ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888

1.FORCE
Effects of force
● When force is applied on a non-rigid body, it will move as well as there will be change in
a shape
● When force is applied on a rigid body, it will move. When the body is free to move when
force is applied it will move in a straight line path called translational motion and if the
body is pivoted at one end, it will rotate along the axis. This is called rotational motion.
Moment of force

When force is applied on a body which is pivoted at one end, it rotates about an axis this
turning effect produced by force is called moment of force
Moment of force is a vector quantity
Moment of force depends on two factors
● The magnitude of the force applied
● The perpendicular distance of the line of action of the force from the axis of rotation
Measurement of moment of force or torque
The moment of force is equal to the product of the magnitude of the force and the
perpendicular distance of the line of action of force from the axis of rotation.
S.I. Unit of moment of force is N m and CGS unit is dyne cm
1 Nm = 107 dyne cm
Note: joule cannot be written as S.I. Unit of moment of force though 1 joule = 1 newton meter

Moment of force is directly proportional to force when distance is kept constant, moment of
force is directly proportional to the distance when force is kept constant and when moment of
force is constant then force is inversely proportional to the perpendicular distance between
point of application of force and axis of rotation
Common examples of moment of force
● Handle of door is always on the opposite end of the hinges
● Spanner is provided with long handle
● Flour grinder is provided with handle on the rim

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888
Reason for all the above examples: For a constant moment of force, force is inversely
proportional to the distance between point of application of force and axis of rotation hence
by increasing distance required force will decrease
Distinguish between clockwise and anti-clockwise moment
Clockwise moment Anti-clockwise moment

1. The turning effect of force in clockwise The turning effect of force in an

direction is called as clockwise moment anticlockwise direction is called an
of force anticlockwise moment of force.

2. Clockwise moment cause rotation in Anticlockwise moment cause rotation in

inward direction ( to close) outward direction (to open)

3. Clockwise moment of force is taken as Anticlockwise moment of force is taken as

negative positive

Couple:Two equal and opposite parallel forces, not acting along the same line, is couple. A
couple is necessary to produce a rotation.
Moment of couple: moment of couple is the product of the either force and the perpendicular
distance between the two forces (couple arm)
Some common examples of couple:
● Tightening the bottle cap
● Turning a key in lock
● Turning a water tap
● Turning a steering wheel.
Equilibrium of the body
When a number of forces acting on a body produce no change in its state of rest or of linear or
rotational motion, the body is said to be in equilibrium
Kinds of equilibrium
Static equilibrium Dynamic equilibrium

1. When a body remains in the state of rest. When a body remains in the same state
Under the influence of several forces, the of motion, under the influence of several
body is in static equilibrium. forces, the body is said to be in dynamic
equilibrium.

2. Velocity is zero in static equilibrium Velocity is uniform in dynamic

equilibrium
Some examples of static equilibrium
1. If a book is lying on a table, the weight of the book exerted on the table vertically
downwards is balanced by an equal and opposite force of reaction exerted by the table
on the book vertically upwards. Thus, the book is in static equilibrium.
2. In a beam balance, when the beam is balanced in horizontal position, the clockwise
moment of force due to the object on its right pan balances the anticlockwise moment

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888
of force due to the weights on its left pan and the beam has no rotational motion i.e., it
is in static equilibrium.
Some examples of dynamic equilibrium
1. A raindrop reaches the earth's surface with a constant velocity. The weight of the falling
drop is balanced by the sum of the buoyant force and the force due to friction (or
viscosity) of air. Thus, the net force on the drop is zero, so it falls down with a constant
velocity.
2. An airplane moves at a constant height when upward lift on it balances its weight
downwards.
3. A stone tied at the end of a string when whirled in a circular path with a uniform speed
is in dynamic equilibrium because the tension in the string provides the centripetal
force required for circular motion.
4. The motion of a planet around the sun or the motion of a satellite around the planet
5. The motion of an electron around the nucleus of an atom, are examples of dynamic
equilibrium .
Conditions for equilibrium
1. The resultant of all the forces acting on the body should be zero.
2. The algebraic sum of moments of all the forces acting on the body about the point of
rotation should be zero
Principle of moment
According to the principle of moments, in equilibrium the sum of the anticlockwise moments
is equal to the sum of the clockwise moments.

Numericals
1. The moment of a force of 10N about a fixed point O is 5Nm. Calculate the distance of
the point O from the line of action of the force.
Solution:
Moment of Force = Force × Perpendicular distance = F × d
So, substituting the values given in the question, we get,
5Nm = 10d
d= 5 / 10
d = 0.5 m
2. A nut is opened by a wrench of length 10cm. If the least force required is 5.0N, find the
moment of force needed to turn the nut.
Solution
d = 10 cm
= 0.1 m
Required least force = 5 N
Moment of force = F × d
Substituting the values of F and f, we get
= 5 × 0.1
= 0.5 Nm

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3. A wheel of diameter 2m is shown with the axle at O. A force F = 2N is applied at B in the

direction shown in the figure. Calculate the moment of force about (i) the center O,
and (ii) the point A.
Solution
F = 2N
D = 2m
Since the diameter is 2m. So, the perpendicular distance between B and O is 1m
(i) Moment of force at the center O
=F×d
=2×1
= 2 Nm clockwise

(ii) Moment of force at point A

=F×d
=2×2
= 4 Nm clockwise

4. The diagram shows two forces F1= 5N and F2 = 3N acting at points A and B of a rod
pivoted at a point O, such that OA = 2m and OB = 4m Calculate:
a. the moment of force F1 about O.
b. the moment of force F2 about O.
c. total moment of the two forces about O.

Solution:
(i) Moment of force F1 = 5N about the point O at A
= F1 × OA
=5×2
= 10Nm (anticlockwise)
(ii) Moment of force F2 = 3N about the point O at B
= F2 × OB
=3×4
= 12 Nm (clockwise)
(iii) Total moment of forces about the midpoint O
= 12 – 10
= 2Nm (clockwise)

5. Two forces each of magnitude 10N act vertically upwards and downwards respectively
at the two ends A and B of a uniform rod of length 4m which is pivoted at its mid-point

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888
O as shown. Determine the magnitude of the resultant moment of forces about the
pivot O.
Solution:
Couple = Either force X couple arm
Couple = 10 x 4 = 40 Nm

6. Shows two forces each of magnitude 10 N acting at the points A and B at a separation
of 50 cm, in opposite directions. Calculate the resultant moment of the two forces
about the point (i) A, (ii) B and (iii) O situated exactly at the middle of the two forces.

Solution:
(i) Perpendicular distance of point A from the force F = 10 N at B is 0.5m, when it is zero from
the force F = 10N at point A
So, moment of force about A is
= 10N × 0.5Nm
= 5Nm (clockwise)
(ii) Perpendicular distance of point B from the force F = 10N at A is 0.5m, when it is zero from
the force F = 10N at point B
So, moment of force about B is
= 10N × 0.5m
= 5Nm (clockwise)
(iii) Perpendicular distance of point O from either of the forces F = 10N is 0.25 m
Moment of force F = 10N at point A about O
= 10N × 0.25m
= 2.5Nm (clockwise)
Moment of force F = 10N at point B about O
= 10N × 0.25m
= 2.5Nm (clockwise)
∴ Total moment of both the forces about point O
= 0.25 + 0.25
= 5Nm (clockwise)

7. A steering wheel of diameter 0.5m is rotated anti-clockwise by applying two forces

each of magnitude 5N. Draw a diagram to show the application of forces and calculate
the moment of forces applied.
Solution

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888

Moment of couple = either force × couple arm

= 5N × 0.5m
= 2.5 Nm

8. A uniform meter rule is pivoted at its mid-point. A weight of 50 gf is suspended at one

end of it. Where a weight of 100gf should be suspended to keep the rule horizontal?
Solution
According to the principle of moments.
Anticlockwise moment = Clockwise moment
50 gf × 50 cm = 100 gf × d
Then d = (50 × 50) / 100
= 25 cm
A weight of 100 gf is suspended at a distance 25 cm from the other end to keep the rule
horizontal.

