© 1987-2005 - 050118

PRODUCTION LOGGING TOOLS

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Tool Summary
Main Measurements

Single phase profiles

Temperature
Pressure
Spinner Flowmeter

Multi-phase profiles
Density, Gradiomanometer
Capacitance
Imaging tools
Direct velocity measurement
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Tool Summary
Auxiliary Measurements

Flowing section
Caliper

Depth control
Gamma Ray
Casing Collar Locator

Other
Pulsed Neutron – Oxygen Activation
Noise log
Tracer

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Tools Summary

Flowmeters Fluid Velocity

Density Fluid mixture or hold up
Capacitance Water holdup
Pressure Pressure profiles & Pseudo-density
Temperature Variations from the gradient (flow analysis)
Calculation of pressure (gauge calibration)
P&T Needed to compute fluid properties
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Typical PL Tool string

Sondex
MPLT

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Flowmeters

Flowmeters measure flow…..

Hence they are used to detect flow phenomena, for example:

Where is the flow coming from?

Are all perforations flowing?

Is there crossflow?

Are there any leaks?

 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Flowmeters

One of the simplest and yet

most important tools in the
string

Measures:
-RPS
-FLUID VELOCITY

In line Fullbore Petal Basket

© 1987-2005 - 050118

SCHLUMBERGER PFCS

X-Y CALIPER FLOVIEW or

CENTRALIZER GHOST PROBES
RELATIVE
BEARING

ELECTRONICS

SPINNER
ROLLER or SKID
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Flowmeter Types

Fullbore Spinner Fullbore Spinner Continuous Continuous Spinner In-line Spinner Diverter
3-arm 6-arm Spinner Jewelled Flowmeter

© 1987-2005 - 050118

More Spinners
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

More Spinners

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Flowmeter Types

In line Flowmeters
small spinner
good for high flowrates

Full bore Flowmeters

maximum spinner blade size
best for wide range of flowrates
Can be a problem for injection wells

Petal Basket
stationary measurement
good for low flowrates
typically < 2000bbl/d
May affect flow regime
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Flowmeters:
Principle of Operation
Electrical
Connection

Pick-up Coil or
Optical Sensor
Magnet

Tubing or casing
Spinner

Tool Body Diameter

1” 25.4mm
1 3/8” 35mm
1 11/16” 43mm
2 1/8” 54mm

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Spinner Reversal

“Ideal” unsigned
Good signed spinner Noisy signed spinner
spinner
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Flowmeters

Several passes have been

made at different speeds.

Producing well

Unsigned spinner

Signed responses

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Simple Spinner Interpretation

z Maximum spinner response

normalized to surface
flowrate

z Can work in simple single-

phase flow (water injector)

z Does not work in multiphase

flow, or in changing fluid
properties (viscosity)
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Two-Pass Technique

Two passes of spinner, up and

down, are overlayed in the zero
flow area, which eliminates the
effects of changing viscosity.

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Flowmeters:
What Is Measured

The spinner is centered in the casing, hence measures the flow in

the centre portion of the pipe, (usually the maximum).
A correction has to be applied to get the average flowrate.

LAMINAR FLOW

Dye

TURBULENT FLOW
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

VPCF Experimental Basis

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Flowmeters:
Velocity Correction

1.0
Spinner Blade Diameter/Pipe Internal Diameter 0.8
0.2
Correction Factor C

Ratio
0.8
TURBULENT FLOW Blade Diam
Pipe ID

0.6

LAMINAR FLOW
0.4

Reynolds Number NRe

The correction depends on whether there is laminar or turbulent flow,

which is determined by the Reynolds number.
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Spinner Response

Flowrate measurement relies on relative fluid-tool velocity

We need to convert spinner rps to fluid velocity

V
Cable Velocity

Fluid Velocity

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Calibration of Spinners

• The tool measures RPS as the fluid moves past the impeller
• The actual rps are also dependent on the logging speed,
direction of the tool and the pitch of the spinner.
• The response slope is in RPS per ft/min and the intercept is
ft/min (or equivalent metric units)
• The intercept is known as the threshold velocity or lowest flow
velocity required to start the spinner rotating
• In a typical producing well the spinner reads higher running into
the well (against the flow) than running out (with the flow) at the
same speed.
• To find the actual fluid velocity the spinner must be calibrated at
downhole conditions – IN-SITU CALIBRATION
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Kappa Conventions

POSITIVE cable velocity is going down

Depth is increasing as we go down, so cable speed must be
positive

Spinner is NEGATIVE when tool moves UP

Depth is decreasing as we go up, so cable speed must be
negative

Positive Spinner

Up Velocity Down Velocity

- CS + CS

Negative Spinner

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Ideal response - Zero Flow

rps: frequency of rotation

rps = a × V fs Vfs: fluid velocity, relative to spinner

a: pitch coefficient, function of tool geometry

rps
Vfs < 0 Vfs > 0

Response slope

-CS (UP) Vfs +CS (DOWN)

