GENE

EXPRESSION
&
PROTEIN
SYNTHESIS
 INTRODUCTION
Gene expression is the process where
a specific gene's DNA sequence is
transcribed into mRNA, which is then
translated into a protein.

A protein synthesis determines the

structure and function of cells. It’s
how genetic information becomes a
working product that the body can
actually use.
KEY QUESTIONS
• How Does DNA Lead to RNA and Protein?
• How Is DNA Transcribed into RNA?
• What Is the Role of RNA in Translation?
• What Is the Genetic Code?
• How Is Protein Synthesized?
• How Are Genes Regulated?
• What Are Mutations?
• How and Why Do We Manipulate DNA?
• What Is Gene Therapy?
 THE CENTRAL DOGMA
OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
Central Dogma: The flow of genetic information in cells:

DNA → RNA → Protein

DNA is transcribed into RNA.

RNA is translated into protein.

This process is universal in all living organisms.

It’s called the “dogma” because it’s the foundation of

molecular biology.
HOW DOES DNA
DNA TRANSCRIPTION
LEAD TO RNA • Stores genetic
information for cell • The process of
AND PROTEIN? functions.
RNA
copying a
segment of DNA
• Transfer info & into mRNA.
helps make protein

TRANSLATION PROTEINS
• The process of • Carry out most
converting mRNA of the cell's
into a protein by functions and
linking amino acids. determine traits.
The central dogma of molecular biology. The yellow
arrows represent the general cases, and the blue
arrows represent special cases in RNA viruses.
 1. Initiation:
HOW IS DNA • RNA polymerase binds to the DNA at the promoter region, starting the
transcription process.
TRANSCRIBED • DNA unwinds to expose the gene.

INTO RNA? 2. Elongation:

• RNA polymerase adds complementary RNA nucleotides (A-U, C-G) to the
growing mRNA strand.

3. Termination:
• RNA polymerase reaches a termination signal and releases the pre-
mRNA.

4. RNA Processing:
• 5' cap and poly-A tail are added to mRNA.
• Introns (non-coding parts) are removed, leaving mature mRNA.
Transcription of a gene. The information
in one DNA strand is transcribed to a
strand of RNA. The termination site is the
locus of termination of transcription.
WHAT IS THE ROLE OF RNA IN
TRANSLATION?
• mRNA:

Carries the genetic instructions from DNA to the ribosome, where proteins are made.

• tRNA:

Brings the appropriate amino acids to the ribosome, matching its anticodon to the mRNA

codon.

• rRNA:

Part of the ribosome, which assembles the protein by linking amino acids together.

• Translation:

Ribosomes read mRNA codons, and tRNA brings the corresponding amino acids to form a

protein chain.

Translation is the process where cells build proteins

 WHAT IS THE GENETIC CODE?
• Codons:

A codon is a set of three nucleotides in mRNA that codes for a specific amino acid.

• Start Codon:

The codon "AUG" signals the start of protein synthesis and codes for methionine.

• Universal:

The genetic code is almost identical in all organisms, ensuring that the same codons

code for the same amino acids.

• Degeneracy:

Some amino acids are coded by more than one codon, which protects against errors

during translation.
 HOW IS
PROTEIN
SYNTHESIZED?
DELA CRUZ , ZHARLETTE L.
 PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
Protein synthesis is the process by which cells build
proteins, essential molecules for various cellular
functions, using genetic information encoded in DNA,
through transcription and translation.

THERE ARE FOUR STAGES IN PROTEIN

SYNTHESIS:
Activation
Initiation
Elongation
Termination
ACTIVATION
Each amino acid is first activated by
reacting with a molecule of ATP.

