Physics Study Notes

Comprehensive Guide for Introductory Physics

Compiled on June 23, 2025

Contents
1 Mechanics 1
1.1 Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Newton’s Laws of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Work and Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Thermodynamics 2
2.1 Laws of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2 Heat and Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

3 Electromagnetism 2
3.1 Electric Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3.2 Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

4 Waves 3
4.1 Wave Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4.2 Sound Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

5 Modern Physics 3
5.1 Quantum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
5.2 Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1
1 Mechanics
1.1 Kinematics
Kinematics describes motion without considering its causes.
• Displacement: Vector from initial to final position, ∆⃗x = ⃗xf − ⃗xi .
• Velocity: Rate of change of displacement, ⃗v = d⃗
x
dt
.
• Acceleration: Rate of change of velocity, ⃗a = d⃗v
dt
.
Equations of Motion (constant acceleration):

v = u + at (1)
1
x = ut + at2 (2)
2
v 2 = u2 + 2ax (3)

Example: A car accelerates from rest at 2 m s−2 for 5 s. Find final velocity.

v = u + at = 0 + (2)(5) = 10 m s−1

1.2 Newton’s Laws of Motion

1. First Law: An object remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted
upon by a net force (inertia).
2. Second Law: F⃗ = m⃗a, where F⃗ is net force, m is mass, and ⃗a is acceleration.
3. Third Law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Example: A 2 kg block is pushed with 10 N. Find acceleration.

F 10
a= = = 5 m s−2
m 2

1.3 Work and Energy

• Work: W = F⃗ · d⃗ = F d cos θ.
• Kinetic Energy: KE = 12 mv 2 .
• Potential Energy: P E = mgh (gravitational).
• Conservation of Energy: Total energy remains constant, KEi + P Ei =
KEf + P Ef .
Example: A 1 kg ball falls from 10 m. Find speed at ground (ignore air resis-
tance).
1 √ √
P Ei = KEf =⇒ mgh = mv 2 =⇒ v = 2gh = 2(9.8)(10) ≈ 14 m s−1
2

1
2 Thermodynamics
2.1 Laws of Thermodynamics
1. Zeroth Law: If two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third, they
are in equilibrium with each other.
2. First Law: ∆U = Q − W , where ∆U is internal energy change, Q is heat
added, and W is work done by the system.
3. Second Law: Entropy of an isolated system increases, ∆S ≥ 0.
Example: A gas absorbs 200 J of heat and does 150 J of work. Find ∆U .

∆U = Q − W = 200 − 150 = 50 J

2.2 Heat and Temperature

• Heat: Energy transfer due to temperature difference, Q = mc∆T (no phase
change).
• Specific Heat: c, energy required to raise 1 kg of a substance by 1 K.
Example: Heat 0.5 kg of water from 20 ◦ C to 50 ◦ C (c = 4186 J kg−1 K−1 ).

Q = mc∆T = (0.5)(4186)(50 − 20) = 62 790 J

3 Electromagnetism
3.1 Electric Fields
• Coulomb’s Law: F = k q1r2q2 , where k = 8.99 × 109 N m2 C−2 .

• Electric Field: E , force per unit charge.

⃗ = ⃗
F
q

Example: Find force between two 2 µC charges 1 m apart.

−6 2
q1 q2 9 (2 × 10 )
F =k = (8.99 × 10 ) = 0.036 N
r2 12

3.2 Magnetic Fields

• Lorentz Force: F⃗ = q(⃗v × B).
⃗

• Biot-Savart Law: dB
⃗ = µ0 Id⃗l×r̂
4π r 2
.
Example: A 1 C charge moves at 5 m s−1 in a 0.2 T field (90◦ ). Find force.

F = qvB sin θ = (1)(5)(0.2)(1) = 1 N

2
4 Waves
4.1 Wave Properties
• Wavelength: λ, distance between crests.
• Frequency: f , cycles per second.
• Speed: v = f λ.
Example: A wave has f = 2 Hz and λ = 3 m. Find speed.

v = f λ = (2)(3) = 6 m s−1

4.2 Sound Waves

√
• Speed of Sound: v = B
ρ
, depends on medium.

• Doppler Effect: f ′ = f v±v

v∓vs
o
.

5 Modern Physics
5.1 Quantum Mechanics
• Photoelectric Effect: E = hf , where h = 6.626 × 10−34 J s.
• Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle: ∆x∆p ≥ h̄2 .
Example: Light of f = 5 × 1014 Hz ejects electrons. Find photon energy.

E = hf = (6.626 × 10−34 )(5 × 1014 ) ≈ 3.31 × 10−19 J

5.2 Relativity
• Time Dilation: t = √ t0
2
.
1− v2
c

• Mass-Energy Equivalence: E = mc2 .