Typical FBS
response slope
0.05rps/ft/min
0.15rps/m/min
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Real response – Zero Flow

rps
b µ Increasing µ
rps = aV fs − −c viscosity ρ
decreasing
ρV fs ρV fs

a: pitch coefficient (geometrical)

Vfs
b: bearing friction coefficient
c: fluid friction coefficient
Threshold (+) + threshold (-)
ρ: fluid density
µ: fluid viscosity

Typical threshold Fullbore

Liquid 3-6 ft/min (1-2m/min)
Gas 10-20 ft/min (3-6m/min)

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Spinner Calibration: Non-zero Flow

Spinner
With the well flowing
rps
The line is shifted vertically
Va away from the zero flow line,
Midpoint for each of the
ow
Fl
ro corresponding cable
Ze
Tool Velocity speeds.
UP Tool Velocity
Va
DOWN
Vf
ow
Fl
r o
Ze
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Effect of fluid type

NOTE:
In reality both slope
and threshold
change with fluid
RPS type

Increase in threshold from liquids to gas.

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Logging Sequence

Record Base Shut in Survey

Well shut in for extended period Record Post Flowing Shut in Survey

Pressure

Time Lapse passes

through shut in period

Time
Record Flowing Survey
Well stabilised (Pressure, Temperature, Flowrate)

*Note: Various constraints may limit the recording or extent of some of the surveys above.
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Spinner Calibration Data

1. Steady spinner
2. Steady Cable speed
3. Constant fluid type

Calibration Intervals

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Spinner Plot
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Emeraude Calibration

Mode 1 Unique value of (+) and (-) threshold

6 4 6 4

Mode 2 Unique ratio T (-)/(Int (-) - Int (+))

18 12 6 4

Manufacturer Default Ratio = 0.583

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Anomalies

Different slopes & thresholds Overlapping intercepts

It is normal that both the positive and Overlapping intercepts can often be found in
negative thresholds and slopes are deviated wells, where the oil is flowing faster
assymetrical due to assymetry between on the high side of the hole.
the upper and lower surfaces of the blade.
During logging the spinner trajectory can be in
the oil when logging down, and the slower
water when logging up.
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

The spinner pitch

Spinner = Screw
Fluid = Bolt

When the fluid (bolt) moves one pitch,

the screw (spinner) makes one turn.

pitch = 1 / (Calibration slope)

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Spinner Reversal

• Spinner reversal occurs when the relative velocity

between the tool to the wellbore fluid changes
from positive to negative

• Typically occurs on the UP passes at the first fluid

entry (Be careful with injectors!!)

• It can be difficult to see the reversal if the spinner

never actually goes to zero rps. Caused by
averaging of spinner data, and filtering during
acquisition.

• A spinner calibration plot will quickly indicate the

occurrence of a spinner reversal.
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Non- directional Spinners : Reversal

Increasing
velocity
Fluid entries

Spinner rotates
clockwise due to
tool movement
in static fluid
No Flow

0 20

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Spinner Reversal

Spinner rotates
Fluid entries

clockwise more
slowly due to
fluid entry

0 20
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Spinner Reversal

Spinner stalls when

Fluid entries

tool velocity is
similar to the fluid
velocity

0 20

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Spinner Reversal
Fluid entries

Spinner starts
turning
again, but in the
opposite direction,
as
fluid velocity
exceeds
tool velocity
0 20
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Non- directional vs Directional Spinner

Response
Fluid entries

0 20 -10 0 10

Unsigned Signed

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Spinner summary
D epth Z CS SPIN • Continuous or inline vs. diverter
ft -200 ft/ min 200 -10 rps 22

• In-situ Calibration (reversal ?)

8200
• Vapp at each selected zone

8300 • Computer interpretation:continuous

fluid Vapp channel
8400

VAPP
VAPP P1,I1 [ft/ min]

20

10

0
-1 0 0 0 100

-1 0

-2 0
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Spinner Tool Specs

READ SPARTEK SCHLUMBERGER

(Sondex)
Inline &
Fullbore

Accuracy +/- 0.3% +/- 2%

Resolution 0.1 rps 0.125 rps 2 ft/min

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Petal Basket Calibrations

Low Flowrate Tools or Diverter Flowmeters expand their

effective diameter below tubing to divert the flow through
an orifice containing a small diameter spinner, thereby
increasing the fluid velocity to a measurable level.

These devices have good fluid sampling characteristics

because the majority of the fluids must go through the
spinner section.