The activated amino acid is then bound

to its own particular tRNA molecule
with the aid of an enzyme (a
synthetase) that is specific for that
particular amino acid and that
particular tRNA molecule.
 The initiation stage consists of three steps:
INITIATION
1. Forming the pre-initiation complex:
To initiate the protein synthesis a unique tRNA is used, designated as tRNA fMet. This
tRNA carries a formylated methionine (fMet) residue, but it is used solely for the
initiation step. It is attached to the 30S ribosomal body and forms the pre-initiation
complex, along with GTP. Just as in transcription, each step in translation is aided by
a number of factors; these proteins are called initiation factors

2. Migration to mRNA:
Next, the pre-initiation complex binds to the mRNA (2). The ribosome is aligned on the
mRNA by recognizing a special RNA sequence called the Shine-Dalgarno sequence,
which is complementary to a sequence on the 30S ribosomal subunit. The anti-codon
of the fMet–tRNAfMet, UAC, lines up against the start codon, AUG.

3. Forming the full ribosomal complex:

The 50S ribosomal body joins the 30S ribosomal complex (3). The complete ribosome
carries three sites. The one shown in the middle in Figure 26.6 is called the P site,
because the growing peptide chain will bind there. The one next to it on the right
is called the A (acceptor) site, because it accepts the incoming tRNA bringing the next
amino acid. As the full initiation complex is completed, the initiation factors dissociate
and the GTP is hydrolyzed to GDP.
ELONGATION
1. BINDING TO THE A SITE
2. FORMING THE FIRST
PEPTIDE BOND
3. TRANSLOCATION
4. FORMING THE SECOND
PEPTIDE BOND
TERMINATION
After the final translocation, the next codon reads “stop”. At this point, no
more amino acids can be added. Releasing factors then cleave the polypeptide
chain from the last tRNA. Polypeptide chain will be released from the ribosome
and the ribosome is disassociated into subunits and is ready for a new round of
translation.

HOW ARE GENES REGULATED?

Gene regulation
The control process by which the expression of a gene is turned on or off.
A. CONTROL AT THE TRANSCRIPTIONAL LEVEL
In eukaryotes, transcription is regulated by three entities:
promoters, enhancers, and response elements.
1. PROMOTERS
Promoters are located directly adjacent to the transcription start site of a gene.
They serve as binding sites for RNA polymerase and general transcription factors (GTFs).
Promoters contain specific DNA sequences, such as the TATA box and GC boxes, which are
recognized by these proteins.
2. ENHANCERS
Enhancers are DNA sequences that can be located thousands of base pairs away from the
promoter
They significantly increase the rate of transcription. They bind specific transcription
factors called activators.
 A. CONTROL AT THE TRANSCRIPTIONAL LEVEL
3. RESPONSE
ELEMENTS
These are a special type of
enhancer. They are located
near the promoter.
They respond to specific
external stimuli, such as
hormones, heat shock, or
exposure to heavy metals.
B. CONTROL ON THE POST-TRANSCRIPTIONAL LEVEL
Post-transcriptional control fine-tunes gene expression after DNA has been
transcribed into pre-mRNA turning it into mature mRNA. It ensures the right amount
of protein is produced at right time and place or location.
C. CONTROL ON THE TRANSLATIONAL LEVEL
During translation, a number of mechanisms ensure quality control.

1. The specificity of a tRNA for its unique amino acid.

2. Recognition of the stop codon

3. Post-translational Controls.
Post-translational controls are essential quality control steps that
ensure the proper folding, function, and stability of proteins.
 3. POST-TRANSLATIONAL
CONTROLS
(A) REMOVAL OF C) DEGRADATION OF
(B) CHAPERONING.
METHIONINE Proteins fold into specific three-
MISFOLDED PROTEINS.
Many proteins begin with dimensional structures (tertiary If chaperones fail to correct
misfolding, a cell employs another
methionine, a starting structure) to become functional.
mechanism to deal with problematic
This folding process is not always
amino acid added during the perfect; errors can arise due to
proteins: proteasomes.
initiation of translation. mutations, transcription errors, or
Proteasomes are large protein
translation errors. complexes with proteolytic activity
Often, this initial Chaperone proteins (they break down proteins).
methionine is removed by Misfolded proteins are often tagged
assist in proper protein folding. They guide the
with ubiquitin (a small protein),
an enzyme called protein to its correct folding and often to its
proper location within the cell. The failure of marking them for proteasomal
methionine aminopeptidase chaperones can result in diseases like Alzheimer's
and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease.
degradation.
MUTATIONS
A change in the sequence of bases is called a Mutations can

be caused by an internal mistake or induced by chemicals or

radiation. In fact, a change in just one base can cause a

mutation. A mutation may be harmful or beneficial, or it may

cause no change in the amino acid sequence. If a mutation is

very harmful, the organism may die.