9. A uniform meter rule balances horizontally on a knife edge placed at the 58 cm mark
when a weight of 20gf is suspended from one end.
a. Draw a diagram of the arrangement.
b. What is the weight of the rule?
Solution:
Weight of rule produces an anticlockwise moment about the knife edge O. In order to balance
20 gf should be suspended at the end B to produce clockwise moment about the knife edge O

Figure:

(ii) According to the principle of moments,

Anticlockwise moment = Clockwise moment
W × (58 – 50)
= 20 gf × (100 – 58)
W × 8 = 20 gf × 42
W = (20 gf × 42) / 8
= 105 gf

10. A uniform meter rule placed on a fulcrum at its mid-point O and having a weight 40gf
at the 10 cm mark and a weight of 20 gf at the 90 cm mark.
a. Is the meter rule in equilibrium? If not, how will the rule turn?

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888
b. How can the rule be brought in equilibrium by using an additional weight of
40gf?
Solution
Anticlockwise moment = 40 gf × (50 – 10) cm
= 40 gf × 40 cm
= 1600 gf × cm
Clockwise moment = 20 gf × (90 – 50)
= 20 gf × 40 cm
= 800 gf × cm
Anticlockwise moment is not equal to clockwise moment. So the meter rule is not in
equilibrium and it will turn anticlockwise.

(ii) In order to balance 40 gf weight should be kept on right hand side so as to produce a
clockwise moment about the middle point. Let d cm be the distance from the middle. Then,
Clockwise moment = 20 gf × 40 cm + 40 gf × d cm
According to the principle of moments,
Anticlockwise moment = Clockwise moment
40 gf × 40 cm = 20 gf × 40 cm + 40 gf × d cm
1600 = 800 + 40 gf × d cm
1600 – 800 = 40 gf × d cm
Hence d = (800 gf cm) / 40
d = 20 cm (on the other side)
The rule can be brought in equilibrium by placing the additional weight of 40 gf at the 70 cm
mark.

11. When a boy weighing 20 kgf sits at one end of a 4m long see-saw, it gets depressed at
its end. How can it be brought to the horizontal position by a man weighing 40 kgf.
Solution
According to the principle of moment,
Anticlockwise moment = Clockwise moment
20 kgf × 2 m = 40 kgf × d
So, d = (20kgf × 2m) / 40 kgf
=1m
It can be brought to the horizontal position if a man sits at a distance 1 m from the center on
the side opposite to the boy.

12. A physical balance has its arms of length 60 cm and 40 cm. What weight kept on a pan
of longer arm will balance an object of weight 100 gf kept on another pan?
Solution
According to the principle of moments,
Anticlockwise moment = Clockwise moment
100 gf × 40 cm = W × 60 cm
Hence, weight on the longer pan,
W = (100 gf × 40 cm) / 60 cm

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= 200 gf / 3
= 66.67 gf

13. The diagram shows a uniform meter rule weighing 100 gf, pivoted at its center O. Two
weights 150 gf and 250gf hang from the point A and B respectively of the meter rule
such that OA = 40 cm and OB = 20 cm. Calculate: (i) the total anticlockwise moment
about O, (ii) the total clockwise moment about O, (iii) the difference of anticlockwise
and clockwise moment, and (iv) the distance from O where a 100gf weight should be
placed to balance the meter rule.

Solution
(i) Total anticlockwise moment about the centre O
= 150 gf × 40 cm
= 6000 gf cm
(ii) Total clockwise moment about the centre O
= 250 gf × 20 cm
= 5000 gf cm
(iii) The difference of anticlockwise and clockwise moment
= 6000 – 5000
= 1000 gf cm
(iv) According to the principle of moment
In order to balance, 100 gf weight should be kept on the right-hand side so as to produce a
clockwise moment about the centre O. Let d cm be the distance from the point O. Then,
150 gf × 40 cm = 250 gf × 20 cm + 100 gf × d
6000 gf = 5000 gf + 100 gf × d
6000 gf – 5000 gf = 100 gf × d
1000 gf = 100 gf × d
Hence, d = (1000 gf cm) / 100 gf
= 10 cm on the right side of centre O.

14. A uniform meter rule of weight 10 gf is pivoted at its 0 mark. (i) What moment of force
depresses the rule? (ii) How can it be made horizontal by applying a least force?
Solution
Anticlockwise moment = 10 gf × 50 cm
= 500 gf cm

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Anticlockwise moment = Clockwise moment

10 gf × 50 cm = W × 100 cm
So, W = (10 gf × 50 cm) / 100 cm
= 5 gf
Rule can be made horizontal by applying a force 5 gf upwards at the 100 cm mark.

15. A uniform half-meter rule can be balanced at the 29.0 cm mark when a mass 20g is
hung from its one end.
a. Draw a diagram of the arrangement.
b. Find the mass of the half-meter rule.
Solution:

X
Let the weight of half meter rule be x
According to the principle of moment
Total clockwise moment = total anticlockwise moment
20 X 21 = x X 4
Therefore x = 105 gf

16. A uniform meter rule of mass 100 g is balanced on a fulcrum at mark 40 cm by

suspending an unknown mass m at the mark 20 cm.
a. find the value of m.
b. To which side the rule will tilt if the mass m is moved to the mark 10 cm
c. What is the resultant moment now?
d. How can it be balanced by another mass of 50 g?
Solution
(i) From the principle of moments,
Clockwise moment = Anticlockwise moment
100 g × (50 – 40) cm = m × (40 – 20) cm
100 g × 10 cm = m × 20 cm
m = 50 g

(ii) If the mass m is moved to the mark 10 cm, the rule will tilt on the side of mass m
(anticlockwise)

Anticlockwise moment if mass m is moved to the mark 10 cm

= 50 g × (40 – 10) cm
= 50 g × 30 cm
= 1500 g cm

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Clockwise moment = 100 g × (50 – 40) cm

= 100 g × 10 cm
= 1000 g cm
Resultant moment = 1500 g cm – 1000 g cm
= 500 g cm (anticlockwise)

(iv) According to the principle of moments.