These devices usually have an umbrella configuration

that diverts the fluid into the orifice; this generally
requires a stationary type of data collection.
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Petal Basket

e
ns
pos
Mode 4

Re
ak
Le
ro
Ze
.

3
Tool calibration chart

e
od
M
supplied by manufacturer
2
e
od
M

1
de
Mo

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Factors Affecting Spinner Response

Well
Sketch

What happens here?

1….?
2….?
3….?
4….?

Spinner RPS
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Possible Explanations

1. Leak
2. Squeeze perforations
3. Casing weight change
4. Rate change at wellhead
5. Change of cable speed
6. Fluid interface
7. Collapsed casing
8. Scale
9. Metal loss
10. Spinner damaged – tool condition
11. Specified completion incorrect
12. Bubble point PVT change

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Caliper Input

Caliper

Casing/ hole size

change!

Spinner RPS
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Density and Holdup Tools

The objective of these tools is to measure the fluid density or the

mixture hold up.
Tool types are:

Fluid Density
gradiomanometer
nuclear fluid density tool

Hold - up
Capacitance / Impedance tools
Imaging Tools
bubble count tool – water-hydrocarbon hold up
optical device – gas-liquid hold up

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Density and Holdup Tools

The hold up or fluid density is essential when dealing with

anything other than single phase flow (eg. a water well).

The measurement gives answers to:

z What fluids are coming from which perforations

z Coning

z Direct in-situ measurement of fluid density

z Fluid contact information

 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Gradiomanometer

The tool measures the

difference in pressure
between two points a fixed
distance apart, using a
single sensor.
The single differential
pressure sensor gives the
density.

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Gradiomanometer

P2 - P1
(tool specific)

PB - PA
(friction, deviation)

Density

The measurement is affected by its

environment.
The tool is in a well, possibly deviated,
with fluid moving past it.
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Gradio - vertical
Silicon oil, ρso
P2 = PB
P1 = PA + ρ so gh
P2 − P1 = [PB − PA ] − ρ so gh
⎡ dP ⎤ ⎡ dP ⎤
P2 − P1 = ρ fluid gh + ⎢ ⎥ +⎢ ⎥ − ρ so gh
⎣ dZ ⎦ fric ⎣ dZ ⎦ acc

[P2 − P1 ] − ⎡⎢ dP ⎤⎥ ⎡ dP ⎤
−⎢
⎣ dZ ⎦ fric ⎣ dZ ⎥⎦ acc
⇒ ρ fluid = + ρ so
gh
If/when friction/acceleration are not significant

ρ fluid =
[P2 − P1 ] + ρ
so
gh

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Gradio - deviated

⎡ dP ⎤ ⎡ dP ⎤
P2 − P1 = ρ fluid gh cos (θ ) + ⎢ + − ρ so gh cos (θ )
⎣ dZ ⎥⎦ fric ⎢⎣ dZ ⎥⎦ acc

[P2 − P1 ] − ⎡⎢ dP ⎤⎥ −
⎡ dP ⎤
⎣ dZ ⎦ fric ⎢⎣ dZ ⎥⎦ acc
⇒ ρ fluid = + ρ so
gh cos (θ )
θ

ρ fluid =
[P2 − P1 ] + ρ
gh cos (θ )
so

NOTE: Schlumberger gradio reading

“WFDE” should be already corrected
for deviation from the internal tool
deviation data.
Suggested to use “UWFD”
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Gradio – corrected ?

ρ uncorr =
[P2 − P1 ] + ρ uncorrecte d for deviation
so
gh

ρ corr
[P − P1 ] + ρ corrected for deviation
= 2
gh cos (θ )
so

⇒
ρ uncorr − ρ so ρ − ρ so [1 − cos (θ )]
ρ corr = + ρ so = uncorr
cos (θ ) cos (θ )

Check what channel is output, since Emeraude can also

make corrections for deviation !!!

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Example of Gradiomanometer Deviation

Correction
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Gradiomanometer

Density channel function of pressure gradient and deviation

Tool response = f( dP/dZ, Dev)

dP/dZ comprises several components

dP/dZ = [dP/dZ]h + [dP/dZ]pf + [dP/dZ]tf + [dP/dZ]a

[dP/dZ]h = Density.Visc.(cos Dev) hydrostatic head

[dP/dZ]pf = friction along the pipe

[dP/dZ]tf = friction due to the tool presence, Not for pseudo density

[dP/dZ]a = acceleration, seldom significant (mist, gas)

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Gradiomanometer: Friction

FRICTION:

Function of the mixture velocity

Function of the mixture viscosity
Calculated using Moody friction factor

[dP/dZ]f = f (Nre, rt).ρ.V² / (2.D)

rt, relative roughness

Nre, Reynolds number Nre = ρ.V.D/µ

Hence the friction corrected density is only computed after the

rates have been calculated????

