Introduction to Ethics

UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS*

Structure

1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Scope of Ethics
1.3 History of Ethics
1.4 The Methods of Ethics
1.5 Different Approaches to the Study of Ethics
1.6 Division of Ethics
1.7 Ethics and Other Sciences
1.8 Ethics and Religion
1.9 Importance of Studying Ethics
1.10 Why Should We be Moral?
1.11 Let Us Sum Up
1.12 Key Words
1.13 Further Readings and References
1.14 Answers to Check Your Progress

1.0 OBJECTIVES
The objective of this unit is to introduce you to ‘ethics’ or moral philosophy.
Ethics is a wide topic. Through the analysis of its various aspects we can learn:
 the nature and the different aspects of ethics
 how ethics developed as a systematic philosophical discipline in the western
philosophy
 the methods, different approaches and the division of ethics
 how ethics is related to other sciences
 the relationship between ethics and religion
 the importance of studying ethics in the context of today and the need for
being moral.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Etymologically the term “ethics” corresponds to the Greek word “ethos” which
means character, habit, customs, ways of behaviour, etc. Ethics is also called
“moral philosophy”. The word “moral” comes from Latin word “mores” which
signifies customs, character, behaviour, etc. Thus ethics may be defined as the
systematic study of human actions from the point of view of their rightfulness or

*
Dr. Wilson Jose, St. John's College, Kondadaba. 7
Basic Concepts wrongfulness, as means for the attainment of the ultimate happiness. It is the
reflective study of what is good or bad in that part of human conduct for which
humans have some personal responsibility. In simple words ethics refers to what
is good and the way to get it, and what is bad and how to avoid it. It refers to what
ought to be done to achieve what is good and what ought not to be done to avoid
what is evil.
As a philosophical discipline, ethics is the study of the values and guidelines by
which we live. It also involves the justification of these values and guidelines. It is
not merely following a tradition or custom. Instead it requires analysis and evaluation
of these guidelines in light of universal principles. As moral philosophy, ethics is
the philosophical thinking about morality, moral problems, and moral judgements.
Ethics is a science in as much as it is a set or body of reasoned truths organised in
a logical order and having its specific material and formal objects. It is a rational
science in so far as its principles are deduced by human’s reason from the objects
that concern the free will. Besides it has for its ulterior end the art by which
humans may live uprightly or comfortably to right reason. It is a normative/
regulative science in as much as it regulates and directs human’s life and gives
the right orientation to one’s existence.
Ethics is also theoretical and practical. It is theoretical in as much as it provides
the fundamental principles on the basis of which moral judgements are arrived
at. It is practical in as much as it is concerned about an end to be gained, and the
means of attaining it.
Ethics is sometimes distinguished from morality. In such cases, ethics is the
explicit philosophical reflection on moral beliefs and practices while morality
refers to the first-order beliefs and practices about good and evil by means of
which we guide our behaviour (e.g. music and musicology). However, in most
cases they are referred to as having the same meaning.
Ethics is not merely a set of ‘codes’. Ethics certainly deals with moral codes yet
one cannot identify ethics to moral codes. Ethics is not primarily to restrict one’s
behaviour, rather to help one to find what is good and how to get it. The obligatory
character of ethical norms derives from the very purpose of ethical enquiry, i.e.
to discover the most ultimate principles of explanation or the most ultimate reasons
why one ought to do anything.

1.2 SCOPE OF ETHICS

Ethics deals with voluntary actions. We can distinguish between human actions
and actions of human: human actions are those actions that are done by human
consciously, deliberately and in view of an end. Actions of human may not be
wilfully, voluntarily, consciously and deliberately done but all the same they are
done by human (e.g. sleeping, walking, etc.). It is the intention which makes the
difference between human action and action of human. In ethics we deal only
with human actions.