Clockwise moment = Anticlockwise moment
To balance it, 50 g weight should be kept on right hand side so as to produce a clockwise
moment. Let d cm be the distance from the fulcrum. Then,
100 g × (50 – 40) cm + 50 g × d = 50 g × (40 – 10) cm
100 g × 10 cm + 50 g × d = 50 g × 30 cm
1000 g cm + 50 g × d = 1500 g cm
50 g × d = 500 g cm
Then, d = 10 cm
It can be balanced by suspending the mass 50 g at the mark 50 cm.
CENTRE OF GRAVITY
The centre of gravity (C.G.) of a body is the point about which the algebraic sum of moments
of weights of all the particles constituting the body is zero. The entire weight of the body can
be considered to act at this point, howsoever the body is placed..
● The position of the centre of gravity of a body of given mass depends on its shape i.e., on
the distribution of mass (of particles) in it. It changes if the body is deformed.for
example The centre of gravity of a straight uniform wire is at the middle of its length.
But if the same wire is bent into the form of a circle, its centre of gravity will then be at
the centre of the circle.
● It is not necessary that the centre of gravity always be within the material of the body,
For example The centre of gravity of a ring or a hollow sphere lies at its centre where
there is no material.
● By the concept of centre of gravity, a body of weight W can be considered as a point
particle of weight W at its centre of gravity.
Centre of gravity of some regular uniform objects
Object Position of centre of gravity

1. Rod Midpoint of rod

2. Circular disc Geometric center
3. Solid or hollow sphere Geometric center of the sphere.
4. Solid or hollow cylinder Mid-point on the axis of cylinder
5. Solid cone At a height h/4 from the base, on the axis .
6. Hollow cone At a height h/3 from the base, on the axis
7. Circular ring Centre of ring
8. Triangular lamina or scalene triangle The point of intersection of medians
9. Parallelogram, rectangular lamina, The point of intersection of the diagonals
square or rhombus

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Uniform circular motion
When a particle moves with a constant speed in a circular path, its motion is said to be
uniform circular motion.
Circular motion is always an accelerated motion
In circular motion, a particle travels equal distances along the circular path in equal intervals
of time, so the speed of the particle is uniform, but the direction of motion of the particle
changes at each point of the circular path. The continuous change in the direction of motion
implies that the velocity of the particle is non-uniform (or variable) i.eThe motion is
accelerated.

Uniform linear motion and uniform circular motion

Uniform linear motion Uniform circular motion

1. Motion of a body in a straight line path When a particle moves with a constant
with constant speed is called uniform speed in a circular path, its motion is said
linear motion to be uniform circular motion.

2. Uniform linear motion is an unaccelerated Uniform circular motion is an accelerated

motion, motion

Centripetal force and centrifugal force

Centripetal force Centrifugal force

1. Centripetal force is the force acting on a A force assumed to be acting on the

body moving in a circular path, in a body in a direction away from the center
direction towards the center of the circular of the circular path, is called centrifugal
path. force.

2. It is a real force It is a fictitious force

Note: centrifugal force is not the force of reaction of the centripetal force because action and
reaction do not act on the same body. It is not a real force

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2. WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

Work is said to be done when a force or component of force displaces the body in the direction
of force applied
The amount of work done by a force depends on the following two factors:
1. The magnitude and direction of the applied force:
Work done by a body is directly proportional to the amount of force applied; i.e., greater the
applied force, greater is the work done.
2. The displacement it produces:
Work done by a body is directly proportional to the displacement in the direction of the applied
force; i.e., greater the displacement of a body in the direction of the applied force, greater is the
work done.
Note: work is a scalar quantity even though it is a product of two vector quantities
The amount of work done by a force is the product of force and the displacement caused by the
force in the direction of its application.
Work done = Force × Net displacement
S.I. Unit of work is joule (J) and C.G.S unit is erg
1J=1Nx1m
1 J = 105 dyne x 102 cm
1 J = 107 erg

If force applied on a body doesn’t cause the displacement of a body in its own direction, then
the work is given by W = FScosθ
Thus, work done W is equal to the product of
● magnitude of force F,
● magnitude of displacement S
● cosine of angle θ between the direction of force and displacement
Positive work
If the displacement of the body is in the direction of the force, or if the angle between the force
and the displacement is an acute angle then the work done is positive.
When displacement occurs in the direction of force (i.e., θ = 0°), then cos 0 = 1.
W = Fx S [Maximum work]
Example
1. When a body of mass m falls freely from a height h under the force of gravity, then the
displacement S of the body is the height through which it falls in the direction of the
force F, and the work done W by the force is given by W = FS = mgh.
2. When a spring is stretched, the stretching force and expansion of spring are in the same
direction.
Zero work [Minimum work]

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If the net displacement of a body is zero, when a force is applied or if the direction of
displacement of body is normal to the direction of force applied, then the work done is zero.
When the direction of displacement is perpendicular to the direction of force applied, then the
angle between force and displacement is 90° since cos 90 is zero The work done will be zero.

Example:
1. When a body moves in a circular path, the centripetal force is directed towards the centre
of the circular path and the displacement at any instant on the path is along the tangent
to the path. Thus, the force always acts at right angles to the direction of the
displacement of the body and the work done is zero.Hence work done by earth while
revolving around the sun is zero
2. When a coolie carrying a load on his head walks on a horizontal path, the force due to
gravity acts vertically downwards while the displacement of the coolie is in the
horizontal direction that is normal to the direction of force. Thus the work done is zero
Negative work
If the displacement of a body is in the direction opposite to the direction of force, then the work
done is negative because in this case angle between force and displacement is 180° and cos 180
= -1
This happens when a force tries to stop a body in motion or it opposes the motion of a body
Example:
1. When a ball with mass m is thrown vertically upwards to a height h, the displacement of
the ball is in the upward direction. It is opposed by the force due to gravity, which acts in
the downward direction. Hence, work done is negative and is given by. W = - FS = -
mgh
2. When a force is applied to push a body on a horizontal surface, the motion of the box is
opposed by the force of friction between the body and the surface. The force of friction
and the displacement of the body are always in opposite direction, hence, the work done
by the frictional force is negative.
Power
Power is defined as the rate of doing work per unit time
● Power is directly proportional to the work done
● Power is inversely proportional to the time taken to do work
Power = Work done / time
S.I. unit of power is J/s = watt
1 watt power is said to be generated or consumed when one joule of work is performed in one
second

Bigger units of power are kilowatt, megawatt, horsepower

1 kilowatt = 103 watt
1 megawatt= 106 watt
1 HP = 746 watt
Horse power [HP] is industrial or commercial unit of power

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Power = work / time

As, work = force x displacement
Power = force x displacement/ time
But displacement/time = velocity
Therefore, Power = force x velocity
From this formula we can say power is directly proportional to force and velocity.

Work Power

1. Work done by a force is equal to the Power of a source is the rate of doing
product of force and the displacement in work by it.
the direction of force.

2. Work done does not depend on time. Power spent depends on the time in
which work is done.

3. S.I. unit of work is joule (J). S.I.unit of power is watt (W).

Energy
The energy of a body is its capacity to do work.
S.I. unit of energy is Joule
C.G.S unit energy is erg
1 J = 107 erg.
Other units of energy
Watt hour: One watt hour (1 Wh) is the energy spent (or work done) by a source of power 1 W in
1h
1 Wh = 3.6 KJ
Kilowatt hour: One kilowatt hour (1 kWh) is the energy spent (or work done) by a source of
power 1 kW in 1 h.
1KWh = 3.6 MJ
Calorie:1 calorie is the energy (heat) required in raising the temperature of 1 g of water from
14.5°C to 15.5°C
1 calorie = 4.186 J or 4.2 J
Electron volt: The energy of atomic particles is very small, so it is measured in electron volt
(eV). 1 eV is the energy gained by an electron when it is accelerated through a potential
difference of 1 volt.
1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J
Distinguish between energy and power
Energy Power

1. Energy of a body is its capacity to do Power of a source is the rate at which

work. energy is supplied by it.