Therefore an iterative solution method is required, since we need

to know the velocity to calculate the friction, which in turn will allow
us to calculate the velocity.
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Frictions

dP fρV ² S
= ×
dZ 8 A
where:

f : friction factor, function of the appropriate Re number and roughness

S: the surface in contact with the fluid
A: area opened to flow
ρ: density
V: the speed of the fluid relative to the considered surface.

The density appearing in the above equations depends on the flow

regime. For instance in annular flow, a liquid film is in contact with the
pipe and only the liquid density is considered.

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Friction Correction
10 5

7” casing "
5/ 8
9

45,000bbl/d (7150m3/d) 8
5/8
"
"
8
5/
6
Corrected gradio = 5% "
Downhole flow rate

5/8
7

7"

5"
" "
1/2 1/2
5 4
10 4

Friction Correction also depends on

individual tool characteristics,
particularly:
position of sensing ports
tool orientation and position
fluid velocity
10 3
1.01 1.02 1.05 1.10 1.20 1.50 2.0
ρ gradio / ρ
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Moody friction factor

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Relative Roughness

Commercial Steel
ID Relative Roughness
3” 0.0006
6.2” 0.0003
Relative Roughness

Relative Roughness = Absolute Roughness

Pipe ID

Absolute Roughness is a function of the pipe material

and the manufacturing process.
e.g. Commercial Steel = 0.00015
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Roughness

Relative Roughness Coefficient

Suggestions??

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Nuclear Density

Direct density measurement

Small caesium-137 source
Count rate measured at the detector is a
function of the electron density in the fluid
around the tool
γ-ray
Some RA Density tools measure the
density in a cavity, within the diameter of
the density tool itself, and consequently the
density measurement is measured
according to the tool position in the
wellbore.
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Nuclear Density

The advantage of the nuclear fluid density tool is that its

measurement is not affected by wellbore deviation or by
friction effects

However, since the tool relies on radioactive decay, the

readings are subject to statistical variations

It should also be noted that the measured quantity is the

average density of the flowing mixture; thus, it is subject to
the same holdup effects as the gradiomanometer

It is a nuclear tool with a source.

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Pseudo-density

dp/dZ calculated from p vs Z

Needs:
- correction for pipe friction
- correction for deviation
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Density

• The density measurement give an instant picture of

the fluids in the well

• The slowest pass is best, as there are less effects on

the curve.

• Fix the “water” and “oil” lines.

• Look for changes which will indicate entries of

different fluids.

• The sump may give confusing readings.

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Density Tool Specs

READ READ SPARTEK SCHLUMBERGER

Tuned Nuclear Gradio Gradio
Density

Accuracy +/- 0.001g/cc +/- 0.03 g/cc +/- 0.03g/cc +/- 0.04g/cc

Resolution 0.00001g/cc 0.01g/cc 0.02g/cc 0.002g/cc

 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Capacitance Tools

Water Hold-up

Cause and effect

Dielectric Constant

Capacitance

Counts / Sec

calculation
Water Hold-up

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Capacitance

This group of widely-used tools depend for their operation on the

difference between the dielectric constant of water (78) and that
of oil or gas (4).
A simple way to find the dielectric constant of a fluid is to use the
fluid as the dielectric between the plates of a capacitor
The capacitance may be found by classical methods such as
including it in an RC network and finding the resonant frequency
Hence the tool measures frequency… counts /sec
Needs calibration
Before job (in air and water)
During job (in water and hydrocarbon from shut-in pass)

NOTE: “Wetting” and “Filming” effects

 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Capacitance Calibration

Calibration: convert cps to water holdup

Yw = f(Normalized response)

100%HC − Re sponse
Normalized response =
100%HC − 100%H 2O

Diel = f(Resp) Diel − Diel(100%HC)

Yw =
Diel(100%H 2O) − Diel(100%HC)

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Capacitance: Limits

This class of tools

Satisfactory
works well as long
Yw as oil is the
Yw = 0.4 continuous phase
0.5
In practice they
become unreliable if
the water cut is
above 30% - 40%

1
6000 cps 3000
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Capacitance Tool Specs

READ SPARTEK SCHLUMBERGER

(Sondex)

Accuracy +/- 3% 2% N/A

Water Holdup (0-30%WC)
5%
(30-60%WC)

Resolution 1% 0.1% N/A

(0-45%)
Water Cut

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Gas Holdup Tool

The Sondex Gas Hold Up Tool was originally developed by

Halliburton to provide a reliable, cross wellbore means of measuring
gas volume fraction in any flow regime and at any deviation.
The tool response is said to be representative of the entire cross
section of the well bore within the casing and is almost completely
independent of salinity, water cut and oil/water densities.

