Various forces in the Compression,
Frictional force
Distributional force
Radial force
Ejectional force
A. Frictional force
Frictional forces are interparticulate friction & die wall friction. Interparticulate friction forces
occur due to particle-particle contact & it is more significant at low applied load. These forces
are reduced by using glidants e.g. colloidal silica. Die wall friction forces occur from material
pressed against die wall & moved it is dominant at high applied load. These forces are reduced
using lubricants e.g. magnesium stearate.
EFFECT OF FRICTION : At least two major components to the frictional forces can be
distinguished.
1. Interparticulate friction: This arises at particle/particle contact and can be expressed in terms
of a coefficient of interparticulate friction µ i ; it is more significant at low applied loads.
Materials that reduce this effect are referred to as glidants. Colloidal silica, corn starch & talc is a
common example .
2. Die-wall friction: This results from material being pressed against the die wall and moved
down it; it is expressed µw the coefficient of die-wall friction. This effect becomes dominant at
high applied forces, when particle rearrangement has ceased and is particularly important in
tabletting operations. Most tablets contain a small amount of an additive designed to reduce die-
wall friction; such additives are called lubricants. Magnesium stearate is a common choice.
B. Distributional Force : The fundamentals of tabletting have been carried out on single-station
press or even on isolated punch & punches with hydraulic press.
Most investigations of fundamentals of tableting have been
carried out on single punch press or even isolated dies &
punches with hydraulic press. When force is being applied to
top of a cylindric powder mass, the following basic relationship
applies, since there must be an axial (vertical) balance of forces.
FA = FL + FD
FA = Force applied to upper punch; F L = Force transmitted to
lower punch ; FD = Reaction at die wall due to friction at
surface.
Because of this inherent difference between the force applied at
the upper punch and that affecting material close to the lower
punch, a mean compaction force FM, has been rproposed,
FM = (FA + FL ) \ 2
FA- Force applied to upper punch; FL force transmitted to lower punch, FM Mean Force
A recent report confirms that FM offers a practical friction independent measure of compaction
load, which is generally more relevant than FA.
The geometric mean force (FG): FG= (FA * FL)1/2
RADIAL FORCE : As the compression force increased and any repacking of the tabletting
mass is completed, the material may be regarded to some extent as a single solid body. Then as
with other solid, compressive force applied in one direction (e.g. vertical) result in decrease in
the height, i.e. a compressive stress. In The case of an unconfined solid body, this would be
accompanied by an expansion in the horizontal direction of ΔD. The ratio of these two
dimensional changes is known as poisson ratio of the material, ƛ =ΔD /ΔH
Consequently a radial die wall force FR develops perpendicular to the die wall surface. Material
with larger value of ƛ shows larger values of F R. Hence the relationship between FD and FR will
be given by expression
FD= µw.FR
µw is the coefficient of die wall friction.
EJECTION FORCE : Radial die wall forces and die wall friction also affects ejection of the
compressed tablet can be removed from the die. The force necessary to eject the finished tablet is
known as ejection force. This force can eject tablet by breaking tablet/die wall adhesion,
variation also occurs in ejection force when lubrication is inadequate.
It is consist of three stages:
a. Stage 1: peak force, required to initiate ejection by breaking of tablet/die-wall adhesions.
b. Stage 2- small force, that is required to push the tablet up the die wall.
c. Stage 3-declining force of ejection, as tablet emerges from the die.
COMPACTION PROFILES: Compaction is defined as ‘compression and consolidation’ of a
two phase system (particulate solid-gas) due to applied force.
Many attempts have been made to minimize the amount of applied force transmitted radially to
the die walls. All such investigations lead to characteristic hysteresis curves called as
compaction profiles. Radial pressure is developed due to the attempt of material to expand
horizontally. The plot of radial pressure against axial pressure leads to hysteresis curve called as
compaction profiles. Axial Pressure: The force per unit area being applied in the direction in
which the punch moves during compression. Radial Pressure: It is the pressure which
transversely being transmitted to the die-wall at the right angles to the longitudinal punch axis
When the elastic limit of the material is high, elastic deformation may
make the major contribution, and on removal of the applied load, the
extent of the elastic relaxation depends on the value of the materials
modules of elasticity (young’s modulus).