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2. Energy spent does not depend on time. Power depends on the time in which energy
is spent.

3. S.I. unit of energy is joule (J). S.I. unit of power is watt (W).

Different forms of energy

Mechanical energy
The energy possessed by a body due to its state of rest or of motion, is called the mechanical
energy. It is in two forms: (1) potential energy, and (2) kinetic energy. The total mechanical
energy of a body is equal to the sum of its potential energy and kinetic energy.
Potential energy: The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its changed position (or
configuration) is called the potential energy.
Types of potential energy
1. Gravitational potential energy:The potential energy possessed by a body due to the force
of attraction of earth on it, is called its gravitational potential energy.
2. Elastic potential energy: The potential energy possessed by a body in the deformed state
due to change in its configuration is called the elastic potential energy. It is equal to the
amount of work done in deforming the body

Kinetic energy:The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its state of motion is called the
kinetic energy.
Types of kinetic energy:
1. Translational kinetic energy : The motion of a body in a straight line path is called the
translational motion and the kinetic energy of the body due to motion in a straight line is
called the translational kinetic energy.
2. Rotational kinetic energy: If a body rotates about an axis, the motion is called the
rotational motion and the kinetic energy of the body due to rotational motion is called
the rotational kinetic energy or simply the rotational energy.
3. Vibrational kinetic energy : If a body moves to and fro about its mean position, the
motion is called the vibrational motion. The kinetic energy of the body due to its
vibrational motion is called the vibrational kinetic energy. Suraj Hoon.
Potential energy Kinetic energy

1. The energy possessed by a body by virtue The energy possessed by a body by virtue
of its changed position (or configuration) of its state of motion is called the kinetic
is called the potential energy. energy.

2. Symbol of potential energy is U Symbol of kinetic energy is K

3. U = mgh K= ½ mv2

4. It can change only into kinetic energy It can change into any form of energy

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Expression for K= ½ mv2
W=FxS
As we know F = ma and S = v2/2a
So, W = ma x v2/2a
W = ½ mv2
Work done by moving body = Kinetic energy
Therefore K = ½ mv2
Work-energy theorem:
According to the work-energy theorem, the work done by a force on a moving body is equal to
the increase in its kinetic energy.
Let a body of mass m be moving with an initial velocity u. When a constant force F is applied on
the body along its direction of motion, it produces an acceleration a and the velocity of the body
changes from u to v in moving a distance S. Then
Force F = mass × acceleration = m a.———— i
Work done by the force = Force × displacement
W = Fx S. ————— ii
From relation
v2 = u2+ 2aS
S= v2-u2/2a. ————-iii
Substitute i and iii in ii
W = ma x (v2-u2)/2a
W = ½ mv2 - ½ mu2
W = Kf - Ki
Hence proved

Relationship between kinetic energy (K) and momentum (p)

P = mv
Squaring on both side
P2 = m2v2
Multiply ½ on both the sides
½ P2 = ½ m2v2
½ P2 = ½ mv2 x m
½ P2 = K x m
Therefore K = p2/ 2m
Note: kinetic energy is inversely proportional to the mass When momentum is kept constant.

Some examples of conversion of potential energy into kinetic energy

1. A stone at a height has gravitational potential energy due to its raised position. When the
stone is made to fall on a nail standing on a wooden piece, the nail begins to penetrate.
The reason is that as the stone starts falling, its potential energy begins to change into
kinetic energy. The falling stone now has kinetic energy. When it strikes the nail the

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888
kinetic energy of the stone work on the nail. The kinetic energy of the stone changes into
the kinetic energy of the nail due to which the nail moves into the wooden piece.
2. When the string of a bow is pulled, some work is done which is stored in the deformed
state of the bow in the form of its elastic potential energy. On releasing the string to
shoot an arrow, the potential energy of the bow changes into the kinetic energy of the
arrow which makes it move.
Different forms of energy
1. Solar energy: The energy radiated out by the sun is called solar energy. Inside the sun
energy is produced by nuclear fusion [4 Hydrogen nuclei combine to form Helium
nucleus with tremendous amounts of energy]. Plants use solar energy to intake food
during photosynthesis. By using devices like solar furnaces, solar panels, solar cells
convert solar energy to electrical energy.
2. Heat Energy : The energy released on burning coal, oil, wood or gas is the heat energy.
The steam possesses heat energy to operate the steam engine. We get heat energy from
the sun also.
3. Light Energy: It is the form of energy in presence of which other objects are seen. The
natural source of light energy is the sun. Many other sources like lamps, candles, and fire
also give light energy.
4. Chemical Energy or Fuel Energy: The energy possessed by fossil fuels like coal,
petroleum and natural gas is called chemical energy. The fuels contain chemical energy
stored in the bonds of their molecules. When fuels are burnt, heat energy is released.
Plants convert the solar energy into chemical energy during photosynthesis. A battery
has chemical energy stored in it and it provides electrical energy.
5. Hydro Energy: The energy possessed by the fast moving water is called hydro energy.
This energy is used to generate electricity.
6. Electrical Energy: The movement of free electrons from one body to the other body, so
they possess electrical energy. Electrical cell is a source of electrical energy.
7. Nuclear Energy: The energy released during the process of nuclear fission and fusion is
called nuclear energy. In both the processes, the loss of mass converts into energy in
accordance with Einstein's mass energy relation E = mc2. Where c is the velocity of light.
This energy is used in nuclear reactors to produce electrical energy and is used in atomic
bombs.
8. Geothermal Energy: The energy released in the interior of earth gets stored deep inside
the earth and is called geothermal energy. This energy heats up the underground water,
to generate electricity.
9. Wind Energy: The energy possessed by the fast moving air (or storm) is called wind
energy. This energy is used to drive a windmill to pump out underground water, to
generate electricity.
10. Sound Energy: A vibrating body produces sound energy. This energy transmits through
the air layers and vibrates the ear membrane sound is heard.
11. Magnetic Energy: The energy possessed by a body due to which it can attract iron filing
is called magnetic energy.

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888
12. Biogas : the energy produced by the action of bacteria on decaying organic matter can be
used as an important source of energy for lighting and for cooking. The chief constituent
of biogas is methane gas. Biogas is cheaper than any other fuel. It has a large calorific
value. This does not produce smoke or other harmful gases.
13. Tidal Energy: During sea tides, an enormous amount of water rises up through a great
height and then falls down. Tides are caused due to the gravitational pull of the moon. On
the new moon and the full moon the gravitational pull of the sun and the moon is
maximum and this causes high tides. In addition to these, there are smaller tides twice a
day. The tides have an enormous amount of mechanical energy (potential energy +
kinetic energy). This energy can be used to generate electricity. Such tidal power plants
have been constructed in France and Canada.

