started saving. He saves money.
Mike teaches. I teach English.
Ngozi writes. She writes novels.
The boy was waving. She wave her hand.
She told me. She told me the truth.
He promised me. I promised him a car.
Inchoative, Causative and
Ergative Verbs
These are terms used in describing verbs according to the type of action or change they express.
Inchoative Verbs
Verbs are described as inchoative if they express a change of state that happens on its own, e.g.
The door opened.
The bell rang.
The window broke.
The balloon burst.
The branches shook.
The water boiled.
The cakes burned.
The kite flew.
The ball rolled.
Causative Verbs
Causative verbs are verbs that express a cause. Such verbs indicate that somebody or something
is indirectly responsible for an action. The subject doesn’t perform the action itself, but causes
someone or something else to do it. Causative verbs include: let, make, have, get, etc.
Examples:
 She won’t let her daughter attend the party.
 Mary made her children do their homework.
 Mr. Williams had the mechanic service his car.
They are to get people to stop smoking.
 I had my computer fixed.
Ergative Pairs
The word ergative is used to describe verbs that can be used in both a transitive and an
intransitive way with the same meaning, where the object of the transitive verb is the same as the
subject of the intransitive verb. Examples:
Open: James opened the door.
The door opened.
Ring: Grace rang the bell.
The bell rang.
Break: Oyodo broke the pot.
The pot broke.
Burst: Junior burst the balloon. The balloon burst.
Shake: The wind shook the branches. The branches shook.
Boil: Esther boiled the water.
The water boiled.
Burn: Judith burned the cakes. The cakes burned.
Fly: The child flew the kite.
The kite flew.
Roll: Henry rolled the ball. The ball rolled.
Grow: Lucy grew flowers.
Flowers grew in her garden.
Stative and Dynamic Verbs
Verbs in English can be divided into two classes: stative and dynamic.
Stative Verbs
As the name implies, stative verbs usually refer to a state or condition which is static or
unchanging. They can be subdivided into the following classes:
Relational verbs: be, belong, consist, cost, depend, own. Seem, sound, possess, etc.
Verbs of perception: see, hear, smell, feel, taste
Verbs of cognition: know, think, understand, recognize, etc.
Verbs of affectivity: love, hate, like, dislike, detest
Stative verbs CANNOT be used in progressive or continuous forms. Examples:
Dangote owns many trailers.
Not: Dangote is owning many trailers.
 Can you hear me? Not: Are you hearing me?
 I know the answer. Not: I am knowing the answer.
 Jane likes rice. Not: Jane is liking rice.
Dynamic Verbs
Dynamic verbs describe actions we can take or things that can happen. They are sometimes
called ‘action verbs’. Dynamic verbs can be classified as either durative or punctual. Durative
verbs express actions or events that have ‘duration’ (i.e. that continue for some time), e.g. play,
walk, sing, read, cook, write, dance, eat, wash, rain, sing, etc. Punctual verbs on the other hand,
express actions that take place within a short time (i.e. momentary actions), e.g. jump, blink,
drop, sneeze, catch, kick, hit, slap, stab, shoot, smash, break, slam, explode, etc.
When a durative verb is put into a progressive tense, it means that the event is (or was) going on
over a period of time. On the other hand, the progressive tense of a punctual verb has a special
meaning, since the event referred to, does not continue for a period of time.
Thus, when used in the continuous or progressive tense, they indicate either repetition or
approach of the event, e.g. Jack was throwing stones at us (i.e. doing it repeatedly or doing it
habitually. Similarly, ‘Jane told us that her father’s plane was arriving’ does not refer to
‘arriving’ as an ongoing event but to the approach of the event (i.e. the plane would arrive very
soon).
It is therefore necessary to differentiate between durative and punctual verbs when reporting
specific events in which the duration of the action is significant. This is done by the use of –ing
form for durative verbs and the base form for the punctual verbs, e.g.
 I watched my elder sister cooking supper.
 We watched the python swallow a big hen.
 I saw Mike dive into the river.
 I watched him swimming towards the bank.
 I saw Jack listening to the radio.
 I later saw him smash the radio to pieces.
 We all saw Veronica hit
Jude on the head with her umbrella.
Did you see him jab her in the ribs with his finger?  I watched Jack and Jude arguing with each
other about money.
 I saw Jack slap Jude hard across the face.
Linking Verbs
A linking verb is a verb that connects a subject with its complement, usually an adjective or a
noun. The complement comes after the linking verb, such as be or become, and it describes the
subject, e.g.
