[Link].

8th Semester Examination, 2024

Subject: Biomedical Instrumentation

2(a). What is the difference between sensors and transducers?

Explain the origin of bioelectric signal.
Difference between Sensors and Transducers:

Sensor Transducer

A sensor is a device that detects or A transducer converts one form of

measures a physical quantity (like energy into another (e.g.,
temperature, pressure, light, etc.). mechanical to electrical).

It converts the sensed signal into a

It senses changes in the environment.
readable output, often electrical.

It always involves conversion of

It may or may not produce an electrical
energy, often producing an electrical
signal.
signal.

Example: A thermometer senses Example: A thermocouple converts

temperature. heat into an electrical signal.

In simple terms: All sensors are not transducers, but most transducers include a
sensor.

Origin of Bioelectric Signal:

Bioelectric signals are electrical signals generated by biological tissues. They
originate from ionic differences across cell membranes of living cells.
Key Points:
1. Cell Membrane Polarization:
o Cells maintain a resting membrane potential due to different
concentrations of ions (like Na⁺, K⁺, Cl⁻) inside and outside the cell.
o This is mainly regulated by ion channels and sodium-potassium
pumps.
2. Action Potential:
o When a stimulus reaches a certain threshold, ion channels open,
causing a rapid flow of ions across the membrane.
o This leads to depolarization and repolarization, creating an action
potential (a bioelectric signal).
3. Types of Bioelectric Signals:
o Electrocardiogram (ECG) – from heart activity.
o Electroencephalogram (EEG) – from brain activity.
o Electromyogram (EMG) – from muscle activity.

(b). Explain ECG and EEG.

ECG (Electrocardiogram):

Definition:
An ECG is a test that records the electrical activity of the heart over time using
electrodes placed on the skin.
 How it Works:
• The heart generates bioelectric signals when it beats.
• These signals travel through the body and can be detected by electrodes.
• An ECG machine records these signals and displays them as a waveform.

Uses:
• To detect irregular heartbeats (arrhythmias).
• To identify heart attacks, heart block, or enlarged heart.
• To monitor heart health during surgery or treatment.

Typical ECG Waves:

• P wave – Atrial contraction.
• QRS complex – Ventricular contraction.
• T wave – Ventricular recovery (repolarization).

EEG (Electroencephalogram):

Definition:
An EEG is a test that records the electrical activity of the brain using electrodes
attached to the scalp.

How it Works:
 • The brain's neurons communicate through tiny electrical impulses.
• These impulses create bioelectric signals.
• The EEG machine records and shows these signals as brain wave
patterns.

Uses:
• To diagnose epilepsy and seizure disorders.
• To study sleep patterns (sleep disorders).
• To monitor brain activity during surgeries or in coma patients.
• To detect brain damage or tumors.

Brain Wave Frequency (Hz) State

Delta 0.5–4 Deep sleep

Theta 4–8 Drowsiness

Alpha 8–13 Relaxed/awake

Beta 13–30 Alert/active thinking

3(a). Explain the methods of monitoring fatal heart rate.

Methods of Monitoring Fetal Heart Rate (FHR):
Monitoring fetal heart rate is important during pregnancy and labor to assess
the baby's well-being and detect distress. There are two main methods:
1. Non-Electronic (Manual) Methods
a. Fetoscope (Pinard Stethoscope)
• A special stethoscope used to listen to fetal heartbeats.
• Placed on the mother’s abdomen.
• Simple and inexpensive, but depends on the skill of the practitioner.
b. Doppler Ultrasound Device (Handheld Doppler)
• Uses ultrasound waves to detect the motion of the fetal heart.
• Provides real-time heart rate and is more accurate than a fetoscope.
• Commonly used in clinics and during prenatal visits.

2. Electronic Fetal Monitoring (EFM)

a. External Monitoring
• Ultrasound Transducer placed on the mother’s abdomen.
• Tracks fetal heart rate.
• A second sensor (tocodynamometer) may be used to monitor
contractions.
• Produces a continuous heart rate graph.
b. Internal Monitoring
• A small electrode is attached to the fetal scalp through the cervix.
• Requires the amniotic sac to be broken and cervix to be partially dilated.
• Gives very accurate, continuous readings.
• Used during labor if external monitoring is not reliable.