Law of conservation of energy: Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed. It can only
convert from one form to another form but the total amount of energy in the universe is always
constant.
Examples of conversion of energy

Law of conservation of mechanical energy

Mechanical energy of freely falling body is always constant or potential energy at top is equal to
kinetic energy at the bottom
Proof:-

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888

At point A
U = mgh ————- i
K = ½ mv2
But v = 0 at point A
Hence K= 0
Mechanical energy = U + K
Therefore, mechanical energy = mgh —————ii

At point B
U = mg(h-x)
U = mgh - mgx

K= ½ mv2
But, v2 = 2gx From second kinematic equation of motion
Therefore K = ½ m x 2gx
K = mgx
Mechanical energy = U + K
mechanical energy = mgh - mgx + mgx
Therefore, mechanical energy = mgh ——————- iii

At point C
U = mgh
But h = 0 at point C as ball is on the ground
Therefore U = 0
K = ½ mv2
But v2 = 2gh From second kinematic equation of motion

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888
Therefore, K = ½ m x 2gh
K = mgh —————— iv
Mechanical energy = U + K
Mechanical energy = 0 + mgh
Therefore, mechanical energy = mgh ——————- v

From equation ii, iii and v we proved that mechanical energy of a freely falling body is always
constant and from equation i and equation iv we proved that potential energy at top is equal
to the kinetic energy at bottom.

Conservation of mechanical energy in motion under gravity (graph)

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY TO A SIMPLE PENDULUM

At the extreme positions B and C, the bob has only the potential energy, while at the mean
position A, it has only the kinetic energy. At an intermediate position (between A and B or
between A and C), the bob has both the kinetic energy and potential energy, but the sum of both
(i.e., the total mechanical energy) remains constant throughout the swing. This is strictly true
only in vacuum where there is no force of friction due to air.

Numericals:
1. A body, when acted upon by a force of 10 kgf, gets displaced by 0.5 m. Calculate the
work done by the force, when the displacement is
i. in the direction of force,
ii. at an angle of 60° with the force
iii. normal to the force. (g= 10 N Kg-1)
Solution:
Force acting on the body = 10 kgf
= 10 × 10 N
= 100 N
Displacement, S = 0.5 m
Work done = force × displacement in the direction of force
(i) W = F x S
W = 100 × 0.5
= 50 J
(il) Work = force × displacement in the direction of force
W = F x S cos 60
W= 100 x 0.5 cos 60

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888

W = 100 × 0.5 x 0.5 [cos 600 = 0.5]

W = 25 J
(ili) Normal to the force
Work = force × displacement in the direction of force
W = F x S cos 90
W = 100 × 0.5 cos 90°
W = 100 × 0.5 × 0 [cos 900 = 01
W= 0

2. A boy of mass 40 kg climbs up the stairs and reaches the roof at a height 8m in 5 s.
Calculate:
i. The force of gravity acting on the boy,
ii. The work done by him against gravity,
iii. The power spent by the boy. (take g= 10ms-3)
Solution
Mass of a boy = 40 kg
Vertical height moved by a boy, h = 8 m
Time taken by a boy, t = 5 s
(i) Force of gravity acting on the boy
F= mg
= 40 × 10
= 400 N

(ii) Work done by a boy against the force of gravity while climbing,
Work done by a boy = Force × distance moved in the direction of force
W=FxS
W = 400 × 8
W= 3200 J

(iii) Power spent = (work done / time taken)

=3200 / 5
= 640 W

3. A man spends 6.4 kJ of energy in displacing a body by 64 m in the direction in which he

applies force, in 2.5 s. Calculate:
i. the force applied and
ii. the power spent (in H.P) by the man.
Solution
Work done by man = 6.4 kJ
Distance moved, S = 64 m
(i) Work done by the man = Force × distance moved in direction of force
Work, W = F × S 6.4 × 103 = F × 64
F= (6.4 × 103) / 64
F = 100 N

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888

(il) Power spent = (6.4 × 103) / 2.5

= 2560 W
1 H.P = 746 W
1W = 1 / 746 H.P
2560 W = 2560 / 746 H.P
= 3.43 H.P

4. A weight lifter lifted a load of 200 kg to a height of 2.5 m in 5 s. Calculate: (i) the work is
done, and (il) the power developed by him. Take g =10N/kg.
Solution
Force = mg
= 200 × 10
= 2000 N
Distance, S= 2.5 m
Time, t = 5 s
(i) Work done, W = FS
W = 2000 × 2.5 m
W = 5000 J
(il) Power developed = (work done) / (time taken)
= 5000 J / 5 S
= 1000 W

5. A machine raises a load of 750N through a height of 16m in 5 s. Calculate: (i) the energy
spent by the machine. (ii) the power of the machine if it is 100% efficient.
Solution:
(i) Energy spent by machine or work done = FS
Work, W = 750 × 16
W = 12000 J
(ii) Power spent = work done / time taken
= 12000 J / 5s
= 2400 W

6. An electric heater of power 3 kW is used for 10 h. How much energy does it

consume?Express your answer in (i) kWh (ii) joule.
Solution:
Energy consumed = power × time
(i) Energy = 3 kW × 10 h
= 30 kWh
(il) 1 kilowatt hour (KWh) = 3.6 × 106 J
30 kWh = 30 × 3.6 × 106 J
= 1.08 × 108 J

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888
7. A water pump raises 50 litres of water through a height of 25m in 5 s. Calculate the
power of the pump required. (Take g= 10N kg-1 and density of water =1000 kg m-3).
Solution:
Volume of water = 50 L

= 50 × 10-3 m3

Density of water = 1000 kgm-3

Mass of water = Volume of water × density of water

= 50 × 10-3 × 1000
= 50 kg
Work done in raising 50 kg water to a height of 25 m against the force of gravity is
W = mg × h
W = mgh
Power P = (work done) / (time taken)
= mgh / t
= 50 × 10 × 25J / 5 s
= 2500W

8. A pump is used to lift 500kg of water from a depth of 80m in 10s. Calculate:(a) The
work done by the pump, (b) The power at which the pump works, and (c) The power
rating of the pump if its efficiency is 40%. (Take g= 10m s-2).
Solution:
Work done in raising a 500 kg mass to a height of 80 m against the force of gravity is:

(a) W = mg × h = mgh
W = 500 × 10 × 80
= 4 × 105 J

(b) Power at which pump works = work done / time taken

= mgh / t
= (500 × 10 × 80J) / 10 s
= (4 × 105) / 10
= 40 kW

(c) Efficiency = useful power / power input

Efficiency = 40 %
= 0.4
0.4 = 40 kW/ power input
Power input = 40 kW/0.4
= 100 kW

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888
9. An ox can apply a maximum force of 1000N. It is taking part in a cart race and is able to
pull the cart at a constant speed of 30m/s-1 while making its best effort. Calculate the
power developed by the ox.
Solution:
Force = 1000 N
Velocity = 30 m/s
Power, P = force × velocity
P = 1000 × 30
= 30,000W
= 30 kW

10. The power of a motor is 40kW. At what speed can the motor raise a load of 20,000 N?
Solution:
Power = 40 kW
Force = 20,000 N
Power = force × velocity
Velocity = power / force
= 40 kW/ 20,000
= 40,000 / 20,000
=2m/s
= 2 ms-1

11. A boy weighing 350 N climbs up 30 steps, each 20 cm high in 1 minute. Calculate: (i) the
work done, and (ii) the power spent.
Solution:
Total distance covered in 30 steps, S = 30 × 20 cm

= 600 cm
=6m
Work done by the boy in climbing = Force × distance moved in direction of force

Work, W = F × S
= 350 × 6
= 2100 J

Power developed = work done / time taken

= 2100 J / 60 s
= 35 W

12. It takes 20 s for a person A of mass 50 kg to climb up the stairs, while another person B
of same mass does the same in 15 s. Compare the(i) work done and (ii) power developed
by the persons A and B.
Solution:

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888

(i) The work done by two persons A and B is independent of time. Hence both will do the
same amount of work. Hence,

Work done by A / work done by B

=1/1
= 1: 1

(ii) The power developed by the persons A and B is calculated as shown below:
A takes 20 s to climb the stairs while B takes 15 s to do the same work. Hence, B does the work
at a faster rate than A. Therefore more power is spent by B.