1.3 HISTORY OF ETHICS

The first ethical precepts were certainly passed down by word of mouth by parents
8 and elders, but as societies learned to use the written word, they began to set
down their ethical beliefs. These records constitute the first historical evidence Introduction to Ethics
of the origins of ethics.
In as much as it is the study of human behaviour, we cannot really trace the
history of ethics. However, as a systematic study of human behaviour, we can
point out how ethics evolved as a discipline. It is not that we have first a
straightforward history of moral concepts and then a separate and secondary history
of philosophical comment. To set out to write the history of moral philosophy
involves a careful selection from the past of what falls under the heading of
moral philosophy as we now conceive it. We have to strike a balance between
the danger of a dead antiquarianism, which enjoys the illusion that we can approach
the past without preconceptions, and the other of believing that the whole point
of the past was that it should culminate with us. However, we can observe a
gradual development in the ethical thought from the beginning to our day.
In Rgveda
. (It is accepted that Rgveda
. is the first example/text of human wisdom;
the vaidika tradition was oral tradition; pass from one generation to another
generation.) we find the concept of Rta.
. Rta . means the cosmological as well as
moral law. We can consider the concept of Rta . as the first example of human
pursuit towards moral philosophy. In Indian philosophy, besides moral
codification, there is much debate on moral principles. We can see Purusartha as
the aim of human life. Human beings cannot know and attain the meaning and
the highest goal of life without moral life. For example, Sādhanachatustaya
. (śam,
.
dam etc.) must for the preparation to Moksha (See, Samkara’s advaita Vedāntā).
Buddhism, Jainism and even materialist philosophical tradition Cārvāka
developed the foundation of Moral Philosophy. Satya, Ahimsā, Astey, Aparigrah,
Brahmacarya are the basic moral pillars accepted by almost all Indian
philosophical schools, but the metaphysics to establish them is different in different
schools. Buddhist establishes and interprets them with the help of anattā (no-
soul, no external reality) metaphysics, Jainism establishes them with the help of
anekāntavāda and so on.
In the Western Philosophy, the history of ethics can be traced back to the fifth
century B.C with the appearance of Socrates. As a philosopher among the Greeks
his mission was to awaken his fellow humans to the need for rational criticism of
their beliefs and practices. It was the time, when the philosophers began to search
for reasons for established modes of conduct. Socrates, in demanding rational
grounds for ethical judgements, brought attention to the problem of tracing, the
logical relationship between values and facts and thereby created ethical
philosophy. Plato’s theory of forms could be seen as the first attempt at defending
moral realism and offering an objective ground for moral truths. From the Republic
on through the later dialogues and epistles, Plato constructed a systematic view
of nature, God, and human from which one derived one’s ethical principles. His
main goal in his ethical philosophy was to lead the way toward a vision of the
Good. Aristotle differed from Plato in his method of inquiry and his conception
of the role of ethical principles in human affairs. While Plato was the fountainhead
of religious and idealistic ethics, Aristotle engendered the naturalistic tradition.
Aristotle’s ethical writings (i.e. the Nicomachean Ethics, and the Politics)
constitute the first systematic investigation into the foundations of ethics.
Aristotle’s account of the virtues could be seen as one of the first sustained
inquiries in normative ethics. It was a clear mixture of Greco-Roman thought
with Judaism and elements of other Middle Eastern religions. 9
Basic Concepts The medieval period was dominated by the thoughts of philosophers and
theologians like Augustine and Thomas Aquinas. The influence of Christianity