3. Fetal Electrocardiography (fECG)

• Detects fetal heart’s electrical signals.
• Electrodes placed on the mother’s abdomen or inside the uterus.
 • Can be non-invasive or invasive.
• More advanced and often used in research or high-risk pregnancies.

4. Fetal Phonocardiography
• Uses sensitive microphones to detect heart sounds.
• Non-invasive.
• Less common now due to newer technologies.

(b). State how blood sugar and blood pressure in a patient are
measured.
How Blood Sugar is Measured:
1. Using a Glucometer (Finger-Prick Test):
o A small drop of blood is taken from the fingertip using a lancet.
o Blood is placed on a test strip inserted into a glucometer.
o The device shows the blood glucose level (in mg/dL or mmol/L).
2. Laboratory Test:
o Blood sample taken from a vein.
o Tested in a lab for:
▪ Fasting blood sugar
▪ Post-meal (2-hour) sugar
▪ HbA1c (average blood sugar over 2–3 months)

How Blood Pressure is Measured:

1. Using a Sphygmomanometer (BP Monitor):
o A cuff is wrapped around the upper arm.
o The cuff inflates and then slowly deflates.
 o Measures two values:
▪ Systolic (top number): Pressure during heartbeats.
▪ Diastolic (bottom number): Pressure between beats.
o Can be manual (with stethoscope) or digital (automatic
machine).

4(a). Write the working of a commercial oximeter.

Working of a Commercial Oximeter (Pulse Oximeter):
A pulse oximeter is a small, non-invasive device used to measure the oxygen
saturation (SpO₂) level in the blood and pulse rate.

Working Principle:
It uses the principle of light absorption through a body part (usually a fingertip
or earlobe) to calculate oxygen level.

Step-by-Step Working:
1. Placement:
o The oximeter is clipped onto a finger, toe, or earlobe.
2. Light Emission:
o It has two light sources:
▪ Red light (~660 nm)
▪ Infrared light (~940 nm)
3. Light Absorption:
o Oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin absorb light
differently:
▪ Oxygenated hemoglobin absorbs more infrared light.
▪ Deoxygenated hemoglobin absorbs more red light.
4. Detection:
o A photodetector on the other side detects how much light passes
through.
5. Calculation:
o The device uses the ratio of red to infrared light absorption to
calculate:
▪ Oxygen Saturation (SpO₂)
▪ Pulse Rate
6. Display:
o The results are shown on a digital screen in percentage (% SpO₂)
and beats per minute (BPM).

Normal SpO₂ Range:

• 95% – 100%: Normal
• Below 90%: May indicate hypoxia (low oxygen)
(b). Explain electrical conductivity method of blood cell counting.
Electrical Conductivity Method of Blood Cell Counting

Principle:
The method is based on measuring the change in electrical resistance when a
blood cell passes through a small aperture filled with an electrically
conductive solution.

Blood cell counting.

Step-by-Step Working:
1. Setup:
o Blood is diluted in an electrolyte solution (conducts electricity).
o This mixture flows through a tiny aperture between two
electrodes.
2. Current Flow:
o A constant electric current is applied across the aperture.
3. Cell Passage:
o As each blood cell passes through the aperture:
 ▪ It displaces the conducting fluid (since cells are poor
conductors).
▪ This causes a brief increase in electrical resistance (a pulse).
4. Pulse Detection:
o Each pulse represents one cell.
o The height of the pulse is related to the cell size.
5. Counting & Sizing:
o The system counts the number of pulses to get the cell count.
o It also measures pulse size to determine cell volume/type (e.g.,
RBC, WBC, platelets).

Advantages:
• Fast and accurate.
• Can differentiate between types of blood cells.
• Commonly used in automated hematology analyzers.

5(a). Write the working principle of an x-ray machine. Also draw a

labelled diagram of x-ray machine.
Working Principle of an X-ray Machine:
An X-ray machine works by generating X-rays and directing them through the
body to produce an image of internal structures such as bones and organs.