Power developed = 1 / time (amount of work done by A and B is same)

Power developed by A / Power developed by B = 15 / 20

=3/4

= 3: 4

13. A boy of weight 40 kgf climbs up the 15 steps, each 15 cm high in 10 s and a girl of
weight 20 kgf does the same in 5 s. Compare : (i) the work done, and (ii) the power
developed by them. Take g = 10 N kg-1.
Solution:
(i) Work done is

W = Fs = mgh

(Weight of boy) / (weight of girl) = 40 / 20

=2/1

= 2: 1

(ii) Power developed is

Pboy / Pgirl = [(mboygh) / t] / [(mgirlgh) / t]

= (40 / 10) / (20 / 5)

Thus Pboy / Pgirl = (40 / 10) × (5 / 20)

= 1: 1

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888
14. A man raises a box of mass 50kg to a height of 2m in 20s, while another man raises the
same box to the same height in 50s. (a) Compare: (i) the work done, and (ii) the power
developed by them. (b) Calculated: (i) the work done, and (ii) the power developed by
each man. Take g = 10N kg-1.
Solution
(a) (i) Work done to raise the box of mass 50 kg is the same for both

(ii) Power = work done / time taken

The power taken by the first man is less. Hence powered developed is more.
(b) (i) Work done = 50 × 10 × 2
= 1000 J
(ii) Power developed by first man = 1000 / 20
= 50 W
Power developed by second man = 1000 / 50
= 20 W

15. A boy takes 3 minutes to lift a 20 litre water bucket from a 20 m deep well, while his
father does it in 2 minutes. (a) Compare: (i) the work, and (ii) power developed by
them. (b) How much work each does? Take density of water = 103 kg m-3 and g = 9.8 N
kg-1.
Solution:
(a) (i) Both people carry the same weight of water to the same height. So, work done is same
for both. Hence, Work = 1: 1

(ii) Power developed is

Pboy / Pfather = [(W / tboy) / (W / tfather)]

= tfather / tboy
∴ Pboy / Pfather = 2 / 3
= 2: 3

(b) Mass of water lifted by both is

m=p×V
= 103kg / m3 × 20 × 10-3 m3
= 20 kg
So, the work done is
W = mgh
= 20 × 9.8 × 20
W = 3920 J
W = 3.92 kJ

16. Two bodies of equal masses are placed at heights h and 2h. Find the ratio of their
gravitational potential energies.

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888
Solution:
Height H1 = h
Height H2 = 2h
Mass of body 1 = m
Mass of body 2 = m
Gravitational potential energy of body 1 = mgH1
= mgh
Gravitational potential energy of body 2 = mgH2
= mg(2h)
Ratio of gravitational potential energies = mgh / mg(2h)
= mgh / 2mgh
=1/2
= 1: 2

17. A man of mass 50 kg climbs up a ladder of height 10m. Calculate: (i) the work done by
the man, (ii) the increase in his potential energy.
Solution:
Mass of man = 50 kg
Height of ladder, h2 = 10 m
(i) Work done by man = mgh2
= 50 × 9.8 × 10
= 4900 J
(ii) Increase in his potential energy
Height, h2 = 10 m
Reference point is ground, h1 = 0 m
Gravitational potential energy = Mg (h2 – h1)
= 50 × 9.8 × (10 – 0)
= 50 × 9.8 × 10
= 4900 J

18. A cannon ball of mass 500g is fired with a speed of 15m/s-1. Find: (i) its kinetic energy
and (ii) its momentum.
Solution
A mass of cannon ball = 500 g
= 0.5 kg
Speed, v = 15 m / s
(a) Kinetic energy of ball = 1 / 2 × mass × (velocity)2
= 1 / 2× 0.5 × (15)2
= 1 / 2 × 0.5 × 225
= 56.25J
(b) Momentum of the ball = mass × velocity
= 0.5 × 15
= 7.5 kgm/s

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888

19. How much energy is gained by a box of mass 20 kg when a man (a) carrying the box
waits for 5 minutes for a bus? (b) runs carrying the box with a speed of 3 m/s-1 to catch
the bus? (c) raises the box by 0.5 m in order to place it inside the bus? (g=10 m/s-2)
Solution:
Mass of box = 20 kg
(a) As there is no displacement of the man, so zero work is done
(b) Work done, Kinetic energy of man = 1 / 2 × mass × (velocity)2
= 1 / 2 × 20 × (3)2
= 1 / 2 × 20 × 9
= 90J
(c) Work done in raising the box, Potential energy = mgh
U = 20 × 10 × 0.5
= 100J

20.A bullet of mass 50g is moving with a velocity of 500m/s-1. It penetrates 10 cm into a
still target and comes to rest. Calculate: (a) the kinetic energy possessed by the bullet,
and (b) the average retarding force offered by the target.
Solution:
Mass of bullet = 50 g
= 0.05 kg
Velocity = 500 m / s
Distance penetrated by the bullet = 10 cm
= 0.1 m
(a) The kinetic energy of the bullet = 1 / 2 × mass × (velocity)2
= 1 / 2 × 0.05 × (500)2
= 1 / 2 × 0.05 × 500 × 500
= 6250J
(b) Work done by the bullet against the material of the target = resistance force × distance
6250 = resistance force × 0.1 m
Resistance force = 62500N

21. A ball of mass 0.20 kg is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 20m/s-1
Calculate the maximum potential energy it gains as it goes up.
Solution
Potential energy at the maximum height = initial kinetic energy
= 1 / 2 mv2
= 1 / 2 × 0.20 × 20 × 20
= 40J

22. A stone of mass 500 g is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 15m/s-1.
Calculate: (a) the potential energy at the greatest height, (b) the kinetic energy on
reaching the ground (c) the total energy at its half waypoint.

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888
Solution:
(a) Potential energy at maximum height = initial kinetic energy
mgh = 1 / 2 mv2
= 1 / 2 × 0.500 × 15 × 15
= 56.25J
(b) Kinetic energy on reaching the ground = potential energy at the greatest height
= 56.25J
(c) Total energy at its halfway point = 1 / 2 (K + U)
= 56.25J

23. The diagram given below shows a ski jump. A skier weighing 60 kg stands at A at the
top of the ski jump. He moves from A and takes off for his jump at B.