dominated the ethical scenario. So much so that during this period philosophy
and religion were nearly indistinguishable. The rise of Christian philosophy
produced a new era of history of ethics. In St. Augustine, the most prominent
philosopher of the early medieval period, ethics became a blend of the pursuit of
earthly well-being with preparation of the soul for eternal salvation. The next
towering figure of medieval philosophy is Thomas Aquinas. He brought about a
true reconciliation between Aristotelian science and philosophy with Augustinian
theology. Aquinas greatly succeeded in proving the compatibility of Aristotelian
naturalism with Christian dogma and constructing a unified view of nature, human,
and God.
The social and political changes that characterized the end of the medieval period
and the rise of the modern age of industrial democracy gave rise to a new wave
of thinking in the ethical field. The development of commerce and industry, the
discovery of new regions of the world, the Reformation, the Copernican and
Galilean revolutions in science, and the rise of strong secular governments
demanded new principles of individual conduct and social organization. Some
of the modern philosophers who contributed to the great changes in ethical
thinking were Francis Bacon, René Descartes, Thomas Hobbes, Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz, Benedict de Spinoza, John Locke, David Hume, Immanuel Kant, John
Stuart Mill and Friedrich Nietzsche. Further developments in ethical thinking in
the west came with Karl Marx and Sigmund Freud. Here we are not intending to
give a detailed analysis of their contribution to ethics. However, the most
influential ethical thought during this period were the Utilitarianism, dominated
by British and French Philosophy (e.g. Locke, Hume, Bentham, Stuart Mill) and
Idealistic ethics in Germany and Italy (e.g. Kant, Hegel, Nietzsche).
The contemporary ethical scenario is a further complex area of study. The
contemporary European ethics in the broadest sense attempts to cover a generous
range of philosophies running from phenomenology to theories of communicative
action. The conditions of contemporary civilization forced philosophers to seek
a genuine ground for ethics and moral life. In much of the English speaking
world G.E. Moore’s Principia Ethica (1903) is taken to be the starting point of
contemporary ethical theory. Others like Martin Buber, Gabriel Marcel, Emmanuel
Levinas, Max Scheler, Franz Brentano and John Dewey too have made significant
contributions to ethical thinking in other parts of the world.
Check Your Progress I
Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer.
b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of the unit.
1. Write a short note on the development of ethics in the western philosophy.
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 Introduction to Ethics
1.4 THE METHODS OF ETHICS
Ethics, as a philosophical discipline, makes use of the methods used in philosophy.
Thus in ethics, both the inductive method and deductive methods are used.
Deduction is a process of gaining knowledge independently of experience through
pure logical reasoning. Deductive reasoning begins with a universal or general
truth and leads to knowledge of a particular instance of it. The classical form of
deductive reasoning is the syllogism in which a necessary conclusion is derived
from two accepted premises: e.g. All men are mortal, A is a man, and therefore,
A is mortal. Induction is a process of arriving at knowledge through experience.
Induction begins with the particular and moves to the universal, a generalization
that accounts for other examples of the same category or class. For instance, if a
number of ravens have been observed, all of which are black, and if no raven has
been encountered that is not back, the inferences to the conclusion that the next
observed raven will be black or to the general conclusion that all ravens are
black, are inductive inferences.
However, in ethics the inductive method (particular to the universal) is generally
preferred to the deductive (universal to the particular).

