Computer Networks - Layered Architecture Notes
INTRODUCTION
1. Types of Computer Networks:
- LAN (Local Area Network): Covers a small geographic area (e.g., school, home).
- MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): Covers city-wide (e.g., cable TV network).
- WAN (Wide Area Network): Covers large area, often global (e.g., the Internet).
2. Internet and Intranet:
- Internet: Global network of networks.
- Intranet: Private network accessible only within an organization.
3. Network Topologies:
- Bus: Single central cable, nodes attached (e.g., early Ethernet).
- Star: All devices connected to central hub (used in most LANs).
- Ring: Devices connected in a circular fashion.
- Mesh: Every device connected to every other (used in military).
- Tree: Hierarchical layout.
- Hybrid: Combination (e.g., star-bus).
4. Network Classifications:
- Based on scale, connection type (wired/wireless), etc.
5. Layered Architecture Approach:
- Breaks down communication into layers with specific tasks.
6. OSI Model (7 Layers): Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, Application.
7. TCP/IP Model (4 Layers): Link, Internet, Transport, Application.
8. Transmission Modes:
- Simplex: One-way (TV broadcast).
- Half Duplex: Two-way, one direction at a time (walkie-talkie).
- Full Duplex: Two-way simultaneously (telephone).
9. Network Devices:
- Hub, Switch, Router, Modem, Repeater, Gateway.
PHYSICAL LAYER
1. Analog vs Digital Signal:
- Analog: Continuous waveforms (radio).
- Digital: Discrete pulses (used in computer networks).
2. Data Rate:
- Depends on bandwidth and noise level (Shannon & Nyquist Theorems).
3. Transmission Media:
Computer Networks - Layered Architecture Notes
- Guided:
- Twisted Pair (Ethernet cables)
- Coaxial Cable (cable TV)
- Fiber Optics (high-speed internet)
- Unguided:
- Radio Waves (Wi-Fi)
- Infrared (TV remote)
- Microwave (satellite communication)
4. Multiplexing:
- FDM: Different frequencies (radio channels).
- TDM: Time slots (digital telephony).
- WDM: Light wavelengths (fiber optics).
5. Wireless & Satellite Transmission:
- Used in mobile communication, satellite TV, GPS.
DATA LINK AND MAC LAYER
1. Services:
- Framing, Addressing, Error Control, Flow Control.
2. Error Detection/Correction:
- Parity, CRC (used in Ethernet), Hamming Code.
3. Protocols:
- Stop-and-Wait: One frame at a time.
- Go-Back-N: Multiple frames, retransmit on error.
- Selective Repeat: Only incorrect frames are retransmitted.
4. MAC Protocols:
- CSMA/CD (used in wired Ethernet)
- CSMA/CA (used in Wi-Fi)
5. MAC Address:
- 48-bit hardware address, unique to each device.
- Example: [Link]
NETWORK LAYER
1. Functions:
- Routing, Addressing, Packet Forwarding.
2. Virtual Circuits vs Datagrams:
- Virtual Circuit: Path established before sending data (e.g., ATM).
- Datagram: Each packet is routed independently (e.g., IP).
Computer Networks - Layered Architecture Notes
3. Addressing:
- IPv4: 32-bit (e.g., [Link])
- Subnetting: Divides network for efficiency.
- IPv6: 128-bit (e.g., [Link])
4. Routing Algorithms:
- Dijkstra: Shortest Path (link-state)
- Distance Vector: Routing by sharing vector tables (e.g., RIP)
5. Protocols:
- ARP: IP to MAC mapping.
- ICMP: Sends error messages (e.g., ping).
- DHCP: Dynamic IP assignment.
- RARP: MAC to IP (obsolete).
- IPv4/IPv6: Core network layer protocols.
TRANSPORT AND APPLICATION LAYER
1. Process-to-Process Delivery:
- Uses port numbers to deliver data to correct application.
2. Protocols:
- TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Reliable, ordered delivery.
- UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Unreliable, fast.
3. Client-Server Paradigm:
- Server: Provides services (web, mail)
- Client: Requests services (browser, email client)
4. Flow Control:
- TCP sliding window manages data rate.
5. Application Layer Protocols:
- HTTP: Web browsing (port 80)
- HTTPS: Secure web (port 443)
- FTP: File transfer
- DNS: Domain name resolution
- SMTP: Sending email