(a)Calculate the change in the gravitational potential

energy of the skier between A and B. (b)If 75% of the energy in part (a) becomes the
kinetic energy at B, calculate the speed at which the skier arrives at B.
Solution:
(a) Mass of skier = 60 kg
Loss in potential energy = mg (h1 – h2)
= 60 × 10 × (75 – 15)
= 60 × 10 × 60
= 3.6 × 104J
(b) Kinetic energy at B = 75 / 100 × 3.6 × 104
= 27000J
= 2.7 × 104J
Kinetic energy = 1 / 2 mv2
27000 = 1 / 2 mv2
27000 = 1 / 2 × 60 × v2
v2 = 27000 / 30
= 900
= 30 m / s

24.A hydroelectric power station takes its water from a lake whose water level is 50m
above the turbine. Assuming an overall efficiency of 40%, calculate the mass of water
which must flow through the turbine each second to produce power output of 1MW.
Solution
Potential energy = mgh
Efficiency = 40%
Useful work done = 40% of potential energy
= 40 / 100 (mgh)

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888

= 0.4 (m × 10 × 50)
= 200 m
Power = work done per second
1MW = 200 × mass of water flowing each second
1 × 106W = 200 × mass of water flowing each second
mass of water flowing each second = (1 × 106) / 200
= 5000 kg

25. The bob of a simple pendulum is imparted a velocity of 5m s-1 when it is at its mean
position. To what maximum vertical height will it rise on reaching at its extreme
position if 60% of its energy is lost in overcoming the friction of air?
Solution:
Total kinetic energy at mean position = 1 / 2 mv2
= 1 / 2 m × 52
Energy lost = 1 / 2 m × 52 × 60 / 100
Energy available = 1 / 2 m × 52 × 40 / 100
According to energy conservation
1 / 2 m × 52 × 40 / 100 = mgh
5 = 10 × h
h = 0.5m

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888

3.MACHINES
Machine: A machine is a device by which we can either overcome a large resistive force at
some point by applying a small force at a convenient point and in a desired direction or by
which we can obtain a gain in speed.

Four functions of machine

1. To change the direction of the force. Example: single fixed pulley

2. To change the point of application of force. Example: Pedal of bicycle
3. To multiply the force. Example: Shear and plier
4. To gain speed. Example: scissors

Load: The resistive or opposing force to be overcome by a machine. S.I unit is newton

Effort: The force applied on the machine to overcome the load. S.I unit is newton
𝐿
Mechanical Advantage (M.A.) : The ratio of the load to the effort. M. A. = 𝐸
MA has no units
as it is a pure ratio. A machine cannot act as a force multiplier and a speed multiplier,
simultaneously.

L>E L<E L=E

L/E > 1 L/E < 1 L/E =1

MA > 1 MA < 1 MA = !

FORCE MULTIPLIER SPEED MULTIPLIER CHANGE IN DIRECTION

OF EFFORT APPLIED
Velocity Ratio: (V.R.) ; The ratio of the velocity of the effort to the velocity of the load. The
VR of a machine never changes. VR has no units as it is a pure ratio.
𝑉𝑒𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
VR= 𝑉𝑒𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
= 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
.

Work Input: The work done on the machine by the effort. W I = E x De.

Work Output: The work done by the machine on the load. W O = L x Dl.

Efficiency: The efficiency of a machine is the ratio of the work done on the load by the machine
to the work done on the machine by the effort. OR the ratio of the work output to the work
input.
𝑊𝑂 𝐿 𝑥 𝐷𝑙. 𝑙 𝐷𝑙 𝐿 𝐷𝑒 𝑀𝐴
η= 𝑊𝐼
x 100% = 𝐸 𝑥 𝐷𝑒.
X 100% = 𝐸
x 𝐷𝑒
x 100% = 𝐸
÷ 𝐷𝑙
x 100% = 𝑉𝑅
x 100%.

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888
Efficiency of a machine is always less than 100%: The useful work done by a machine is
always less than the work done on the machine. The loss of energy in a machine is due to the
following three reasons:

● The moving parts in it are neither weightless nor smooth (or frictionless).
● The string in it (if any) is not perfectly elastic.
● Its different parts are not perfectly rigid.

The most important loss in energy is in overcoming the force of friction between the moving
parts of a machine. The energy so lost appears as heat due to which the moving parts of the
machine get heated.

Ideal / Perfect machine Actual / Practical Machine

● There is no loss of energy in any ● There is some loss of energy during

manner. the operation.

● Work output = work input. ● Work output < work input.

● Efficiency = 100 %. Or 1. ● Efficiency < 100 %. Or < 1.

● M.A. = V.R. ● M.A. < V.R.

LEVER: A lever is a rigid, straight (or bent) bar which is capable of turning about a fixed axis.

Principle of a lever: A lever works on the principle of moments i.e. In equilibrium, the moment
of load about the fulcrum must be equal to the moment of effort about the fulcrum and the two
moments must always be in the opposite directions. i.e. Load x load arm = Effort x effort arm
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑚
M. A. = 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑡
= 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑚
.

M.A. of a lever is also equal to the ratio between the Effort arm to the Load arm. MA of a lever
can be increased by either increasing the effort arm or decreasing the load arm.

If Effort arm > Load arm, MA > 1. [Force Multiplier]

If Effort arm < Load arm, MA < 1. [Speed Multiplier]

If Effort arm = Load arm, MA = 1. [Change the direction of effort]

KINDS OF LEVERS

Class I lever

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888

Class I lever can be direct changer, force multiplier or speed gainer depending on the position
of fulcrum.

● If fulcrum is exactly at the center then it is a direction changer. Eg: Seesaw

● If fulcrum is closer to the load then it is a force multiplier. Eg: Shear, plier
● If fulcrum is closer to the effort than it is a speed gainer. Eg: Scissors

Some more examples of class I lever

Class II lever:

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888

Class II lever is always a force multiplier as effort arm is always greater than the load arm. Eg:
lemon squeezer and nutcracker.

Some more examples of Class II levers

Class III lever

Class III lever is always a speed gainer as the effort arm is always smaller than the load arm.
Eg: fire tong

Some more examples of class III lever:

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888

PULLEY:

A pulley is a metallic or wooden disc with a grooved rim, around which a string or rope can

pass.

Types of pulley

1. Single pulley
i. Single fixed pulley
ii. Single movable pulley
2. Combination of pulleys

SINGLE FIXED PULLEY:

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𝐿 𝑇 1 𝑑𝐸 𝑥
L = T, E = T, MA = 𝐸
= 𝑇
= 1
= 1 , VR = 𝐷𝑙
= 𝑥
= 1.

𝑀𝐴 1
η= 𝑉𝑅
x 100% = 1
x 100% = 100%. [In ideal pulley]

Advantage: 1. Effort is applied in a convenient downward direction. ( in the direction of

gravity)

2. One’s own body weight can also be used as the effort.

Disadvantage: There is no Mechanical Advantage. i.e. MA = 1; E = L.

SINGLE MOVABLE PULLEY:

𝐿 2𝑇 2 𝑑𝐸 2𝑥
L = 2 T, E = T, MA = 𝐸
= 𝑇
= 1
= 2 , VR = 𝐷𝑙
= 𝑥
= 2.

𝑀𝐴 2
η= 𝑉𝑅
x 100% = 2
x 100% = 100%.

Advantage: MA = 2; E = L / 2; It acts as a force multiplier.

Disadvantage: Effort is applied in an inconvenient upward direction.

DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN SINGLE FIXED AND SINGLE MOVABLE PULLEY

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SINGLE FIXED PULLEY SINGLE MOVABLE PULLEY

1. It is fixed to a rigid support. It is not fixed to a rigid support.

2. Its ideal mechanical advantage is 1. Its ideal mechanical advantage is 2.

3. Its velocity ratio is 1.The weight of Its velocity ratio is 2.

pulley itself

4. does not affect its mechanical The weight of the pulley itself reduces
advantage. its mechanical advantage.

