Study session 2: Relevance and scope of microbiology

Introduction

Modern Microbiology is a large discipline with different specialized areas. This is because
the entire ecosystem depends on the activities of microorganisms and microorganism
influence human society in countless ways both positively and negatively.

Microbiology has a great impact on Medicine, agriculture, food science, ecology, genetics,
biochemistry and other fields. In this session we shall examine the different aspects of
microbiology and their relevance to human life and also how microorganisms influence
human society.

Learning Outcomes for Study Session

When you have studied this session, you should be able to:

2.1 Describe the branches of microbiology and its relevance to each area

2.2 Explain the different ways in which microorganisms can be beneficial to man.

2.3 Explain ways in which microorganisms can be harmful to man.

2.1 Branches of Microbiology

Microbiology has two main branches: Basic and Applied

Both branches intertwine and are complementary to each other.

2.1.1. The Basic Microbiology:

The basic branch of microbiology is concerned with the study of the biology of
microorganisms. Fields of study here include:

1. Bacteriology: this is the study of bacteria.

2. Mycology: The study of fungi such as yeasts and molds.
3. Algology: The study of algae
4. Parasitology: This is the study of parasitic organisms. This branch is further divided
into protozoology and helminthology.
5. Virology: Study of viruses; these are sub microscopic, parasitic particles.
6. Microbial Cytology: Studies the structures of microbial cells.
7. Microbial Physiology: studies the nutrients that microorganisms require for
metabolism and growth and the products that they make from nutrients.
8. Microbial Genetics : focuses on the nature of genetic information in microorganisms
in microorganisms and how it regulates the development and functions of cells and
organisms
9. Microbial Ecology: the study of microorganisms in their natural environment. It also
studies the global and local contribution to nutrient cycling. In addition, it employs
microorganisms in bioremediation to reduce pollution.
10. Microbial Taxonomy: this is the study of the classification of microorganisms or the
grouping of microorganisms.
11. Biochemistry: deals with the discovery of microbial enzymes and the chemical
reactions they carry out.

2.1.2 The Applied Microbiology

The applied aspect of microbiology deal with practical application of microorganisms to

solve problems related to diseases, water and waste water treatment, and food spoilage and
food production.
The various fields of study in applied microbiology include:

1. Medical Microbiology:
Studies the causative agents of diseases, diagnostic procedures for identification of the
causative agents and preventive measures.
2. Agricultural Microbiology:
This is the study of microbial processes in the soil to promote plant growth. It
involves the study of soil microorganisms which has led to the discovery of
antibiotics and other important chemicals. It also deals with the methods of combating
plant and animal diseases caused by microbes, methods of using microbes to increase
soil fertility and crop yields. Currently much work is being done on using bacterial
and viral insect pathogens to substitute chemical pesticides.

3. Industrial Microbiology: this is the large scale growth of microorganisms for the
production of medicinal products such as antibiotics and vaccines; fermented beverages;
industrial chemicals; production of hormones and proteins by genetically engineered
microorganism.

4. Aquatic Microbiology And Marine Microbiology: deals with microbial processes in

lakes, rivers, and the oceans. It also examines issues that concerns water purification;
microbiology examination; biological degradation of waste.

5. Public Health Microbiology: is closely related to medical microbiology. It deals with

the identification and the control of the spread of communicable diseases. It involves
monitoring of community food establishments and waste supplies so as to keep them safe and
free from infectious agents.

6. Immunology: deals with how the immune system protects the body from pathogens and
the response of infectious agents. It also involves practical health problem such as the nature
and treatment of allergies auto immune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis.

7. Food and Diary Microbiology: deals with the use of microbes to make foods such have
cheese, yoghurt, wine and beer. It also deal with the methods of preventing microbial
spoilage of food and the transmission of food borne diseases such as Botulism and
Salmonellosis. Microorganisms are also used as single cell protein, which is an important
source of protein or nutrients to livestock and humans.

8. Aero microbiology: Advances thought in the dissemination of diseases in the air,

contamination and spoilage.