 Mr. Okon was our sales He became a director last year.
 Susan felt ashamed.
As shown above, a linking verb connects the subject to a word in the predicate part of the
sentence. Consider the following sentence patterns with linking verbs:
Subject+Linking Verb+Adjective= Jude is fat.
Subject+Linking Verb+Noun or Pronoun= Jude is a man.
Other Linking Verbs are:
Appear become feel get
Grow seem taste smell
Remain stay look turn
Sound prove
Verbs used as either Linking or Action Verbs:
Verb Linking Action
Appear: He appears healthy. He appeared here.
Look: She looked sad. She looked for food.
Taste: The soup tasted good. John tasted the soup.
Grow: Jane grew tired.
She grew flowers in her garden.
State-of-Being Verbs
A state-of-being verb is usually a linking verb. It does not tell what the subject is doing but
simply states what it is. Stateof-being verbs are intransitive – that is, they cannot take a direct
object. They are forms of be: is, am, was, are, were, be, being, been.

State-of-being verbs can function as the main verb of a sentence, and they can also be used as a
helping verb.
 Rose is a girl (as a main verb).
 She is writing a letter (as a helping verb).
Helping verbs do not stand alone; they ‘help’ the main verb with which they combine to form a
verb phrase. Examples of commonly used helping verbs are:
am: I am writing a book.
is: John is working in the garden.
was: Mark was doing his homework when I entered his room.
are: They are singing at the assembly now.
been: The children have been playing since morning.
were: Students were told to come with their school fees.
may: You may go home now.
being: The road is being constructed by Julius Berger.
might: He studied hard that he might pass the exam.
must: We must leave at once.
do: Do write and let me know how you are getting on.
be: I will be traveling to London.
ADJECTIVES
An adjective is a word which modifies or gives more information about a noun or pronoun.
Adjectives give details about size, shape, colour, number, quality and various other descriptors.
Consider the following sentence: A big black cat ran into the small hut.
The adjectives big and black tell us about the size and colour of the cat. On the other hand, the
word small describes the size of the hut. As we can see here, the work of adjectives is to give
more information about the nouns cat and hut respectively.
Examples of adjectives are: a/an, the, beautiful, big, interesting, old, young, etc.
Consider the underlined words in the following: My father was an honest man. I love and respect
honest persons. It is interesting to find an old or young person who is honest.
Adjective can be attributive, as in ‘This is a fascinating novel. It can be predicative: ‘This novel
is fascinating. It can also be substantive: ‘There is a great disparity between the rich and the poor
in this country.’
There is also post-positive adjective: ‘Give me something reasonable.
An adjective can be modified by an adverb, or a phrase, or a clause serving as an adverb. In the
sentence, ‘Blossom is an absolutely stunning woman,’ for example, the adverb ‘absolutely’
modifies the adjective ‘stunning’.
Types of Adjectives
Adjectives of Quality: They describe the quality which a person or thing has:
The Lord is good.
The woman is kind.
Adjectives of Size: They tell us about the size of the person or thing being talked about:
That tall boy is the class captain.
They live in a large house.
Adjectives of Shape:
These glasses suit people with round faces.
People used to think the earth was flat or round, but the earth is spherical.
Adjectives of Age:
The young man greeted the old man.
Mr. Okon bought a new car yesterday.
Adjectives of Colour, e.g. white, black, green, red, yellow, blue, orange, purple, pink, etc.
Adjectives of Nationality or Origin:
He bought a Japanese car.
He married an American woman.
Possessive Adjectives: These are identical to possessive pronouns (my, your, his, her, its, our
and their), but they are used as modifiers:
Your house is not far from the venue of our next meeting.
Mrs. Williams represented her husband on the occasion; she also received the prize on his behalf.
Demonstrative Adjectives: This, that, these and those are like demonstrative pronouns but when
they are used to modify nouns or noun phrases, they are known as demonstrative adjectives:
This house belongs to Uncle Eze; those women at the gate are his wives.
These files should be kept inside that drawer.
Interrogative Adjectives: Interrogative adjectives (which and what) are like interrogative
pronouns, but are used to modify nouns and noun phrases
Which boys broke the windscreen?
What book did the lecturer recommend?
Indefinite Adjectives: These resemble indefinite pronouns, but they are used as modifiers:
Many men beat their wives.
Some wives beat up their husbands.
All dogs are animals.
Jesus fed the multitude with a few loaves of bread.