Working Principle:
1. Electron Generation:
o A filament (cathode) is heated to release electrons through
thermionic emission.
2. Electron Acceleration:
o A high voltage is applied between the cathode and the anode.
 o This accelerates the electrons towards a metal target (anode),
usually made of tungsten.
3. X-ray Production:
o When the fast-moving electrons strike the anode target, they lose
energy rapidly.
o This energy is converted into:
▪ 99% heat
▪ 1% X-rays
4. X-ray Emission:
o The X-rays exit the tube through a window and are directed at the
patient’s body.
5. Image Formation:
o Denser tissues (like bones) absorb more X-rays and appear white
on the image.
o Less dense tissues (like muscles or lungs) allow more X-rays to pass
through and appear darker.
Labelled Diagram of an X-ray Tube:
(b). State safety precautions to be taken while using a magnetic
resonance imaging system.
Safety Precautions While Using an MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
System:
MRI uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves, so special precautions must
be taken to ensure patient and staff safety.

Key Safety Precautions:

1. Screening for Metal Objects:
o Patients and staff must remove all metallic items (jewelry,
watches, hairpins, credit cards).
o No metal implants (e.g., pacemakers, cochlear implants,
aneurysm clips) unless MRI-safe.
2. Proper Patient History:
o Check for surgical implants, tattoos, piercings, or prosthetics that
may contain metal.
3. Use of Non-Ferromagnetic Tools:
o Only MRI-compatible equipment should be used near the
scanner.
4. Restricted Access to MRI Room:
o The MRI room should be shielded and access-controlled.
o Unauthorized or untrained personnel must not enter.
5. Hearing Protection:
o MRI machines make loud noises — patients should wear earplugs
or headphones.
6. Monitoring Patient Comfort:
o Use a call button inside the machine for patients to alert staff.
o Monitor for claustrophobia, discomfort, or allergic reaction (if
contrast is used).
 7. Pregnancy Considerations:
o MRI is usually avoided in the first trimester, unless urgently
needed.
8. Avoiding Burns:
o Ensure no skin-to-skin contact or loops in wires (ECG leads, etc.)
to avoid heating or burns.

6(a). In what conditions the patients are suggested a cardiac

pacemaker?
Conditions When a Cardiac Pacemaker Is Recommended:
A cardiac pacemaker is a small device implanted to help control abnormal heart
rhythms. It sends electrical signals to the heart to keep it beating regularly.

Common Conditions Requiring a Pacemaker:

1. Bradycardia:
o Abnormally slow heart rate (usually below 60 beats per minute).
o Can cause dizziness, fatigue, or fainting.
 2. Heart Block (AV Block):
o Delay or complete block in the electrical signals between the atria
and ventricles.
o May be congenital or caused by age or heart disease.
3. Atrial Fibrillation with Slow Heart Rate:
o Irregular heartbeat combined with slow pulses due to medications
or disease.
4. Sick Sinus Syndrome:
o The SA node (natural pacemaker) doesn't function properly.
o Causes alternating slow and fast heartbeats.
5. After Heart Surgery or Heart Attack:
o Temporary or permanent damage to the heart’s electrical system.
6. Heart Failure (Certain Cases):
o A special type of pacemaker (biventricular pacemaker) helps
coordinate heart contractions.
7. Congenital Heart Defects:
o In children or adults with electrical pathway problems from birth.

(b). What is hemodialysis machine?

What is a Hemodialysis Machine?
A hemodialysis machine is a medical device used to filter and clean the blood
of a person whose kidneys are not working properly (kidney failure).

Function:
• It removes waste products, excess fluids, and toxins from the blood.
• It also helps balance electrolytes (like sodium, potassium, calcium) in the
body.
 How It Works:
1. Blood is drawn from the patient through a needle or catheter.
2. The blood passes through a dialyzer (artificial kidney) in the machine.
3. Inside the dialyzer:
o Blood flows on one side of a semi-permeable membrane.
o A special fluid called dialysate flows on the other side.
o Wastes and extra fluids move from the blood into the dialysate.
4. Clean blood is returned to the patient’s body.

Time & Frequency:

• Usually done 3 times a week, each session lasting 3 to 5 hours.