9. Exomicrobiology: Exploration for life in outer space.

10. Geochemical Microbiology: Coal, mineral and gas formation; prospecting for deposits
of coal, oil and gas and recovery of minerals from low-grade ores.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 2.1

1. Microbiology has two main branches: ________and ________

2. Applied microbiology is subdivided into:

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 2.1

1. Basic and Applied

2. Applied microbiology is also subdivided into Medical Microbiology, Agricultural
Microbiology, Industrial Microbiology, Aquatic Microbiology And Marine
Microbiology, Public Health Microbiology, Immunology, Food And Diary
Microbiology, Aero microbiology, Exomicrobiology and Geochemical Microbiology

2.2 The Beneficial Effect of Microorganisms

Microorganisms have found application in various aspects of life. They are useful in food
industries to produce many food substances, in medicine to produce vaccines and antibiotics,
in environmental protection, and in agriculture, to optimize yield.
 2.2.1 Microorganisms and Food Production

Foods and beverages we consume are the bye products of microorganisms because microbial
produced food products have been found to have properties that are very different from those
of the starting materials and are products of fermentation.

Box 2.1: Fermentation

Fermentation is the chemical transformation of organic compounds carried out by

microorganisms and their enzymes.

In industrial fermentation, raw materials (substrate) are converted by microorganisms in a

controlled favourable environment (created in a fermentor) to form a desired end product
substance.

The bye products of fermentation is seen in some finished dairy products like butter, milk,
yoghurt as well as in conversion of sugar to alcohol in beer industry.

Some microorganisms like various species of yeasts are grown as direct source of protein for
animals aiding their growth and thereby ensuring food security.

Production of Pharmaceuticals

Microorganisms are used to produce different pharmaceuticals products such as antibiotics,

steroids vitamins, hormones etc. Antibiotics are microbially produced substances or
substances synthetically derived from natural sources that inhibit or kill microorganisms,

Steroids regulate various aspects of human metabolisms and are produced by organisms such
as Rhizopus, nigricans.
Vaccines are produced using microorganisms with the antigenic properties to elicit a primary
immune response; they are used to prevent many once deadly diseases such as polio, small
pox, tuberculosis, measles, diphtheria, whooping cough etc.

Vitamins are also produced by microbial fermentation e.g. vitamin B12 by Streptomyces,
B12 by Pseudomonas denitrifican. Riboflavin produced by various species of Clostridium
and Ashbya gossypii. Human insulin and human growth hormone are produced by
genetically engineered bacteria.

2.2.2 Production of Organic Acids

Various organic acids are produced by microorganisms examples are:

a. Gluconic acid: used pharmaceutically to supply calcium to the body by several fungi
including Penicillium and Aspergillus species.
b. Citric acid produced by Aspergillus niger and used as a food additive especially in the
production of soft drinks.
c. Lactic acid is produced by different lactic acid bacteria for example, lactobacillus
delbrueckii lactic, and is used in foods as preservatives, in leather production for
deliming hides and in the textile industry for fabric treatment, plastics making in
baking powders.

2.2.3 Hygiene

Hygiene is the avoidance of infection and food spoilage by eliminating microorganisms from
the surrounding. Our knowledge of how diseases causing microorganisms spread has
permitted us to reduce the incidence of many diseases. Also improved sanitation practices
have helped to reduce the incidence of diseases

Microorganisms from the surroundings can be totally removed by methods such as

sterilization or reduced to acceptable levels using methods such as disinfection and antisepsis.

In food preparation, microbes are reduced to acceptable levels using methods such as
pasteurization, addition of vinegar. While complete sterility is achieved by autoclaving or
irritation.
 2.2.3 Energy Production

Microorganisms play major roles in energy production. Microbes are used in fermentation to
produce ethanol and in biogas reactions to produce methane using various forms of
agricultural and urban wastes. Microbial production of synthetic fuels acts as an alternative
fuel resources to petroleum.

The microbial production of ethanol from sugarcane or corn starch has become an important
source of a valuable fuel, particularly in areas of the world that have abundant supplies of
plant residues such as Brazil and is becoming popular in the United States.

2.2.4 Useful in the Study of Science

Microbes are essential tools in biotechnology, biochemistry genetics molecular biology and
genomics. Examples are the yeasts (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and fission yeast
(Shizosaccharomyces pombe) which are model organisms in science. They can easily be
grown rapidly in large quantities and are easily manipulated.

Biotechnology uses genetic engineering which is the artificial manipulation of genes and
genes products. Genes from any sources can be manipulated and modified using
microorganisms and their enzymes as molecular tools e.g. human insulin, a hormone which is
very small in people with diabetes is produced by genetically engineered bacteria into which
human genes have been inserted.