Lower the modulus higher will be the elastic relaxation. Then there
will be the danger of structural failure. Higher the modulus value
results in low decompression hence lesser risk of structural failure.
Compression phase:
OA – Represents repacking of granules or powders.
AB – Represents elastic deformation which continues up to B (elastic limit).
BC –Represents plastic deformation and brittle fracture. Point C indicates the maximum
compression force.
Decompression phase :
CD –Represents elastic recovery on the removal of applied force.
DE –Represents recovery from plastic deformation
E –Represents residual force, which holds the compact in the sides of the die.
Ejection force must be greater than residual force.
How they are measured?
It is analyzed by compaction simulators, these are attached to punching machines which collect
or measure the data from forces on punches, displacement of punches, die wall friction, ejection
force and temperature change.
Types of compaction profiles :
a) Force –time profile b) Force –displacement profile c) Die wall force profile
1) Force time profile: Compression force time profiles are used to characterize the compression
behavior of the active ingredients, excipients and formulations with respect to their plastic and
elastic deformation. a) Compression phase b) Dwell time c) Decompression/relaxation phase
a) Compression phase: Compression is the process in which maximum force is applied on
powdered bed in order to reduce its volume.
b) Dwell phase: when compression force reaches a maximum value, this maximum force is
maintained for prolonged period before decompression. The time period b/w the compression
phase and decompression phase is known as dwell time.
c) Decompression phase: Removal of applied force on powder bed i.e., both punches moving
away from upper and lower surfaces.
a) Compression phase (horizontal and vertical punch
movement)
b) Dwell time (plane punch head area is under
compression roller)
c) Decompression phase (both punches move away
from upper and lower surfaces)
2) Force –displacement profiles: Assessment of the compaction behavior of materials is done
by force –displacement profile . Force –displacement profile can be used to determine the
behavior of plastic and elastic materials. Stress relaxation is observe to be minimal in case of
plastic deformation; where as the material that undergoes elastic deformation tend to relax to a
greater extent during and/or after compression. At a given f max the displacement area of plastic
deformation is more when compared to the displacement area of elastic deformation.
3) Die wall force profile: During tableting, friction arises b/w the material and the die wall
which is called Die wall force friction. The die wall force reaches maximum just after the
maximum upper and lower force, and a constant residual value after upper and lower forces
become zero. The high die wall force during ejection is a sign of adhesion of powders to the die.
Sr. no. Material Residual die wall force
1. Plastic Large
2. Brittle Medium
3. Elastic Low
Energy involved in compaction:
Tablet machines, roller compactors, and similar types of equipment required a high input of
mechanical work.
The work involve in various phase of tablets operation includes.
That necessary to overcome friction between particles.
That necessary to overcome friction between the particles and machine parts.
That required to induce elastic and/ plastic deformation of the materials.
That required causing brittle fracture within the materials.
That associated with the mechanical operation of various machine parts
Applications:
These can be used to monitor compaction cycle.
Compaction profiles give a good assessment of the elastic component of the powder.
Provides information regarding the radial transmission of applied force to the die wall.
Helps in calculating possible ejection force and lubricant requirements.
SOLUBILITY : Solubility is defined as Quantitative terms as concentration of solute in
concentration of solute in concentrated solution at a certain temperature, and in qualitative way it
can be defined as a spontaneous interaction of two or more substance to form a homogeneous
molecular dispersion.
Importance of solubility :
Therapeutics effectiveness of a drug depends upon the bioavailability and ultimately
upon the solubility of drug molecule.
It is important parameter to achieve desired concentration of drug in systemic circulation
for pharmacological response to be shown.
Any drug to be absorbed must be soluble or present in the form of an aqueous solution at
the site of absorption.
Tooling can be defined as tools to craft a particular shape. Tabletting tools i.e., Punches and dies are
essential tools to shape any granules into a solid dosage form by applying compaction force in a
compression machine. Any shape be it round, capsule, animal shape, bullet shape or any special shape
can be obtained with the help of the standard tooling. Now a very common question is what are types of
tooling and what tools shall be opted for the required dosage form. Before understanding these parts, let’s
go through some basics of tooling.
The basic nomenclature of tooling.