APPLICATIONS
Multi-phase Production Profiling
Fluid Identification
Bubble Point Determination
Gas Entry Detection
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Gas Holdup Tool

Mode Memory or SRP

Measurement Range 0-100% gas holdup

Pipe Size 2.9 – 9.9 inch

Accuracy ± 3%

Resolution 1%

Vertical Resolution 2.5 in 64 mm

Source Cobalt 57 – 3mCi Cobalt 56 – 111 MBq

Pressure Rating 15,000 psi 103 MPa

Temperature Rating 350 DegF 177 DegC

Make-up Length 27 in 686 mm

Tool Body Diameter 1 11/16 in 43 mm

Weight 10 lb 4.5 kg

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Gas Holdup Tool Example

 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Gas Holdup Tool

Advantages: Disadvantages:
z Gives an across wellbore z Uses a radioactive source.
measurement - virtually z Must be run centralised.
insensitive to stratification. z Raw counts have to be
z Not influenced by the corrected for changes in fluid
formation behind casing. properties with pressure and
z Works at all well deviations temperature variations.
(including horizontal). z The tool is affected by pipe
z Unaffected by fluid velocity ID. Raw counts have to be
z Response to hold-up is corrected for changes in pipe
approximately linear. ID
z Virtually unaffected by salinity z Affected by presence of
changes. radioactive scale.

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Pressure

STRAIN GAUGE SENSOR

QUARTZ GAUGE SENSOR

The pressure measurement is a continuous profile of the

pressure in the wellbore.

The curve reflects changes in the borehole fluid composition

(density)

The major reason to measure the pressure is to be able to

accurately predict the PVT properties of the fluids.

It is possible to use the pressure gradient as a density

measurement (derivative wrt depth, dP/dZ)
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Strain Gauges

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Crystal Gauge

Vacuum Pressure distorts the crystal

changing the oscillator
frequency.
This is compared to the
reference frequency.
Master Calibration required for
absolute accuracy

NOTE:
Internal Temperature Data
required, and not always
presented.
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Quartz sensor

z Uses 3 crystals
z Resolution 0.01 psi

Pressure distorts the crystal, changing the oscillator frequency.

This is compared to the reference frequency.
Master Calibration required for absolute accuracy
NOTE: Internal Temperature Data required.

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Pseudo-density

dp/dZ calculated from ∆p vs ∆Z

Needs:
• correction for pipe friction
• correction for deviation
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Pressure Tools

READ SPARTEK SCHLUMBERGER SCHLUMBERGER

Quartz 15,000psi Strain Quartz

Accuracy +/- 2 psi 0.024% FS +/- 6psi +/- 1 psi

+/- 0.01% fs

Resolution 0.01psi 0.003% FS 0.1psi 0.01psi

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Temperature

INDONESIA

The temperature of a
formation/well follows the
regional geothermal
gradient.

Note:
0.6degF/100ft = 0.81degC/100m
1degF/100ft = 1.35degC/100m
1.6degF/100ft = 2.15degC/100m
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Temperature

z Temperature is one of the most useful “auxiliary” measurements

made in production logging.
z Combined with pressure it helps compute the PVT parameters.
z In addition it will detect very small fluid entries:
Î The derivative of temperature wrt depth (dT/dZ) can be used
to clarify fluid entries in complex environments.
Î Gas entries, for example, are characterized by a sharp
reduction in temperature.
z It is the only tool in the string that “sees” behind casing, hence it
can be used to detect channeling.

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Interpreting Temperature

z The interpretation of temperature logs relies on patterns.

z The change in temperature with respect to the geothermal
gradient has to be noted.
z Heating means a fluid is flowing from deeper to shallower
z Cooling means the opposite (or a gas entry….)
z The temperature can be more sensitive to small flows than
the flowmeters.
z Time-Lapse measurements are useful.
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Temperature: Flowing Well

Temperature

In this standard well the

flowing gradient is shown in
green.
4
Fluid enters the well
3 through the perforations
and continues up the
2 Geothermal Gradient well.
1
perforated zone
The hotter fluid increases
the temperature away
from the geothermal
gradient.

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Temperature: Gas Flow

Gas expands as it enters

the wellbore.
Flowing The expansion is
Geothermal Gradient adiabatic

Flowing
This creates a cooling and
Gas entry with gas entry hence a lower
temperature.
Perforations
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Temperature: Channeling

Spinner

geothermal

Water flow Temperature

behind casing

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Temperature: Crossflow 1

Temperature

The temperature
flowing initially reacts to the
fluid entry at the
4
perforations.
Crossflow
flow +
3
down
Crossflow Crossflow from zones
4 - 3, means colder
2 Geothermal Gradient
Geothermal
fluid is flowing down.