Using Adjectives to Make Comparisons
Adjectives can be used to compare nouns or pronouns.
Their forms are positive, comparative and superlative:
John is tall.
James is taller than John.
Peter is the tallest.
Some adjectives have irregular forms of positive, comparative and superlative usage:
Good/better/best.
Bad/worse/worst.
Little/less/least.
Rules for Using Comparatives
1. Most one-syllable words add ‘r’ and ‘st’ (or ‘er’ and ‘est’) to form the comparative and
superlative respectively: fine-finer-finest, large-larger-largest, small-smaller-smallest, quick-
quicker quickest, slow-slower- slowest, cheap-cheaper- cheapest, etc.
2. If the adjective ends in a consonant-vowel-consonant combination (CVC), double the final
consonant before adding ‘er’: wet-wetter-wettest, hot-hotter-hottest, big-bigger-biggest, fat-
fatter- fattest, thin-thinner-thinnest, etc.
3. If the adjective ends in ‘y’ change ‘y’ to ‘ier’ and ‘iest’ for the comparative and superlative
respectively:
happy-happier-happiest, friendly-friendlier-friendliest, ugly-uglier-ugliest, dirty-dirtier-dirtiest,
smelly-smellier-smelliest, etc.
4. Adjectives with two or more syllables take more/most or less/least: careful-more careful-most
careful, intelligent-more intelligent, most intelligent, difficult-more difficult-most difficult,
dangerous-more dangerousmost-dangerous, etc.
5. Adjectives ending in ed, ing, re, ful, ous and those with the stress on the first syllable usually
take more and most: interesting-more interesting-most nteresting, famous, learned, obscure,
wonderful, dangerous, etc.
6. Adjectives ending in er, y, le, ow and those with stress on the second syllable add er and est to
the positive degree: narrow-narrower-narrowest, clever-cleverer-cleverest, pretty-prettier-
prettiest,etc.
7. Some two-syllable adjectives can take either ‘er/est’ or more/most:
wealthy-wealthier wealthiest (more/most wealthy), handsomehandsomer-handsomest (more/most
handsome),
simple-simpler-simplest (more/most simple) deadly-deadlier-deadliest (more/most deadly) etc.
8. Some adjectives form their comparative and superlative degrees in an irregular way: good-
betterbest, bad-worse-worst, much-more-most, little-lessleast, in-inner-innermost, out-outer-
outermost, farfarther- farthest, etc.
9. Some adjectives cannot be compared because of their fixed meaning: round, square, wrong,
right, empty, circular, monthly, etc.
10. Double comparative – that is, both ‘er’ and more, cannot be used at the same time:
Wrong: Honey is more better than sugar.
Correct: Honey is better than sugar.
Compound Adjectives
A compound adjective is an
Adjective that consists of more than one word. In other words, compound adjectives are two or
more words to modify a noun (e.g. twelve-year-old girl, part-time student, etc).
Compound adjectives are usually hyphenated when they precede a noun (e.g. a well deserved
award) but not when they come after a noun (the award was well deserved.
Compound adjectives are formed in a variety of ways:
1. Adjective+Adjective, e.g. red-hot, dark blue, bright yellow, light brown, etc.
2. Adjective+Present/Past Participle, e.g. goodlooking, easy-going, coldblooded, absent-minded,
big-headed, quick-witted,
etc.
3. Noun+Adjective, e.g. airtight, sky-blue, trouble-free, world famous, etc.
4. Adverb+Participle, e.g. ready-made, far-fetched, socalled, etc.
5. Number+Noun, e.g. one eyed man, seven-man committee, eleven-man team, ten-and-a-half-
yearold child, sixteen-week
semester, three-bedroom flat, etc.
6. Number+Past Participle, e.g. four-footed beast, three-legged stool, etc.
7. Noun+Present Participle, e.g. heart-warming, mindblowing, mouth-watering, money-making
venture, football-loving fans, thought-provoking, etc.
8. Noun+Past Participle, e.g. home-made, hand-woven, machine-made, man-made, London-
trained, homegrown, etc.
9. Preposition+Noun, e.g. overdue, underhand, etc.
10. Preposition+Participle, e.g. outspoken, outstanding, outstretched, overdeveloped,
overcrowded,
underprivileged, underrepresented, underresourced, etc.
Adjectives Word Oder
There is an appropriate word order for adjectives. In other words, adjectives fall into different
categories, which determine the one that comes before the other within the structure of a noun
phrase. This is why we can say “the beautiful new red Japanese car” but not “the Japanese red
beautiful new car.”