1.5 DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF

ETHICS
There are basically four different approaches to the study of ethics. Tom
L.Beauchamp, in his book Philosophical Ethics: An Introduction to Moral
Philosophy presents them with the following diagram:

Descriptive Ethics

Non-normative Metaethics

Approaches

Normative approaches General normative ethics

Applied ethics

The non-normative approaches examine morality without concern for making

judgements as to what is morally right or wrong. They do not take any moral
position regarding moral issues. The normative approaches instead make
judgements as to what is morally right or wrong. They take a clear moral position
regarding moral issues.
Among the two non-normative approaches to ethics, descriptive ethics describe
and sometimes try to explain the moral and ethical practices and beliefs of certain
societies and cultures. This is what sociologists, anthropologists, and historians
often do in their study and research. In their descriptions they do not make
11
Basic Concepts judgements about the morality of the practices and beliefs but simply describe
the practices observed in the different groups or cultures. Metaethics focuses on
the analysis of the meanings of the central terms used in ethical reasoning and
decision-making. It attempts to answer questions of meaning.

1.6 DIVISION OF ETHICS

The whole study of ethics can be divided into General Ethics (nature of moral
activity, norm of morality, foundation of morality, end of morality, etc) and Special
Ethics (applies the principles of general ethics to the various actions of human
activity).
However, when we consider the ethical theories, philosophers today usually divide
them into three general subject areas: metaethics, normative ethics and applied
ethics. Metaethics investigates the origin and meaning of ethical concepts. It
studies where our ethical principles come from and what they mean. It tries to
analyse the underlying principles of ethical values; Normative ethics tries to arrive
at moral standards that regulate right and wrong conduct. It is a more practical
task. It is a search for an ideal litmus test of proper behaviour; applied ethics
involves examining specific controversial issues, such as abortion, infanticide,
animal rights, environmental concerns, homosexuality, and so on. In applied ethics,
using the conceptual tools of metaethics and normative ethics, one tries to resolve
these controversial issues.
Often the lines of distinction between metaethics, normative ethics, and applied
ethics are often blurry. For instance, the issue of abortion is an applied ethical
topic in as much as it involves a specific type of controversial behaviour. But it is
also an issue involving normative principles such as the right of self-rule and the
right to life and an issue having metaethical issues such as, “where do rights
come from?” and “what kind of beings have rights?”.
Check Your Progress II
Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer.
b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of the unit.
1. How ethics uses deductive method?
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2. Write a short note on the division of ethics.
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 Introduction to Ethics
1.7 ETHICS AND OTHER SCIENCES
In our analysis of the definition and nature of ethics, we have seen that ethics
as a science is concerned with an end or ideal or standard. Most sciences, instead,
are concerned with certain uniformities of our experience – with the ways in
which certain classes of objects (such as rocks or plants) are found to exist, or
with the ways in which certain classes of events (such as phenomena of sound
or electricity) are found to occur. These sciences have no direct reference to
any end that is to be achieved or to any ideal by reference to which the facts are
judged.
Ethics is distinguished from the natural sciences, inasmuch as it has a direct
reference to an end that human persons desire to attain. Although ethics is
sometimes regarded as a practical science, it is not a ‘practical science’ as medicine,
engineering or architecture is as much as it is not directed towards the realization
of a definite result.
Other sciences Ethics
Psychology How a man behaves How a man MUST behave
(descriptive science) (normativescience)
Anthropology Nature of Human Beings How man’s actions OUGHT
and Its Activity to be
Social And Deals with the organization How man’s social and
Political of man’s social and political life MUST or
Sciences political life OUGHT TO BE organized in
order tobe moral
Economics Concerned with goods, i.e. Deals with those acts which
with those objects which are the conditions of the
are the means of satisfying attainment of the highest end
any human want. of life.

1.8 ETHICS AND RELIGION

Ethics has no necessary connection with any particular religion. However, it is
sometimes argued that without God or religion, ethics would have no point; and
therefore insofar as God or religion is in question, so is ethics. This is evidently
unacceptable. Although belief in God or religion can be an added reason for our
being moral, it is not necessary to relate it to God or to any religion. The fact that
ethics exists in all human societies shows that ethics is a natural phenomenon
that arises in the course of the evolution of social, intelligent, long-lived mammals
who possess the capacity to recognize each other and to remember the past
behaviour of others.
Critics of religion such as Marx and Nietzsche saw religion as a profound source
of social conformity, as a means of maintaining the status quo and keeping people
confined to their existing social and economic positions. Yet there is another
face of religion, one which suggests that religion may be a profoundly liberating
force in an individual’s lives and an important force for social change. 13
Basic Concepts
1.9 IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING ETHICS
Today, more than ever, the importance of ethics is felt at every sphere of human
living. The situation in the present world is characterised by an increasing rate in
crime, with no end to such increase in sight. Besides, the power of traditional
religions to inspire moral conduct continues to decline. Terrorism, civil wars,
industrial pollution, planned obsolescence, misleading advertising, deceptive
labelling, crooked insurance adjusting, unfair wages, crime syndicates, illegal
gambling, forced prostitution, high jacking, match-fixing… so many are the
prevailing trends. Truly, there seems to be hardly a few areas in life remain
untouched by growing demoralization. The question that one may ask in this
precarious situation is: Are we being sucked into a moral vacuum? Is this our
way to the end of ethics?
We can point out at least three reasons why we should study ethics. First, the
study of moral philosophy or ethics can deepen our reflection on the ultimate
questions of life. The study of ethics helps a person to look at his own life critically
and to evaluate his actions/choices/decisions. It assists a person in knowing what
he/she really is and what is best for him/her and what he/she has to do in order to
attain it.