1 The temperature
perforated zone
reacts showing a drop
from the point where
the crosflow stops.
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Temperature: Crossflow 2

Temperature

flowing

This is the same

4 flow +
Crossflow
situation as the previous
Crossflow
up case except the flow is
3
now in the up direction
2 Geothermal Gradient
Geothermal
A heating effect is seen
on the temperature.
1
perforated zone

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Temperature Gradient (1)

NO CROSSFLOW CROSSFLOW 4►3

 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Temperature Gradient (2)

CROSSFLOW 3►4 CROSSFLOW 1►2

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Temperature Gradient (3)

CROSSFLOW 2►1 CROSSFLOW 1►2

 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Temperature Gradient (4)

CROSSFLOW 3►2 CROSSFLOW 3►2

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Temperature: Leak

flowing

flowing with leak

leak A leak may show a
zone
drop in temperature
as fluid is entering
into the formation
Geothermal Gradient
leaving less fluid in
the borehole.
perforated zone
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Temperature Tools

READ SPARTEK SCHLUMBERGER

(Sondex)

Accuracy +/- 1degF +/- 1degC +/- 1degC

(+/- 1.8dgeF)

Resolution 0.0055degF 0.01 degC 0.006degC

(0.01degF)

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Casing Leak Example

 © 1987-2005 - 050118

FloView

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Local Probe Principle

Key assumptions
z Distinct fluids
(no emulsions)

z Local measurements
are representative

z Flow not affected

by presence of the tool

z Only differentiates
between water and
hydrocarbons
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

FloView Vs.
Gradiomanometer

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Horizontal Wellbore Flow Images

Casing
Upper tool Lower tool

example at 1500 bpd

Deviation
80º 89º 90º 91º

0.74 0.63 0.48 0.40

Water Holdup
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

GHOST

z Fouroptical probes positioned on centralizing arms

z Caliper reading
z Sensor orientation with relative bearing
z Specifications:
7.1 ft [2.18 m] long
Collapses to 111/16 -in. diameter
Rated to 300°F [150°C] and 15,000 psi [1035 bar]

z 0.004-in. [0.1-mm] diameter

sensing area not influenced by
wetting effects
z No maximum phase velocity
limitation
z Gas holdup accurate to within 7%
z Bubble count accurate to within 1%

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Optical Gas-Liquid Differentiation

Reflection of light to
photodiode is high in gas and
low in liquid.
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

GHOST Measurement Principle

GHOST Probe Response

Reflected light depends on refractive index of medium (n).

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Optical Probe Accuracy

The GHOST sensor is good

for first entry detection in
these conditions.
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Three-Phase Holdup Measurements

GHOST measures
gas holdup

FloView measures Combining

water holdup FloView &
GHOST provides
oil holdup

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Capacitance Array Tool

 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Sondex – Capacitance Array Tool

SONDEX - CAT
12 Probes

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Capacitance Array Tool

OPERATING PRINCIPLE
Oil, Gas & Water have different dielectric
constants. The output frequency of a sensor
changes with the dielectric constant of the
fluid surrounding it.
A simple calibration of the sensors enables
the identification of the fluid surrounding
each sensor.

APPLICATIONS
z Phase identification in horizontal & highly
deviated wells.
z Calculation of % of each phase present.
z Plotting of phase composition along the
wellbore.
z Identification of water entry areas.
z Changes of wellbore fluids with time or
different abstraction conditions.
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Multiple Capacitance

MCFM (MultiCapacitance Flow Meter)

Baker-Atlas

Each probe gives a local measurement of holdup

2 Calibrations ; holdup extended to 3 phase

© 1987-2005 - 050118

The Multi-Capacitance Flow Meter (MCFM)

Key Measurements
z Water, oil, and gas holdups are measured at eight
levels along the wing deployed across-the-wellbore,
based on the measured dielectric of the flow.
z Bidirectional velocity profile is determined from multiple
measurements at seven positions across-the-wellbore
using cross-correlation of sensor responses within six
sensor arrays placed along the wing and the center-line
spinner.
z Water, oil, and gas flow rates are determined
continuously while logging the horizontal interval or
during stationary measurements
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

The Multi-Capacitance Flow Meter (MCFM)

An across-the-wellbore velocity profile is constructed from the transit-time

measurements of the capacitance sensors in rows one, two, seven, and
eight of the MCFM tool.