Basic Features
Head: Head which rests on the cam, moves on cam during a compression.
Head Flat: Head flatness is vital and it’s size varies depending on tooling types. Compression
rollers in a compression machine press this head flat and that’s where actual compaction takes
place.
Head Chamfer: Head chamfer is provided to remove the sharp edges for smooth operation in
cam.
Head Degree: Head degree facilitates smooth movement in cam.
Neck: Its acts as supporting part for head and body for fitment and allows easy movement in the
punch bore.
Neck to Head Radius: This radius helps tools for easy fitment and avoid any sharp corners
which can wear out turret surface.
Neck to Barrel Radius: This radius assist tools for easy fitment and avoid any sharp corners
which can wear out turret bore.
Barrel Chamfer: It facilitates to avoid any damage to turret bore.
Tip Undercut: Tip undercut acts as a scraper blade for die bore to remove the sticky granules.
Tip Radius: Tip radius offers strength to tip during compression as tip need to travel to a
particular length in Die bore.
Barrel or Body: This part of the tool is used for fitment and sliding in the punch bore.
Key: Key is used mostly in the upper punch for aligning the upper punch tip with respect to die
and avoids any kind of rotation during compression to prevent major accidents.
Groove: The grooves are designed such that dust cup can be fitted to avoid the contamination of
any foreign particles coming from upper punch turret bore.
Tip Length: Tep length defines the penetration point of the tip inside the die bore.
Tip: Tips is your actual tablet size and its cavity provides shape to the tablet during compression.
Cavity: Cavity is the area where the powder gets filled to form a shape during compression.
Die height: Die height is defined as per the die plate bore slot thickness.
Die O.D.(Outer diameter): Die OD is the die bore slot in die plate.
Die Groove: This is the slot where the die lock screw is fixed.
Die O.D.(Outer Dia chamfer): This chamfer reduces sharp edges which can wear and tear die
bore surface.
Die I.D.(Inner dia chamfer): This chamfer minimizes the damages of die bore surface and easy
movement of punches inside the dies.
Tooling Set
A single tooling set comprises of upper punch, lower punch and die. These punches move
vertically in turret bores through cams and compress to form a tablet.
As per international standards, i.e. TSM(Tablet Specification Manual) and EU(Euro Standard),
tooling specs have been standardized so that inventories worldwide can be minimized for tablet
presses. All international manufacturers follow EU standards and TSM standards mostly
followed in the United States of America and in Japan.
Upper punch: Upper punch is fitted in the turret bore and moves vertically in bores during
compression. Upper punches make the upper cavity of the tablet. It is fitted with key for
alignment with die bore in case of shape punches. For round punches, there is no need of key in
upper punches. Upper Punches travels 5-6mm inside the die bore during compression and as per
the penetration setting done in a compression machine. Tip Length is shorter in the upper punch
compared to the lower punch. Tip length of upper punch is generally 8mm-9mm.
Lower punch: The lower punch is fitted in the turret bore and makes the lower cavity of the
tablet during compression. Lower punch tip always stays inside the die bore hence there is no
need of key in case of lower punch. Tip length is relatively longer in the lower punch as it has to
cover the entire height of die and eject the tablet. The lower punch tip length is 25-28mm.
Die: Die is fitted in the die plate. Die bore in die is actually where the filling of powder is done.
Upper punch tip and lower punch tip compresses the powder in the die bore with the help of
compression roller pressure applied on the head flat during compression to make the required
shape of the tablet.
Tooling Types
There are different types of tooling i.e. D, DB, B and BB types. Apart from these standard types,
there are FS tooling, BBS tooling, A tooling and Chinese standard tools which are totally
different than International standard tools.
Tooling Body Die Outer Die Tablet sizes
Types Diameter Diameter Height
D 25.35mm 38.10mm 23.81mm Round 5mm to 25mm,Shape 5mm to
25mm
DB 25.35mm 30.16mm 22.22mm Round 5mm to 19mm, Shape 5mm to
19mm
B 19mm 30.16mm 22.22mm Round 4mm to 16mm,Shape 4mm to
19mm
BB 19mm 24mm 22.22mm Round 4mm to 13mm, Shape 4mm to
19mm