(c). Explain ophthalmic scans. How A-scan is different from B-scan?

Ophthalmic Scans:
Ophthalmic scans are ultrasound imaging techniques used to view the internal
structures of the eye and the orbit (eye socket). These are helpful in detecting
eye disorders, tumors, retinal detachments, or measuring eye length for
surgeries.
There are two main types:

A-Scan (Amplitude Scan):

• Produces a one-dimensional (1D) image.
• Measures the length of the eye (axial length).
• Commonly used before cataract surgery to calculate the power of the
intraocular lens (IOL).
• Shows spikes on a graph that represent the surfaces inside the eye
(cornea, lens, retina).
 B-Scan (Brightness Scan):
• Produces a two-dimensional (2D) cross-sectional image of the eye.
• Used to view the internal structure of the eye when direct view is
blocked (e.g., by cataract or blood).
• Helps detect:
o Retinal detachment
o Tumors
o Hemorrhages
o Foreign bodies

Difference Between A-scan and B-scan:

Feature A-Scan B-Scan

Image Type 1D (graph with spikes) 2D (real-time image)

Use Eye length measurement Structural visualization

Application Cataract surgery planning Detecting retinal/tumor issues

Detail Level Less detailed More detailed

Diagram
7(a). When the patients are put on a ventilator? Explain the overall
working of a Ventilator.
When Are Patients Put on a Ventilator?
A ventilator is used when a patient cannot breathe properly on their own due
to illness, injury, or surgery.

Common Conditions Requiring a Ventilator:

1. Respiratory failure (e.g., in COPD, pneumonia, COVID-19)
2. Severe asthma attack
3. After major surgery (temporary support)
4. Neuromuscular diseases (e.g., ALS, spinal cord injury)
5. Head injury or unconsciousness
6. Cardiac arrest or during CPR

Overall Working of a Ventilator:

1. Air Supply:
o The ventilator draws in air (with or without added oxygen).
2. Air Delivery:
 o Air is pushed into the lungs via a tube placed in the patient’s
windpipe (trachea)—this is called intubation.
3. Breath Monitoring:
o It controls and monitors:
▪ Breathing rate
▪ Air pressure
▪ Oxygen level (FiO₂)
▪ Tidal volume (air per breath)
4. Exhalation:
o After each breath, the machine allows passive exhalation of
carbon dioxide.
5. Modes of Operation:
o Full support: Machine breathes completely for the patient.
o Assisted: Patient starts the breath, machine helps finish it.
o Weaning mode: Slowly reduces support to help the patient
breathe on their own.

(b). Explain any two methods by which a biomedical equipment is

tested.
Two Methods to Test Biomedical Equipment:
1. Functional Testing:
o Purpose: To ensure the equipment works according to its
specifications.
o How It Works:
▪ The device is powered on, and all functions (e.g., alarms,
displays, and mechanical parts) are checked.
▪ Parameters like measurements, outputs, and settings are
compared to the manufacturer’s standards.
 o Example: Testing a blood pressure monitor by measuring known
pressures to see if the readings match the standard.

2. Calibration Testing:
o Purpose: To verify that the equipment provides accurate readings.
o How It Works:
▪ The device is adjusted or compared with a known reference
standard (e.g., a certified reference device or a calibration
source).
▪ This process ensures that measurements or outputs remain
within an acceptable range over time.
o Example: Calibrating a thermometer by comparing its readings
with a known temperature standard.

8(a). How biosensors are helpful in biomedical instrumentation?