2.2.5 Recovery of Metals from their Ores

Microorganisms are used to recover metals from their ores by the process of bioleaching.
Bioleaching uses microorganisms to alter the physical or chemical properties a metallic ore
so that the metal can be extracted. The bacteria Thiobacillus feroxidans recover copper and
uranium from their ores.

2.2.6 Microorganisms and Agriculture

Microorganisms help in nitrogen fixation used by plants for growth. In terrestrial habitats, the
microbial fixation of atmospheric nitrogen is carried out by free living bacteria such as
Rhizobium and Bradychizebium living in symbiotic association with plants.
Microorganisms in the lumen of ruminant animals such as cattle and sheep also help in the
digestion of cellulose present in grasses on which they feed on. Microorganisms help in the
cycling of nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen and sulphur which are needed to maintain
ecological balance.

Microorganisms are also used as biological control agents. Fungi, bacteria and viruses can be
used as bio insecticides or bio pesticides e.g. Bacillus thuringensis. Microbial activities in soil
and water convert these elements to forms that are readily assimilated by plants.

2.2.8 Microorganisms and the Environment

Microorganisms can be used to clean up pollution created by human activities in a process

called bioremediation.

Pollutants such as pesticides, spilled oil solvents which could pose human health hazard are
degraded to nontoxic substances by microorganisms. Microorganisms are used to degrade
wastes and pollutants so as to maintain and restore environmental quality.

2.2.9 Sewage Treatment

Microorganisms are also used in sewage treatment; especially cultured microbes are used in
the biological treatment of sewage and industrial waste effluent in a process known as bio
augmentation. Thus help to get rid of waste materials when could have accumulated in the
environment.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 2.2

Describe the relevance of microorganisms to Hygiene

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 2.2

Hygiene is the avoidance of infection and food spoilage by eliminating

microorganisms from the surrounding. Our knowledge of how diseases causing
microorganisms spread has permitted us to reduce the incidence of many diseases.
Also improved sanitation practices have helped to reduce the incidence of diseases
 Microorganisms from the surroundings can be totally removed by methods such as
sterilization or reduced to acceptable levels using methods such as disinfection and
antisepsis.

In food preparation, microbes are reduced to acceptable levels using methods such as
pasteurization, addition of vinegar. While complete sterility is achieved by
autoclaving or irritation.

2.3 Harmful Effect of Microorganism

2.3.1 As Disease Agents.

Microbial diseases are still the major cause of death in many developing countries.
Microorganisms cause different diseases in man such as:

 AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) caused by the Human Immuno

Deficiency Virus (HIV).
 Tuberculosis caused by bacteria. Mycobacterium tuberculosis
 Cholera caused by a bacteria Vibrio cholera.
 Malaria caused by four species of the Protozoa called Plasmodium transmitted by the
female anopheles mosquito.

Other emerging diseases include Bird flu, swine flu, ebola etc.

2.3.2 Use in Biological Warfare

Biological warfare is also known as germ warfare. It is the use of pathogens such as viruses,
bacteria, or the toxins produced by them as biological weapons or agents of warfare.

A biological weapon may be used to kill, incapacitate or seriously impair a person, group of
people or even an entire population. It can be used as a military technique by nations during
wars.
There are four kinds of biological warfare agents, bacteria, viruses, fungi and rickettsia. They
are living organisms that reproduce within their host victims who then become contagious
with deadly diseases. Toxins on the other hand that are produced in the victims within a short
incubation period (usually with a few hours) kill the victims.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 2.3

1. Harmful effect of microorganism include:__________ and ________

2. Types of biological warfare agents include:

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 2.3

1. Harmful effect of microorganisms include as a disease agent and use in biological

warfare.
2. Bacteria, viruses, fungi and rickettsia

Summary of Study Session 2

In this Study Session, you have learned the following:

1. Microbiology, the scientific study of microorganisms is classified under two broad

headings which are Basic and Applied microbiology.
2. Basic microbiology is concerned with study of biology of microorganisms while
applied microbiology is concerned with practical application of microbiology towards
solving problems.
3. Basic microbiology is subdivided into bacteriology, algology, mycology,
parasitology, virology, microbial cytology, microbial physiology, microbial genetics,
microbial taxonomy and biochemistry.
4. Applied microbiology is also subdivided into Medical Microbiology, Agricultural
Microbiology, Industrial Microbiology, Aquatic Microbiology and Marine
Microbiology, Public Health Microbiology, Immunology, Food and Diary
Microbiology, Aero microbiology, Exomicrobiology and Geochemical Microbiology.
5. The benefit of microorganisms to man as in areas like food production and storage,
Agriculture, Environmental protection, Hygiene and sewage treatment as well as
sciences and pharmacology.
 6. The harmful effect of microorganisms are described under their abilities to cause
diseases and was seen as the major cause of death in the world while they are also
used as biological weapons in warfare causing destruction of lives and properties.