Sometimes you may want to use more than one adjective to describe a noun. You cannot just put
the wherever you want.
Always remember there is a proper way of arranging them in order. Let’s assume you want to
describe a car that is new and is also green. Will you say a new green car or a green new car? A
new green car is correct. From this example we can see there a particular order in which
adjectives are to be arranged in a sentence. A green new car doesn’t sound correct naturally.
So let’s look at the exact order of adjectives before a noun in a
sentence. The order is as follows: Determiner > Opinion > Size > Age > Shape > Colour >
Origin > Material > Purpose, e.g some fine small new round brown Chinese metal frying pans =
DOSASCOMP.
Some adjectives usually come only after a linking verb: the order is to-be + adjective, e.g. is
afraid, is alive, is asleep, is ill, is sure. Other adjectives that are used only after a linking verb are:
alone, glad, content, sorry, well, bored, annoyed, finished, pleased, thrilled, etc. Other adjectives
that usually come before a noun are sometimes used after a linking verb as well, e.g. Rose is
brilliant, Damian is tall. Adjectives can appear before a noun: the order is adjective + noun, e.g.
good boy, beautiful girl.
Note that the order of adjectives before a noun is not fixed. What we have discussed is to serve
as a guide. It’s rare for people to use more than two or three adjectives in their everyday
conversations.
Simple rules:
1. Opinions come before facts, e.g. She wore a beautiful blue silk blouse.
A. He gave an interesting new idea about the project.
2. General ideas come before specific ideas, e.g.
A. A long wooden table
B. A small Japanese car
More Examples of DOSASCOMP:
Determiner: the, a/an, and other limiters, as in the man, a dog, his wife, etc.
Opinion/Observation: a beautiful woman, an interesting book, a flashy car, etc.
Size: big, small, little, large, etc.
Age: old, young, new, antique.
Shape: long, short, square, long stemmed, etc.
Colour: red, brown, white, blue, sea-green, etc.
Origin: Japanese, Nigerian,Italian, American, English, Chinese, French, etc.
Material: wooden, silk, silver, copper – describing what something is made of.
Purpose: race car, vacation resort, touring car, basketball players, wedding dress, etc. It is often
an integral part of the noun.
The following are examples of how the royal order of adjectives is applied:
> The tall old English man.
> An expensive new American sports car.
> Her long-flowing brown hair.
> A dilapidated large yellow bus.
Five handsome tall young men.
> A big round old wooden mortar.
> Some delicious Chinese food.
> A beautiful little young Nigerian girl
The Use of Commas
Equal adjectives should be separated by commas, as in: “a beautiful, expensive new Italian car.”
The words “beautiful” and “expensive” are equal adjectives – that is, both of them belong to the
same category (opinion or observation adjectives) in the royal order. This means that when using
a string of adjectives, you have to be mindful of both the proper order and of the fact that you
need to use commas to separate only adjectives that belong to the same category. You need not
use commas to separate adjectives which belong to different categories, e.g. an expensive red
Japanese car.
ADVERBS
An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb. Adverbs tell us about
the action – that is, they modify verbs. They can disclose how, when, where, why or to what
extent an action is taken.
Adverbs can modify adjectives and adverbs as well. Examples: honestly, quietly, very, well,
slowly, etc. Consider the underlined words in the following: Moses was very angry. He angrily
struck the rock instead of speaking to it as instructed by God.
Consequently, he missed the Promised Land.
Most adverbs (but not all) end in –ly, such as quickly, beautifully, sincerely, etc. As can be seen
here, an adjective can be made into an adverb by adding –ly.
Other examples are: honest > honestly, nice > nicely, absolute > absolutely, complete >
completely, etc. It should be noted, however, that not all words that end in –ly are adverbs.
Examples: friendly, lovely and ugly are adjectives; supply and reply are verbs, etc.
Kinds of Adverbs
There are different kinds of adverbs, such as adverbs of time, frequency, place, manner, degree,
relative and interrogative adverbs.
Adverbs of Time
These include adverbs which answer the question “when?”
Examples are today, tomorrow, now, then, soon. Adverbs of time can also tell us of the duration
of something, such as since, for, briefly, etc.
> I will travel to Enugu tomorrow.
> Jesus is coming soon.
Adverbs of Frequency
These tell us about frequency of occurrence – that is, how often something happens. Examples
are: once, twice, usually, daily, always, often, never, frequently, occasionally, sometimes,
regularly, etc.
