Detailed and Easy-to-Understand Notes on Sampling Methods (Expanded Version)

1. Definition of Sampling

Sampling is a research method used to select a smaller group (called a sample) from a larger group (known
as the population). This process helps researchers study a manageable group of people to draw conclusions
about the entire population without needing to study every single person. The idea is to save time, money,
and effort while still gaining accurate, meaningful, and reliable results that apply to the larger group.

For example, if a researcher wants to examine the study habits of all university students in Pakistan, it
would be extremely difficult and expensive to collect data from every student. Instead, the researcher can
select a smaller group of students from various universities that reflect the diversity of the larger student
population. This selected group becomes the sample that represents the population in the research.

• Population refers to the entire group that the researcher wants to study. For example, all
government school teachers in Punjab.
• Sample is a portion of the population chosen to be studied in detail. For example, 200 teachers
selected from 20 randomly picked government schools.
• Target Population is the broader group to which the researcher wants to generalize the study
results.
• Accessible Population is the actual portion of the population available for data collection, which
may be limited by geography, resources, or time.

2. Why Sampling is Important

Sampling is essential in research because it helps manage large populations by reducing the size to a
manageable level while still allowing for meaningful and trustworthy conclusions. Studying an entire
population is often unrealistic due to constraints in budget, time, energy, and human resources. Sampling
provides a way to conduct research more efficiently and with fewer complications.

For instance, if the government wants to find out the level of public satisfaction with healthcare services in
Pakistan, conducting interviews with every citizen is not feasible. Instead, researchers might sample 1,000
people from a variety of provinces, cities, and villages. The feedback from these individuals can give insights
into the overall healthcare satisfaction of the country.

3. Characteristics of a Good Sample

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A good sample allows a researcher to collect information that can accurately reflect the views or behaviors
of the entire population. To achieve this, certain features must be present in the sample:

• Representative: The sample should have similar characteristics to the population in terms of
gender, age, profession, etc. For example, if the population consists of 60% females and 40% males,
the sample should also have a similar ratio.
• Adequate Size: A large enough sample is necessary to reduce the chances of errors. If a sample is
too small, the data collected might not be reliable or generalizable.
• Unbiased: The selection method should not favor any particular group. Everyone should have a fair
opportunity to be selected. Bias leads to inaccurate and misleading results.
• Random: The best way to ensure fairness and avoid bias is to select participants randomly so that
each member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen.

4. Census Sample

In some cases, researchers choose not to use sampling but instead include every member of the population
in the study. This is known as a census. A census is only practical and affordable when the population is
small or the information needed is extremely important.

For example, a principal might want to survey all 25 teachers in his school to understand their satisfaction
with school policies. Since the number is small, he can use a census and gather complete information
without the need for sampling.

5. Factors Influencing Sample Representativeness

To ensure the sample accurately reflects the population, the following three factors are very important:

1. Sampling Procedure: The method used to select participants (e.g., random sampling) should be
appropriate for the research question and population.
2. Sample Size: A larger sample typically provides better results because it includes more diversity and
reduces the margin of error.
3. Participation Rate: A high number of respondents increases the chances that the sample will be
representative. Low participation can lead to biased outcomes.

For example, if only 20 out of 100 selected students respond to a survey, the results may not reflect the
views of all 100.

6. When to Use the Whole Population

There are some special situations where studying the entire population is the best choice:

• When the population is very small, such as the 10 administrative heads of a small private university.
• When researchers have enough budget, time, and manpower to reach out to everyone.

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 • When it is critical to hear from every individual, especially if ignoring non-respondents could damage
the accuracy of the findings.

For example, during an internal audit of a department with only 8 employees, the organization may choose
to survey all of them.

7. Sampling Frame Errors

The sampling frame is the list or source from which the sample is drawn. If this list is outdated or
incomplete, it can lead to errors and misrepresentation.

For example, if a researcher uses a 3-year-old contact list of university students to conduct a survey, some
listed students may have graduated while new students may be missing. This leads to inaccurate results.

8. Types of Sampling

Sampling methods are generally divided into two categories: Probability Sampling and Non-Probability
Sampling.

A. Probability Sampling

This method ensures that each member of the population has a known and usually equal chance of being
selected. It is more reliable, scientific, and allows generalization to the population.

1. Simple Random Sampling: Every individual has an equal chance. For example, 200 students' names
are placed in a box and 20 names are drawn randomly.

2. Stratified Sampling: The population is split into meaningful subgroups, and random samples are
taken from each group. For example, dividing high school students into boys and girls and selecting
equal numbers from each group.

3. Cluster Sampling: The population is divided into clusters (e.g., neighborhoods or schools). Some
clusters are randomly chosen, and data is collected from everyone in those selected clusters. This is
cost-effective and useful for geographically spread populations.

4. Systematic Sampling: Every kth person from a list is chosen. For example, selecting every 5th name
from a list of conference attendees.

B. Non-Probability Sampling

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This method does not guarantee that every member has a known or equal chance of selection. It is less
formal and often used when probability methods are not possible.

1. Convenience Sampling: Participants are selected based on ease of access. For example, surveying
people at a park because they are nearby and available.

2. Judgmental/Purposive Sampling: The researcher selects specific individuals based on experience

3. Quota Sampling: Participants are selected to meet a specific quota. For example, if a survey requires
50 males and 50 females, the researcher selects people until these numbers are met.

4. Snowball Sampling: Initial participants refer others from the same population. It is often used when
the population is hard to find, such as refugees or former drug addicts.

9. Sample Size

The sample size depends on the nature and diversity of the population as well as the purpose of the study.

• In a highly diverse population, a larger sample is needed to reflect various groups accurately.
• In probability sampling, larger samples reduce errors and increase the ability to generalize.
• In non-probability sampling, although results may not apply to the whole population, a well-sized
sample helps to ensure internal consistency and reliability.

For example, a national survey on income inequality would need a large and diverse sample including
people from urban and rural areas, different income levels, genders, and professions.

10. Response Rates

Response rate is the percentage of people who complete the survey out of those who were invited to
participate.

• Typically, only 20–30% of people respond to surveys without reminders.

For instance, if a survey is sent to 200 doctors and only 60 reply, the opinions of the 140 who did not
respond could lead to different results, making the findings less reliable.

Let me know if you’d like diagrams, flowcharts, tables, or visual summaries added to further support these
notes!