Glossary of terms

1. Bacteriology: this is the study of bacteria.

2. Mycology: The study of fungi such as yeasts and molds.
3. Algology: The study of algae
4. Parasitology: This is the study of parasitic organisms.
5. Virology: Study of viruses; these are sub microscopic, parasitic particles.

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 2

Having completed this study session, you can measure how well you have achieved its
Learning Outcomes by answering these questions.

SAQ 2.1 (Testing Learning Outcome 2.1)

1. Describe ways of classifying microbiology and explain briefly the contents of each
classification

SAQ 2.2 (Testing Learning Outcome 2.2)

1. Describe the relevance of microorganisms in relations to the following spheres of life

of mankind
(a) Food and Agriculture
(b) Immunization and Hormone replacement therapy.
(c) Environmental sanitation and hygiene.
(d) Vitamins production
2. Explain the following terms and state how relevant they are in microbiology.
(a) Fermentation
(b) Bioremediation
 SAQ 2.3 (Testing Learning Outcome 2.3)

3. How are microorganisms harmful to mankind?

Notes on SAQs for Study Session 2

SAQ 2.1

1. As discussed in this study session, your answer should include basic and applied
microbiology
Basic microbiology is subdivided into bacteriology, algology, mycology,
parasitology, virology, microbial cytology, microbial physiology, microbial genetics,
microbial taxonomy and biochemistry.
Applied microbiology is also subdivided into Medical Microbiology, Agricultural
Microbiology, Industrial Microbiology, Aquatic Microbiology and Marine
Microbiology, Public Health Microbiology, Immunology, Food and Diary
Microbiology, Aero microbiology, Exomicrobiology and Geochemical Microbiology.

SAQ 2.2

1. As previously discussed relevance of microorganisms can be summarized as follows

in different areas such as in

(a)Food and Agriculture:

Foods and beverages we consume are the bye products of microorganisms
because microbial produced food products have been found to have properties that
are very different from those of the starting materials and are products of
fermentation. Microorganisms are also used as biological control agents. Fungi,
bacteria and viruses can be used as bio insecticides or bio pesticides e.g. Bacillus
thuringensis. Microbial activities in soil and water convert these elements to forms
that are readily assimilated by plants.

(b)Immunization and hormone replacement

 Vaccines are produced using microorganisms with the antigenic properties to elicit a
primary immune response, they are used to prevent many once deadly diseases such
as polio, small pox, tuberculosis etc. measles, diphtheria and whooping cough.

Human insulin and human growth hormone are produced by genetically engineered
bacteria and also steroids and growth hormones are bye products of microbial effects

(c)Environmental sanitation and hygiene

Microorganisms can be used to clean up pollution created by human activities in a

process called bioremediation.

Pollutants such as pesticides, spilled oil solvents which could poses human health
hazard are degraded to nontoxic substances by microorganisms. Microorganisms are
used to degrade wastes and pollutants so as to maintains and restores environmental
quality.

Hygiene is the avoidance of infection and food spoilage by eliminating

microorganisms from the surrounding. Our knowledge of how diseases causing
microorganisms spread has permitted us to reduce the incidence of many diseases.
Also improved sanitation practices have helped to reduce the incidence of diseases.

(d)Vitamins production

Vitamins are also produced by microbial fermentation e.g. vitamin B12 by

Streptomyces, B12 by Pseudomonas denitrifican. Riboflavin produced by various
species of Clostridium and Ashbya gossypii.

2. Fermentation is the chemical transformation of organic compounds carried out by

microorganisms and their enzymes. In industrial fermentation, raw materials
(substrate) are converted by microorganisms in a controlled favourable environment
(created in a fermentor) to form a desired end product substance.

Microorganisms can be used to clean up pollution created by human activities in a

process called bioremediation.
 Pollutants such as pesticides, spilled oil solvents which could poses human health
hazard are degraded to nontoxic substances by microorganisms. Microorganisms are
used to degrade wastes and pollutants so as to maintain and restore environmental
quality.

SAQ 2.3

Microorganisms are harmful to man in causing diseases as well as being used in making
weapons and explosives in warfare.