> I take my bath daily.
> He comes here twice a week.
Adverbs of Place
These adverbs indicate the place where something occurs, thus answering the question “where?”
Examples are: here, there, everywhere, and somewhere.
> Mark hid his purse somewhere.
> We went there for shopping.
Adverbs of Manner
Adverbs of manner usually provide answer to the question “how?” Examples are: quickly,
slowly, gently, honestly, happily, well, fast. Such adverbs usually come after the verbs they
modify:
> Johnson ran quickly into the room.
> You have spoken well.
Adverbs of Degree
They answer the question “how much?” or “to what extent?”
Examples: very, quite, rather, etc.
She is very beautiful.
Tim works extremely fast.
Relative Adverbs
These are: when, where, and why, as in:
> I saw Adamu when he was boarding the bus.
> I met Olu where he was playing with Folu.
> I wondered why he did such a thing.
Interrogative Adverbs
These are similar to relative adverbs – when, where, why and how. The difference is that
interrogative adverbs are used for asking questions. They are usually placed at the beginning of a
question:
>Why didn’t you come to school yesterday?
> When does the station open?
> How are you?
> Where do you live?
Mobility of Adverbs
Most adverbs can occur at the initial, middle or final positions in a sentence. They are mobile, as
in the following examples:
> Occasionally, I visit the library.
> I occasionally visit the library.
> I visit the library occasionally.
Comparisons with Adverbs
Some adverbs are similar to adjectives in terms of comparability. Adverbs like these can be used
to compare actions as to time or manner.
Like adjectives, they have three degrees of comparison – positive, comparative and superlative:
Positive Comparative Superlative
Late later latest
Soon sooner soonest
Hard harder hardest
High higher highest
Early earlier earliest
Some adverbs do not add –er and –est, but they use “more” or “less” before them for their
comparative form and “most” or “least” for their superlative form. Examples are: gracefully,
more gracefully, most gracefully; beautifully, less beautifully, least beautifully; etc.
Some adverbs are irregular in the formation of their comparative and superlative forms, such as:
well, better, best; much, more, most; far, farther, farthest (for distance); far, further, furthest (for
distance, time and abstract).
Rules for Using Adverbs
1. Most adverbs are formed by adding –ly to adjectives, changing e to y, changing y to i and
adding –ly, etc., e.g. honest-honestly, beautiful beautifully, humble-humbly, easy-easily, etc.
2. Some adverbs retain the same form as the adjectives, e.g. fast, hard, late, daily, early, etc.
3. When an adverb modifies an adjective or another adverb, it usually comes before the word it
modifies, e.g. she is a stunningly beautiful girl, he was ostentatiously dressed, it rained very
heavily yesterday, etc.
4. When an adverb modifies a verb, its position is not usually fixed, e.g. Occasionally, I visit the
library, I occasionally visit the library, I visit the library occasionally, etc.
6. An adverb comes before or after a verb used intransitively, e.g. the team performed well in
their last match, some people erroneously believe that the earth is round, etc.
7. An adverb usually comes after the direct object of a verb which is used transitively, e.g they
sang the song badly, the robbers beat Jack mercilessly, Junior threw the cup away, etc.
8. An adverb is usually placed after a prepositional phrase, e.g. he looked at us angrily, she spoke
to her uncle rudely, etc.
9. Adverbs of frequency (such as always, often, never, sometimes, etc.) usually come before the
main verb, e.g. Dad doesn’t usually travel by night, Aboki often comes late to school, etc.
10. Adverbs of frequency usually come after the verb ‘to be’, e.g. Jude is sometimes late for
work, Jane has proved to be very serious in her studies, etc.
11. Adverbs are usually placed between an auxiliary verb and its participle, e.g. he just
completed the project,
I have never been to Kafanchan, etc.
12. The words ‘good’ and ‘well’ are used as adjective and adverb respectively in Standard
British English: they are not interchangeable, e.g. ‘I did good in the exam’ is wrong, but ‘I did
well in the exam’ is correct; you can say ‘I obtained good marks in the exam’ (here, ‘good’ is
correctly used as an adjective).
13. Adverbs are sometimes placed at the beginning of a sentence, e.g. Quickly, I changed my
mind, etc.
PREPOSITIONS
A preposition is a word which shows relationships among other words in the sentence. It links
nouns, pronouns and phrases to other words in a sentence. The word preposition is derived from
a Latin word meaning ‘placed before.’