Role of Biosensors in Biomedical Instrumentation:
Biosensors are devices that detect biological substances and convert them into
a measurable signal. They are crucial in biomedical instrumentation as they
provide real-time monitoring of various physiological parameters, enabling
early detection, diagnosis, and management of health conditions.
How Biosensors are Helpful:
1. Non-Invasive Monitoring:
o Biosensors allow for continuous and non-invasive monitoring of
parameters like blood glucose, pH, or oxygen levels.
o Example: Glucose sensors used by diabetics to monitor blood
sugar levels without needing blood samples.
2. Real-Time Data Collection:
o Provide immediate feedback on a patient’s condition, which is
crucial for decisions in emergency care.
o Example: Pulse oximeters measure oxygen saturation in the blood
and provide real-time data.
3. High Sensitivity and Specificity:
o Biosensors are designed to detect specific biological markers or
substances, allowing for precise and accurate diagnosis.
o Example: Biosensors for detecting pathogens like bacteria or
viruses in blood or saliva samples.
4. Point-of-Care Testing (POCT):
o Enable testing at the point of care (bedside or home), reducing
the need for laboratory visits.
o Example: Pregnancy tests using biosensors that detect hormone
levels in urine.
5. Miniaturization and Portability:
o Modern biosensors are often miniaturized and portable, making
them ideal for use in remote areas or mobile health monitoring.
o Example: Wearable biosensors that continuously monitor heart
rate or temperature.
6. Chronic Disease Management:
 o Vital for long-term management of conditions such as diabetes,
cardiovascular disease, or asthma, by allowing continuous
tracking of health metrics.

(b). Explain the application of thermocouple for body temperature

measurement.
Application of Thermocouple for Body Temperature Measurement:
A thermocouple is a temperature sensor made from two different metals that
produce a voltage when exposed to temperature changes. It is commonly used
for measuring body temperature in medical applications.

How It Works:
1. Two Metals Joined Together:
o A thermocouple consists of two different metals (e.g., copper and
constantan) joined at one end, forming a junction.
2. Voltage Generation:
o When the junction is exposed to heat (e.g., from the body), the
temperature difference between the junction and the other ends
of the thermocouple creates a small voltage.
 3. Temperature Reading:
o The voltage is then measured and converted into a temperature
reading using pre-calibrated conversion tables.
4. Accuracy:
o The voltage generated correlates to the temperature, which is
accurate and can be read through a connected device or
thermometer.

Application in Body Temperature Measurement:

• Medical Thermometers: Thermocouples are used in digital
thermometers to measure body temperature.
• Invasive and Non-Invasive Methods: Can be used in both oral and rectal
thermometers, as well as in more precise clinical settings like ICU or
during surgery.

[Link] Short notes on any two of the following

(a) Blood pressure measurement
(b) Advantages of NMR imaging system
(c) Laser application in biomedical

(a) Blood Pressure Measurement:

Blood pressure is measured using a sphygmomanometer. It consists of an
inflatable cuff, a pressure gauge, and a stethoscope.
 1. Cuff Inflation: The cuff is inflated around the upper arm to constrict the
arteries.
2. Systolic Pressure: As the cuff deflates, the first sound (Korotkoff sound)
heard through the stethoscope indicates systolic pressure (the pressure
when the heart contracts).
3. Diastolic Pressure: When the sound disappears, the pressure measured
is the diastolic pressure (the pressure when the heart is at rest between
beats).
4. Measurement Units: Blood pressure is reported in mmHg (millimeters
of mercury).

(b) Advantages of NMR Imaging System:

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) imaging, often referred to as MRI, uses
magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed images of the internal
structures of the body.
1. Non-Invasive: Provides a detailed image without the need for surgery or
incisions.
2. High-Resolution Images: Offers clear, high-resolution images of soft
tissues like the brain, muscles, and organs.
3. No Ionizing Radiation: Unlike X-rays and CT scans, NMR does not use
harmful ionizing radiation.
4. Versatile: Can detect various medical conditions, including tumors, brain
disorders, and spinal issues.
5. Safe for Repeated Use: Suitable for long-term monitoring and imaging of
patients, especially pregnant women.

(c) Laser Application in Biomedical:

Lasers are used in various biomedical applications due to their ability to
provide precise, focused energy. Key applications include:
1. Surgical Procedures: Lasers are used in laser surgery for cutting or
vaporizing tissue, e.g., in eye surgery (LASIK), removal of tumors, and
kidney stones.
2. Diagnostic Tools: Used in endoscopy to visualize internal body parts
(e.g., in the colon or lungs).
3. Laser Therapy: Used in laser phototherapy to promote wound healing
and reduce inflammation.
4. Medical Imaging: Laser-induced fluorescence and confocal microscopy
are used for detailed tissue imaging.