© 1987-2005 - 050118

The Multi-Capacitance Flow Meter (MCFM)

An increase in oil holdup identified with

A jet of water entering a horizontal the MCFM tool correlates with an oil
wellbore through an interval, only inches stringer located by the RPM-PNHI
in length, in the perforations is measurement in an interval that is
identified. largely depleted
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Schlumberger FSI Tool

FloScan Imager Tool

5 Micro-spinners
6 GHOST gas holdup sensors
6 FLOVIEW (DEFT) water holdup sensors

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Array Tool Specs

READ SCHLUMBERGER SCHLUMBERGER SCHLUMBERGER BAKER-ATLAS

SONDEX Floview/DEFT GHOST FSI MCFM
12 probes 4/8 probes 4/8 probes 5 micro-spinners 28 probes
12 probes
Accuracy +/- 3% 5% Water Holdup 5% (no protector)
Phase holdup (2-90% Yw) 7% (with protector)
Limit 2m/sec >0.2% Gas Holdup
10% Bubble count (2-98% Yg)
(bubble size>1mm) 1% Bubble count
(bubble size >0.1mm)

Resolution 1%
Phase holdup

z The complex flow regimes in deviated and horizontal wells make interpretation
of conventional production logging sensors difficult or impossible.

z Imaging tools use arrays of sensing probes to provide greater clarity in such
environments.
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Pulsed Neutron Logging

Principles & Applications

© 1987-2005 - 050118

PNL Principles

The starting point for induced gamma

ray spectrometry is the generation of
neutrons.

This uses a downhole accelerator to

emit pulses of high-energy neutrons
into the formation.

This device creates 14-million

electron volt (MeV) neutrons by
accelerating deuterium ions into a
tritium target.
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Elastic Neutron Scattering

The neutrons primarily interact with

formation nuclei in three ways:
In elastic neutron-scattering, the
neutron bounces off the
bombarded nucleus without
exciting or destablizing it. With
each elastic interaction, the
neutron loses energy.
Hydrogen, with the mass of its
nucleus equal to that of a neutron,
is very good at slowing down
neutrons.
Hence, how efficiently a formation
slows down neutrons generally
indicates the abundance of
hydrogen.
Because hydrogen is most abundant
in pore fluids, neutron slowdown
indicates porosity.

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Inelastic Neutron Scattering (C-O)

In inelastic neutron scattering, the

neutron bounces off the nucleus, but
excites it into quickly giving off what are
called
inelastic gamma rays.
The measurement of gamma ray
energies from inelastic neutron
scattering yields the relative
concentrations of carbon and oxygen,
which are then used to determine water
saturation.
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Neutron Absorption (PNC)

In neutron absorption, the nucleus absorbs the neutron and becomes

excited, typically emitting capture gamma rays.
Neutron absorption, or neutron capture, is most common after a neutron
has been slowed by elastic and inelastic interactions to thermal energies
of about 0.025 eV.
The measurement of capture gamma ray energies is used to estimate the
abundances of elements most likely to capture a neutron—
silicon, calcium, chlorine, hydrogen, sulfur, iron, titanium and gadolinium.

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Carbon-Oxygen Logging Principles

• Measures gamma rays emitted from

inelastic neutron scattering
• Determines relative concentrations
of carbon and oxygen in the
formation
• Works in low-salinity environments
• Slow logging speed
• Newer tools (RPM, RMT, RST, etc)
combine elastic, inelastic and
capture modes in a slim tool
(through-tubing)
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Thermal Decay
(Neutron Capture)

slope of semilog plot of

gamma ray counts
versus time yields the
capture cross section Σ
of the formation

© 1987-2005 - 050118

PNC Data Acquisition

 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Typical Σ Values

Typical values of capture cross section are :

Shale 35 - 55 C.U.

Matrix 8 - 12 C.U.

Fresh water 22 C.U.

Formation water 22 - 120 C.

Gas 0 -- 12 C.U.

Oil 18 - 22 C.U.

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Dual Burst

Dual Burst tools (SLB) attempt to

discriminate borehole response (short
burst) from formation response (long
burst).

Corrections for diffusion effects can

also be made.
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

PNL Applications

• Saturation Monitoring
Sigma (PNC) measurement if Cl¯>30,000ppm
Carbon-Oxygen log for low-salinity environments

• Location of GOC/OWC
ΣGas is much lower than Σwater or Σoil; therefore, at comparable shale
levels, the sigma measurement will be lower in gas-bearing reservoirs.
(Count rates usually show the GOC/GWC without any processing).
OWC will depend on Cl¯

• Water Flow Log (Sigma Log)

• Gravel Pack Evaluation

• Hold-up Measurement (C-O Log)

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Saturation Monitoring

Determination of the water saturation in the formation, Sw.

Evolution of Sw due to the removal of oil and its
replacement in the porous system by water
(Time lapse).