Prepositions are usually placed before a noun or pronoun to show direction, place, source,
position, time, cause, manner or amount. Examples:
Eze went to the market (direction).
Jude came by bus (manner).
Mary is inside the room (place).
The President will visit Lagos on Monday (time).
The lecturer will be here at two (time).
The car was manufactured in Japan (source).
As shown above, a preposition usually goes with a noun or pronoun, which functions as the
object of the preposition. A preposition shows the temporal, spatial or logical relationship of its
object to other words in the sentence. The preposition and its object together constitute a
prepositional phrase. The prepositional phrases in the above sentences are: (1) to the market,
(2) by bus, (3) inside the room, (4) on Monday, (5) at two, and (6) in Japan.
Prepositions may be single words such as in, at, on, to or they may consist of two or more words
such as in spite of, instead of, in front of, apart from, because of, etc.
Some prepositions, such as within, over, out, along, through, behind, about, by, down, outside,
in, up, etc., function as adverbs:
 Obi looked out.
 Benson walked outside.
Rules for Using Prepositions
1. Prepositions are usually followed by a noun or a pronoun, a verb with –ing, or a wh-
clause, e.g. a. the book is on the table; b. on getting home, I saw…; c. there is no point in
waiting for them; d. she is interested in music; e. he punished Junior for breaking the cup; f. let’s
talk about what we are going to do; g. this is my beloved son in whom I am well pleased, etc.
2. Prepositions can sometimes be used at the end of a clause or sentence, especially with wh-
questions, relative clauses, exclamations, passives and some infinitive clauses, e.g. a. Which
one are you interested in? b. This is the book I was talking about. c. Who are you talking to? d. It
has been taken care of, etc.
3. Prepositions can be used to express different kinds of relationship, such as reason, situation,
manner, means, purpose, destination, agent, instrument, reaction, e.g. a. Christ died for me
(reason); b. she spoke in a soft voice (manner); c. Cynthia was preparing for the party (purpose);
d. he left for Enugu (destination); e. she cut the rope with a knife (instrument); f. the book is on
the table (position), g. I once lived in Kaduna (location); h. I saw the boys running across the
field (movement); i. the meeting will start at 4.00 p.m., etc.
4. Prepositions Showing Place: Preposition Used For Examples
a. IN continents in Asia, in Africa countries in Ghana, in France, states in Ogun, in Abia, cities,
towns in Enugu, in Owerri, buildings in the Glass House,
b. ON streets on Martins Street on Awolowo Road, on Ring Road, Benin on Market Road,
c. AT numbers at 66 Kiri-Kiri Road, of houses at 12 Effurun Road, buildings at the State House
at Louis Edet House
Prepositions Showing Time: Preposition Used For Examples
a. IN months in April, in October, years in 1960, in 1984, period in the evening length of time in
a week’s time,
b. ON days of the week on Mondays, dates on October 1st,
c. AT time of day at seven thirty; at noon; at dusk;
5. Sundry Prepositions and Their Uses Preposition Used For Examples
a. FOR period of time I was there for two days.
destination Is this the bus for Kano?
Reason/cause an award for bravery.
Purpose/function a pot for cooking food.
support for or against the proposal
recipient There’s a letter for you.
help What can I do for you?
Representation I am speaking for the youths.
Responsibility It’s for you to decide.
b. BEFORE point of time We’ll leave at 5 p.m.
position He knelt before the throne.
future task The task before us is a daunting one.
presence He was brought before the judge.
reaction They retreated before the enemy.
c. SINCE time duration She has been off work since
Monday.
d. FROM point of departure Has the bus from Owerri arrived?
starting time He was blind from birth.
origin The letter is from my brother.
She is from Togo.
distance Our house is a few meters from the road.
removal The party was ousted from power.
prevention She was saved from drowning.
reason She felt sick from tiredness.
judgment From what I heard Jack is in deep trouble.
e. WITH company Jane lives with her parents.
carrying The man with a suitcase is my uncle.
instrument Cut it with a knife.
contents The bag was stuffed with dirty clothes.
opposition I had an argument with my boss.
manner He behaved with great
dignity. result Her fingers were numb with cold.