Second, the study of moral philosophy can help us to think better about morality.
Moral philosophy can help us to clarify our moral positions when we make
judgements. It improves our perspective, and makes it more reflective and better
thought out. It can also improve our thinking about specific moral issues. In our
everyday life we are confronted with situations in which we have to decide what
is the correct course of action and what is to be avoided. Whether we choose to
act or to refrain from acting, we are in either case making a choice. Every decision
or choice we make we do so for reasons. However, we should agree that some of
these reasons are better than the others in judging the rightness of the decision or
choice. However, there seems to be a common agreement that we should all
strive to do the right thing, to do what is morally acceptable in a given situation
or circumstance. However, the issue of disagreement is over the question of what
exactly is the right thing to do.
Third, the study of moral philosophy can help us to sharpen our general thinking
processes. It trains our mind to think logically and reasonably and to handle
moral issues with greater clarity. Ethics becomes inevitable as by nature human
being is a ‘social’ being, a being living in relationship with other fellow beings
and with the nature around. All actions, whether one is aware of it or not, some
way or another affects the others. In order to make a decision/judgement one
bases himself on a standard of right and wrong even though the measure may not
be the same at all times.

Thus, ethical problems confront everybody. Nobody can really get through life
without ethics, even if one may not be aware of the ethical principles. Consciously
or unconsciously all of us are every day making moral decisions. Whether we are
aware of it or not, the fact is that we do have ethical attitudes and are taking
moral stances every day of our lives.
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 Introduction to Ethics
1.10 WHY SHOULD WE BE MORAL?
Not few are the people who ask this question: Why should we be moral? Why
should we take part in the moral institution of life? Why should we adopt a moral
point of view?
In every human person there is a deep desire for good. Human beings by nature
tend to be good – summum bonum. Each man/woman desires what is best for
himself/herself. The ethical principles and moral practices help one to attain what
is best. It helps a person to perfect himself/herself as a moral being. Morality has
to do more with one’s interior self than the practice of some customs or set rules.
Viewed from this point, morality is a deep down desire in a human being and is
something to do with the very nature of human being. The rational nature of
human being makes him/her aware of certain fundamental principles of logical
and moral reasoning. This means that there is not only a subjective aspect to
every human action but also an objective one that prompts a human person to
base himself/herself on certain common principles.
We also find that for the functioning of any society we need certain rules and
regulations. The conditions of a satisfactory human life for people living in groups
could hardly obtain otherwise (neither a “state of nature” nor a “totalitarian state”).
The institutions which are designed to make life easier and better for human
being, cannot function without certain moral principles. However, here the
question of individual freedom can also come in. How far the society can go on
demanding? Should it not respect the freedom of the individual? Is morality
made for man or man is made for morality?
Morality is a lot like nutrition. Most of us have never had a course in nutrition or
even read much about it. Yet many of us do have some general knowledge of the
field, of what we need to eat and what not. However, we also make mistakes
about these things. Often thinking of the good a particular diet can do in the long
run for our health, we may go for it although it may bring no immediate
satisfaction. So too is our moral life. While nutrition focuses on our physical
health, morality is concerned about our moral health. It seeks to help us determine
what will nourish our moral life and what will poison it. It seeks to enhance our
lives, to help us to live better lives. Morality aims to provide us with a common
point of view from which we can come to agreement about what all of us ought
to do. It tries to discover a more objective standpoint of evaluation than that of
purely personal preference.
Check Your Progress III
Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer.
b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of the unit.
1. Write a note on the relevance of Ethics.
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Basic Concepts
1.11 LET US SUM UP
Ethics is the study of human behaviour. It studies human actions and judges
them to be right or wrong. As a philosophical discipline, ethics is the study of the
values and guidelines by which we live. In ethics we deal only with human
actions, those actions done by a human person consciously, deliberately and in
view of an end. In human history, the origin of ethics and moral consciousness
cannot be easily traced back. It is the result of a long process of rational
development and evolution.
Ethics makes use of the methods of induction and deduction. Among the different
approaches to the study of ethics, the non-normative ethics (descriptive ethics
and metaethics) which examine morality without concern for making judgements
as to what is morally right or wrong and normative ethics (general normative
ethics and applied ethics) which make judgements as to what is morally right or
wrong are the most prominent ones. Although ethics can be regarded as a science
it is distinguished from the natural sciences, inasmuch as it has a direct reference
to an end that human person desire to attain. Ethics, however, is often said to be
the fruit of all the sciences since it ultimately perfects human person, by ordering
all other sciences and all things else in respect to an ultimate end that is absolutely
free.