Water salinity must be known, and in the range of 30000

ppm Cl or higher to provide an appropriate resolution to
the measurement.
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Saturation Monitoring

Formation capture cross-section, Σf, is a linear measurement. Each

constituent contributes to Σf in proportion to its volumetric fraction,
and to its specific Σ.

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Saturation Monitoring: Cross-plots (1)

Σ - Φ crossplot

Clean formations or when using a Single

water shaly model with shale correction:

Σfcorr = Σf - Vsh x (Σsh - Σma)

Porosity is also corrected if loaded as

total porosity or neutron porosity:

Φcorr = Φt x ( 1 - Vsh )
Φcorr = Φn - Φnsh x Vsh )
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Saturation Monitoring: Cross-plots (2)

Σeq - Φeq crossplot

Sw must be known for the particular zone

Σeq = [Σf - (1 - Sw) x Φe x Σh] / [1 - Φe x (1 - Sw)]

Φeq = (Φe x Sw) /[1 - Φe x (1 - Sw)]

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Saturation Monitoring: Cross-plots (3)

Σma - Vma crossplot

Sw must be known for the particular zone

Σma (calculated) = [Σf - Vsh * Σsh - Φe * (Sw * Σw + (1 - Sw) * Σh)] / Vma

Vma = 1 - Φe - Vsh
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Saturation Monitoring: Example

© 1987-2005 - 050118

PNL: Uncertainties

Uncertainties in the PNL:

• PNC - fluid salinity, lithology
• C/O - lithology
• Both - hole size, cement quality, borehole salinity/fluid

• What to choose for cross-plots

• Can you draw a line through a cloud of points?

NB: these issues are often not important for time lapse measurements.
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

PNC for Gas Detection

The Gate 1 count rate curves, N1

(from Near Detector) and F1 (from
Far Detector), overlay in water-
bearing sands with little or no
separation. (In water bearing
carbonates some separation exists)
The N1 - F1 count rate display is
useful for detection of gas zones in
clean, high- porosity formations by
the separation of the two curves,
with F1 moving strongly to the left
and N1 slightly to the right (level D)

In oil zones F1 often reads slightly

to the left of N1 and the curves tend
to be parallel.

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Pulsed Neutron Log Interactions

INELASTIC SCATTERING γ
Fast Nucleus
Fast
Neutron Nucleus
Neutron

C, O, Si, Ca, Fe, ... γ

γ
C, O, Si, Ca, Fe, ...

NEUTRON CAPTURE
Slow Excited
Slow Nucleus Excited
Nucleus
Neutron Nucleus
Neutron Nucleus

H, Cl, Si, Ca, S, Fe, Gd, ...

H, Cl, Si, Ca, S, Fe, Gd, ... n
NEUTRON ACTIVATION ( (
Inelastic or capture reaction that leads to a radioactive element and decay.
Inelastic or capture reaction that leads to a radioactive element and decay.
Examples:
Examples:
O-activation
O-activation
Al-activation
T1/2 = 7.1 s
T1/2 = 7.1 s
T1/2 = 2.3 m
( n + 8O16 --> 7N16 + ... --> 8O16 + γ + ... )
( n + 8O16 --> 7N16 + ... --> 8O16 + γ + ... )
( n + 13Al27 --> 13Al28 --> 14Si28 + γ + ... )
((
Al-activation T1/2 = 2.3 m ( n + 13Al27 --> 13Al28 --> 14Si28 + γ + ... )
Si-activation T1/2 = 2.3 m ( n + 14Si28 --> 13Al28 + ... --> 14Si28 + γ + ... )
Si-activation T1/2 = 2.3 m ( n + 14Si28 --> 13Al28 + ... --> 14Si28 + γ + ... )
(Na, Cu, Fe..... and many more).
(Na, Cu, Fe..... and many more).
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Three Phase Holdup

Gas Hold-Up Response

N/F Ratio

Inelastic N/F Ratio

YG = 0.00

YG = 0.33

YG = 0.67

Inelastic Spectrum
Casing
YG = 1.00
YG

Porosity
Counts

YG
Carbon

Oxygen
YO
C/O Model Response

Energy (MeV) YW

Far C/O Ratio

l
Oi

il
le

nO
ho
re

atio
Bo

ter on

m
Wa rmati

For
r
ate

Fo
Near & Far C/O reh
ole
W

Bo

Near C/O Ratio

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Other PL tools

Tracers

Phase velocities
oxygen activation (WFL, Hydralog)
cross-correlation – (MCFM)
transport (PVL)

Other volume fraction measurement

Pulsed neutron (C/O, RIN)
Low energy gamma ray scattering (GST)

Noise logging
 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Water Flow Log

© 1987-2005 - 050118

Gravel Pack Log

 © 1987-2005 - 050118

Gravel Pack Log Example

PN Log

Density log

Top of gravel

Increase in anular volume