Skill comes with practice.
possession The keys are with the gateman.
physical features The girl with a red hair is an air hostess.
f. AFTER point of time They arrived shortly after seven.
reason I’ll never forgive him after what he said.
pursuit The police are after him.
concern/inquiry He asked after you.
resemblance Lucy takes after her mother.
g. ON possession friend of mine; the works of Soyinka.
membership a director of the company
subject/reflection a story of passion; a map of Africa.
measurements/ 5 kilos of potatoes; a discount of 10%
expression of time the tenth of March
h. BEHIND back position We live behind the stadium.
Less progress He is behind the rest of the class.
Support Whatever you decide, we’re behind you.
Initiator He was behind the plan to build the bridge.
i. UNDER position The cat is lying under the table.
Quantity/age/time His annual income is under N2m.
It’s illegal for anyone under
18.
It took him under an hour.
Authority/control She has a staff of 20 working
under her.
Process The matter is still under investigation.
Reason/result Her health broke down under the pressure of work.
j. IN point in space It’s in that drawer; a country in Europe.
Position She’s lying in bed; sitting in an armchair.
Inward movement He dipped his brush in the paint; he got in his car
and drove off.
Period of time in the 19th century; in May, in 1981; in the Morning.
length of time It will be ready in a week’s time; she learnt to drive in three
weeks.
Dressing They were dressed in their best clothes; Anne was all in
black.
Physical surroundings Junior went out in the rain; he was sitting alone in darkness.
State/condition They are in love with each other; put your house in
order; a man in his forties.
Participation to act in a play
Job/profession He is in the army; she’s into computers.
Shape/quantity a novel in three parts; people flocked in their thousands to see her.
arrangement They sat in rows.
Language Say it in English.
Material I paid in cash; put it in writing; he wrote in pencil.

More on Prepositional Patterns

It should be noted that prepositions collocate with certain words for harmony. How prepositions
combine with other words in English sentences is known as prepositional patterns.
1. Prepositions with Verbs: abstain from alcohol, account for something, accuse (someone) of
stealing, agitate for salary increase, ask for a person, believe in God, boast of an achievement,
communicate with someone, dream of the future, rely on a person, wait for someone, etc.
Prepositions with Adjectives: absent from work, afraid of somebody or something, ashamed of
one’s action, familiar to somebody, familiar with something, loyal to a person, jealous of
someone, ready for work, qualified for a position, terrified of spiders, etc.
3. Prepositions with Nouns: admission to a school, authority on African Literature, debate on a
motion, doubts about his honesty, experience of teaching, key to success, taste of something,
solution to a problem, victim of racism, witness an event, etc.
CONJUNCTIONS
A conjunction can be defined as a linking word – one that
connects words, word groups, sentences or sentence groups.
Examples of conjunctions are: and, but, or, however, through, although, so, etc. Unlike adverbs,
conjunctions do not modify a verb or any other word.
They are used solely for the purpose of connecting. A conjunction is the glue which sticks words,
phrases and clauses together. In the sentence, Odo and Eze are friends, the conjunction ‘and’ is
used to connect the two proper nouns in the sentence. A conjunction can also be used to connect
two verbs: Will you drive or fly?
Kinds of Conjunctions
Four kinds of conjunctions can be identified: coordinating conjunctions, subordinating
conjunctions, correlative conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs.
Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions are used to connect two equal parts
of a sentence. They can be summarized by the acronym FAN
BOYS: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, SO. They perform different functions:
Additive Coordinating Conjunctions
The word ‘and’ is used to perform the additive function. It is used to add or join words together
in a sentence:
> Jim and I attended the seminar.
> We ate and drank at the restaurant.
Contrastive Coordinating Conjunctions
The word ‘but’ is used to perform the contrastive function. It used to show opposite or
conflicting ideas.
> Naaman was a mighty man of valour but he was a leper.
> Jane is small but strong.
“Yet” is similar to “but”, as it is used to introduce a contrasting
idea that follows the preceding idea logically:
> He comes to work everyday,
yet he never does any meaningful thing.
> He claims to be a Christian, yet he womanizes a lot.
Alternative Coordinating Conjunction
The coordinator “or” does this job. It is used to show choice or possibilities:
> Take it or leave it.
> The team will arrive today or tomorrow.
The word “nor” is used to present an alternative idea to an already stated negative idea:
> I do not like boxing nor wrestling. I just like football.
> Not a building nor a tree was left standing.
Subordinating Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction is used to introduce subordinate clauses; it joins the subordinate
clause to the rest of the sentence. Examples are: when, before, while, because, although, as, if,
how, as much as, since, in order that, in as much as, unless, provided, whenever, after, until,
though, so that, as if, as long as, even if, even though, till, where, than, that, if only, now that,
once, rather than, wherever, whereas.