1.12 KEY WORDS

‘Ethics’ and ‘Morals’: Ethics is the theory of right and wrong conduct. While
ethics involves the values that a person seeks to express in a certain situation,
morals refers to the way one sets about achieving this. Ethics is concerned with
the principles of human behaviour, morals with the application of these principles,
in a particular situation.
‘Moral’, ‘Immoral’ and ‘Amoral’ Actions: An action is said to be moral when
it is done deliberately to attain the ultimate happiness. A morally good action has
to be a moral action and a human action. An action is moral only if it is done
freely and in view of an end.
Immoral : Immoral means ‘not observing a particular known moral rule’. Immoral
actions are all those actions that are morally bad actions (e.g. Incest, homicide,
etc.). ‘Amoral’ or ‘non-moral’ means ‘not relevant to, or concerned with, morals’.
We can note some of the non-moral actions: actions of inanimate objects or events
(flood, famine, etc.). They are indifferent actions and are beyond the moral sphere.
Reflex actions: they are automatic and immediate (e.g. breathing). Accidental
acts, actions of children below the age of reason/ insane persons and actions
done under the spell of hypnosis.
Habitual actions: They are moral actions as the habits are formed deliberately
or acquired voluntarily. In ethics we are concerned with ‘immoral’ actions but
not ‘amoral’ actions.
Human Act: A human act is an act done by a human person deliberately, willingly
and freely in view of achieving an end. Morality is spoken of human beings and
not of animals. An act to be a moral act, it has to be performed by an individual
16 with reason. Every human act is done in view of an end and is done willingly
with full knowledge and full freedom. Ethics deals with human actions, which Introduction to Ethics
help or prevent a person from attaining an end.
End: End of human action can be different. For a believer, in God the ultimate
end could be the eternal happiness of man (God and the beatific vision). God is
the highest end of man and God is involved in every action of man. Happiness
consists in the knowledge and love of God. For a non believer the well-being of
humanity could be the end. It could also be an act done for its own sake.
Right and Wrong: Ethics is defined as the science of rightfulness or wrongfulness
of conduct. What makes an action right or wrong? The word “right” derives from
the Latin “rectus”, meaning ‘straight’ or ‘according to norm’. An action is morally
right if it is in conformity with the moral law and morally wrong if it is not in
conformity with the moral law.
Good and Bad: The word ‘good’ denotes the attitude of mind and will. An action
is morally good if it helps one attain the ultimate end and morally bad if it does
not fulfill the purpose. The term ‘good’ is also used to signify something which
is itself taken as an end. Thus the summum bonum, or supreme good, means the
supreme end at which we aim.
Voluntary and Involuntary Actions: Acts are voluntary if they proceed from
an internal principle with knowledge of the purpose of the act. An act is free if it
proceeds from a self- determining agent. Are all voluntary acts free? Most of the
voluntary acts are free except the highest act by which man embraces his Supreme
Good.
If knowledge or free choice is totally lacking, the act is involuntary. An involuntary
act may be performed without reference to the purpose of the act. It may be done
with knowledge against the choice of the will, as when a man emerging from an
aesthetic talks foolishly but is unable to control his words. The former emphasizes
the strength of emotion with which one is choosing and the latter emphasizes
that the choice is free of emotional stress.