MUTATIONS

Chemicals that cause mutations are called mutagens.

Chemicals that cause cancer are called carcinogens. Many

carcinogens are mutagens, but the reverse is not true.

HOW AND WHY WE
MANIPULATE DNA

With the discovery of restriction enzymes that

can cut DNA molecules at specific points,

scientists have found ways to splice DNA

segments together.
HOW AND WHY WE
MANIPULATE DNA
A human gene (for example, the one that codes for insulin)

can be spliced into a bacterial plasmid. The bacteria, when

multiplied, can then transmit this new information to the

daughter cells so that the ensuing generations of bacteria can

manufacture human insulin. This powerful method is called

the recombinant DNA technique. Genetic engineering is the

process by which genes are inserted into cells.

 GENE THERAPY
Gene therapy is a technique whereby a missing gene is

replaced using a viral vector. In ex vivo gene therapy, cells

are removed from a patient, given the missing gene, and

then the cells are given back to the patient. In in vivo

therapy, the patient is given the virus directly

 GENE THERAPY
Ex vivo gene therapy involves removing cells

from a patient, genetically modifying them

in a lab, and then transplanting them back

into the patient to treat or cure a disease.

 GENE THERAPY
In vivo gene therapy involves directly delivering

genetic material, often using a vector like a

modified virus, into a patient's body to treat

diseases by altering or replacing faulty genes

within their cells.

SUMMARY
• HOW DOES DNA LEAD TO RNA AND PROTEIN?
DNA HOLDS THE INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING PROTEINS. IT FIRST GETS TRANSCRIBED INTO RNA, THEN RNA IS TRANSLATED INTO PROTEINS.
• HOW IS DNA TRANSCRIBED INTO RNA?
TRANSCRIPTION IS THE PROCESS WHERE AN RNA COPY IS MADE FROM A DNA TEMPLATE USING RNA POLYMERASE.

• WHAT IS THE ROLE OF RNA IN TRANSLATION?

RNA (SPECIFICALLY MRNA, TRNA, AND RRNA) HELPS ASSEMBLE AMINO ACIDS INTO PROTEINS DURING TRANSLATION.

• WHAT IS THE GENETIC CODE?

THE GENETIC CODE IS A SET OF RULES WHERE THREE RNA BASES (CODONS) CORRESPOND TO SPECIFIC AMINO ACIDS IN A PROTEIN.
• HOW IS PROTEIN SYNTHESIZED?
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS INVOLVES TRANSCRIPTION (DNA TO RNA) AND TRANSLATION (RNA TO PROTEIN), HAPPENING IN RIBOSOMES.
• HOW ARE GENES REGULATED?
GENE REGULATION CONTROLS WHEN AND HOW MUCH OF A GENE IS EXPRESSED, ENSURING CELLS PRODUCE THE RIGHT PROTEINS AT THE RIGHT
TIME.
• WHAT ARE MUTATIONS?
MUTATIONS ARE CHANGES IN DNA THAT CAN AFFECT PROTEIN FUNCTION. THEY CAN BE HARMLESS, HARMFUL, OR BENEFICIAL.
• HOW AND WHY DO WE MANIPULATE DNA?
WE MANIPULATE DNA THROUGH GENETIC ENGINEERING FOR MEDICINE, AGRICULTURE, AND RESEARCH (E.G., GMOS, CRISPR).
• WHAT IS GENE THERAPY?
GENE THERAPY INVOLVES CORRECTING FAULTY GENES TO TREAT OR PREVENT DISEASES BY INSERTING HEALTHY GENES INTO CELLS.
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