A subordinating conjunction usually comes at the beginning of a subordinate or dependent
clause:
> Unless you hurry up, you’ll miss the flight.
> If I am elected president, I’ll construct a second bridge across the Niger.
> The rat plays when the cat is away.
Some of the subordinating conjunctions, such as before, since, after, until, also function as
prepositions. They function as subordinating conjunctions whenever they are used to begin a
subordinating clause. Their major function in a sentence is to link a noun clause or adverbial
clause (i.e. a subordinate clause) to a main clause to form a complex sentence. In doing this, they
express different ideas, such as place, time, manner, condition, purpose, result, cause or reason,
concession, etc. Thus, we can classify subordinating conjunctions according to the ideas they are
used to express; Place Conjunction: where, wherever, whither, whence, e.g.
a. Do you know where Davelives?
b. they were not mindful of whence they had come;
c. your shadow follows you wherever you go.
Time Conjunction: after, before, since, while, as, when, until, whenever, now that, till, as soon
as, etc., e.g.
a. he shot himself after he had shot his wife;
b. as soon as the teacher came in, the class became quiet;
c. before Jane went to bed, she prayed.
Manner Conjunction: as, as if, as though, so…as, than, e.g.
a. hetalks as if he were God;
b. he drank so much alcohol that he fell into the gutter on his way home;
c. Moses did as the Lord commanded him.
Condition Conjunction: if, unless, provided that, only if,
e.g. a. If it rains, the match will be cancelled;
b. we won’t go back to work unless we are paid our salaries;
c. you may be given admission provided that you meet the entry requirements.
Purpose Conjunction: that, in order that, in case, so that, lest, e.g. a. we eat that we may live;
b. he studied hard lest he should fail the exam;
c. Regina took an umbrella in case it rained.
Reason or Cause Conjunction: because, as, since, for, e.g.
a. as it was raining, I did not go anywhere;
b. I trust in God, for He is faithful;
c. Jack failed the test because he did not study.
Concession Conjunction: although, though, while, even if, nevertheless, whether…or, e.g.
a. although Lazarus is poor, he is honest;
b. he refused to give bribe even if he was sent to jail;
c. while I am willing to help, I do not have much time available.

Apposition Conjunction: that, e.g.

a. the theory that love is blind does not make sense to me;
b. the news that the war had ended came as a relief to the citizens;
c. he was arrested despite the fact that he was not present at the scene of the crime.
Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions are usually used in pairs to connect two or more linguistic constituents
that should be treated as grammatically equal.
Examples are: “both… and”, “either…or”, “neither…nor”, “whether…or”, as in:
Both Mary and Martha were friends of Jesus.
Either the president or his representative is expected at the occasion.
Whether you drive or fly doesn’t really matter as long as you arrive before the meeting starts.
Olu not only slapped Folu but also kicked her.
Conjunctive Adverbs
As earlier noted, conjunctions do the job of joining words, phrases or clauses together to clarify
what the speaker or writer is saying. They help to provide smooth transition from one idea to
another.
A conjunctive adverb is an adverb which does the job of connecting ideas. Conjunctive adverbs
include: also, then, accordingly, moreover, besides, nevertheless, consequently, next, conversely,
nonetheless, finally, otherwise, furthermore, similarly, hence, still, however, subsequently,
instead, therefore, likewise, thus, meanwhile.
A conjunctive adverb can join two main clauses – that is, it can behave like a coordinating
conjunction:
The team could not win the gold trophy; however, it won the silver.
> Joe didn’t have the relevant qualification for the job; otherwise, he would have been picked for
the job.
> The bride’s mother died a week before the wedding; hence, the wedding was postponed.
INTERJECTIONS
An interjection is a word or short group of words used to express strong feeling. The word
interjection is derived from a Latin word meaning ‘thrown between.’ It is therefore an
exclamation thrown into a sentence to express some strong feeling, such as surprise, joy, sadness,
pleasure, disappointment, pain, etc. It may be a real word or merely a sound. An interjection is
usually followed by an exclamation mark (!). Examples:
Feeling Interjection
Greeting Hello Jane, how are you? Hi, there! How are you doing?
Pain Oh! You’ve wounded me. Ouch! I’ve cut my finger.
Sadness Alas! I have no money.
Joy Hurrah! I’ve been picked for the job.
Surprise Gosh, is that the time? What! Good Heavens