1.13 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Abelson, Raziel and Kai Nielsen. “Ethics, History of” in Encyclopedia of
Philosophy. Ed. Donald M. Borchert, 2006, 394-439.
Bahm, Archie J. Why be Moral? New Delhi: Mushiram Manoharlal Publishers,
1980.
Beauchamp, Tom L. Philosophical Ethics: An Introduction to Moral
Philosophy.2nded. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991.
Beckwith, Francis J., ed. Do the Right Thing: A Philosophical Dialogue on the
Moral and Social Issues of Our Time. Sudbury: Jones and Bartlett Publishers,
1995.
Billington, Ray. Living Philosophy. An Introduction to Moral Thought. 2nd ed.
London: Routledge,1993.
Bond, E.J. Ethics and Human Well-being. An Introduction to Moral Philosophy.
Malden: Blackwell Publishers Inc., 1996. 17
Basic Concepts Boss, Judith A., ed. Perspectives on Ethics. California: Mayfield Publishing
Company, 1998. Fieser, James. “Ethics”. The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/ethics.com, accessed on 1 July 2009.
Frankena, William K. Ethics. 2nd ed. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India, 1989.
Gensler, Harry J. Ethics. A Contemporary Introduction. London: Routledge,1998.
Hill, Walter H. Ethics or Moral Philosophy. New Delhi: Anmol Publications,
1999.
Lafollette, Hugh, ed. The Blackwell Guide to Ethical Theory. Malden: Blackwell
Publishers Inc., 2000.
MacIntyre, Alasdair. A Short History of Ethics. A History of Moral Philosophy
from the Homeric Age to the Twentieth Century. 2nd ed. London: Routledge, 1998.
Mackenzie, John S. A Manual of Ethics. Calcutta: Oxford University Press, 1929.
Norman, Richard. The Moral Philosophers. An Introduction to Ethics, 2nd ed.
New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
Oraison, Marc. Morality for our Time.Translated by Nels Challe. New York:
Image Books, 1968.
Rachels, James. The Elements of Moral Philosophy. 3rd ed. Boston: McGraw-
Hill College, 1999.
Sidgwick, Henry. The Methods of Ethics. New Delhi: SBW Publishers, 1993.
Singer, Peter, ed. Ethics. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.

1.14 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answers to Check Your Progress I
1. Ethics in the Western Philosophy developed mainly in Greece. Socrates,
the great Greek philosopher, was the first one among the Greeks to awaken
his fellow men to the need for rational criticism of their beliefs and practices.
Plato, in his famous work Republic and in other later dialogues and epistles,
constructed a systematic view of nature, God, and man from which he
derived his ethical principles. Aristotle, the greatest of all Greek
philosophers, contributed significantly to a systematic investigation of the
foundations ethics through his ethical writings (i.e. the Nicomachean Ethics,
and the Politics).
Answers to Check Your Progress II
1. Ethics, like any other philosophical discipline, makes use of both the inductive
method and deductive method. Deduction is a process of gaining knowledge
independently of experience through pure logical reasoning. It draws a
particular conclusion from a universal or general truth. For example: All
men are mortal, Ram is a man, and therefore, Ram is mortal. Induction, on
the other hand, begins with the particular and moves to the universal. For
example: Water at Chennai boils at 1000C. Water at Kochi boils at 1000C.
Water at Mumbai boils at 1000C. Therefore water boils at 1000C.
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2. The whole study of ethics can be divided into General Ethics and Special Introduction to Ethics
Ethics. However, considering the different ethical theories, philosophers
divide it into three general subject areas: metaethics, normative ethics and
applied ethics. Metaethics investigates the origin and meaning of ethical
concepts. Normative ethics tries to arrive at moral standards that regulate
right and wrong conduct. Applied ethics involves examining specific
controversial issues such as abortion, ecological problems, etc.
Answers to Check Your Progress III
1. The relevance and need of ethics is felt more than ever in our society today.
We can point out at least three reasons why we should study ethics. First, the
study of moral philosophy or ethics can deepen our reflection on the ultimate
questions of life. It helps a person to look critically at the most important
questions concerning our existence here on earth. Second, the study of moral
philosophy can help us to think better about morality. It can help us to clarify
our moral positions when we make judgments. Third, the study of moral
philosophy can help us to sharpen our general thinking processes. It trains
our mind to think logically and reasonably and to handle moral issues with
greater clarity.

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