5. It is used to change the direction of It is used as a force multiplier.

effort from upwards to downwards.

6. The load moves in a direction The load moves in the direction of the
opposite to that of the effort. effort.

COMBINATION OF PULLEYS

The combination can be made in two ways : (1) using one fixed pulley and several movable
pulleys attached to the same rigid support, and (2) using several pulleys in two blocks (of
which the lower block is movable and upper block is fixed). This system is also known as the
block and tackle system.

One fixed and one movable pulley

Note: Mechanical advantage M.A of this system will be same as single movable pulley as
single fixed pulley only helps in changing direction it does not increase mechanical
advantage.

Using one fixed pulley and several movable pulleys

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Note: Mechanical advantage of such a system is given by M.A = 2n where n is the number of
movable pulleys. In the above diagram M.A = 8 (Ideal case) as there are three movable
pulleys.

Using several pulleys in two blocks (block and tackle system)

In this system of pulleys, two blocks of pulleys are used. One block (upper) having several
pulleys is attached to a rigid support (i.e., fixed) and the other block (lower) having several
pulleys is movable. This arrangement is called the block and tackle system.

The number of pulleys used in the movable lower block is either equal to [even number] or one less
than the number of pulleys in the fixed upper block [odd number].

Four pulleys Five pulleys

V.R = 4 V.R = 5
M.A = 4 for an ideal system M.A = 5 for an ideal system
For a practical machine M.A is always less than

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V.R
Note: In the block and tackle system V.R is always equal to the number of pulleys
when effort is acting downwards. In case Effort is acting in upwards direction then
V.R is equal to number of pulleys + 1
Way to increase efficiency of pulley system

For greater efficiency, the pulleys in the lower block should be as light as possible and the
friction in bearings of pulleys should be minimized by the use of lubricants.

Numericals:

1. A woman draws water from a well using a fixed pulley. The mass of the bucket and
water together is 6 kg. The force applied by the women is 70 N. calculate the
mechanical advantage. (Take g = 10 m s-2).

Solution

The force applied by the woman is = 70 N

The mass of bucket and water together is = 6 kg
Total load = 6 × 10
= 60 N
Mechanical advantage M.A = load / effort
= 60 / 70
= 0.857

2. A fixed pulley is driven by a 100 kg mass falling at a rate of 8.0 m in 4.0 s. It lifts a load
of 75.0 kgf. Calculate: (a) The power input to the pulley taking the force of gravity on 1
kg as 10 N. (b) the efficiency of the pulley, and (c) the height to which the load is raised
in 4.0 s

Solution:

(a) Effort driving the pulley is,

E = mg
= 100 × 10
= 1000 N
Input power is,
Pin = 2000 W

(b) Load pulley by the pulley is,

L = 75 × 10
= 750 N
Hence, M.A is,
M.A = L / E
= 750 / 1000
= 0.75

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When the effort moves by a distance d downwards, the load moves by the same distance
upwards. Thus,
V.R = 1
Therefore efficiency is,
η = M.A. / V.R.
= 0.75 / 1
= 0.75
= 75%

(c) The load moves by the same distance upwards when the effort moves by a distance d
downwards. So, height to which the load moves is 8 m

3. A single fixed pulley and a movable pulley both are separately used to lift a load of 50
kgf to the same height. Compare the efforts applied.

Solution:

In case of a single fixed pulley, the effort i.e Ef needed to lift a load is equal to the load itself.
Hence, Ef = L
Ef = L
The effort needed to lift a load is equal to half the load
Em = 50 kgf / 2
= 25 kgf
Hence, the ratio of efforts applied by the respective pulley is
Ef / Em = 2 / 1
Therefore Ef : Em = 2: 1

4. In a block and tackle system consisting of 3 pulleys, a load of 75 kgf is raised with an
effort of 25 kgf. Find: (i) the mechanical advantage, (ii) the velocity ratio, and (iii) the
efficiency.

Solution:

Load = 75 kgf
Effort = 25 kgf
n=3
M.A. = Load / Effort
= 75 / 25
=3
M.A. = n = 3
Velocity V.R. = n = 3
Efficiency η = M.A. / V.R.
=3/3
= 1 or 100%

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5. A block and tackle system has 5 pulleys. If an effort of 1000 N is needed in the
downward direction to raise a load of 4500 N, calculate: (a)The mechanical advantage,
(b)The velocity ratio and, (c)The efficiency of the system.

Solution:

A block and tackle system has 5 pulleys (n = 5)

Effort = 1000 N
Load = 4500 N
(a) The mechanical advantage
M.A. = Load / Effort
= 4500 / 1000
= 4.5
(b) The velocity ratio = n = 5
(c) The efficiency of the system η = M.A. / V.R
= 4.5 / 5
= 0.9
= 90%

6. A block and tackle system has the velocity ratio 3. Draw a labeled diagram of the
system indicating the points of application and the directions of load L and effort E. A
man can exert a pull of 200 kgf. (a) What is the maximum load he can raise with this
pulley system if its efficiency is 60%? (b) If the effort end moves a distance 60 cm,
what distance does the load move?

Solution:

A block and tackle system has V.R = n (number of pulleys) Hence, n = 3

(b) The effort put by man is E = 200 kgf
Diagrams :

Efficiency η = 60%
For block and tackle system,
η = MA/VR
60/100 = MA/3
Therefore MA = 1.8

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888

MA = L/E
1.8 = L/200
Therefore L = 360 kgf

(b) The velocity ratio of system is V.R = 3

Therefore, we get
V.R = dE / dL = n = 3
Therefore dL = dE / 3
= 60 / 3
= 20 cm

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4.Refraction of light
Refraction of light: The change in direction of the path of light, when it passes from one
transparent medium to another transparent medium, is called refraction. The refraction of
light is essentially a surface phenomenon.
Cause of refraction
When a ray of light passes from one medium to another medium, its direction (or path) changes
because of the change in speed of light in going from one medium to another. In passing from
one medium to another, if light slows down, it bends towards the normal and if light speeds up,
it bends away from the normal.
For normal incidence (i = 0°), the speed of light changes but the direction of light does not
change.
1. When a ray of light travels from a rarer medium to a denser medium (say, from air to
glass), it bends towards the normal. Angle of incidence is greater than the angle of
refraction. The deviation of the ray (from its initial path) is δ = i - r.
2. When a ray of light travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium (say, from glass to
air), it bends away from the normal. Angle of refraction is greater than the angle of
incidence as shown in The deviation of the ray is then δ= r - i.
3. The ray of light incident normally on the surface separating the two media passes
undeviated (such a ray suffers no bending at the surface). Thus if angle of incidence i = 0°,
then angle of refraction r = 0° The deviation of the ray is zero (δ= 0°).
Laws of refraction:
1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence, all lie in the
same plane.
2. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence i to the sine of the angle of refraction r is
constant for the pair of given media.
The constant is called the refractive index of the second medium with respect to the first
medium. It is generally represented by the Greek letter μ (mew).
Effect on speed (V), wavelength (λ) and frequency (f) due to refraction of light.
1. When a ray of light gets refracted from a rarer to a denser medium, the speed of light
decreases; while if it is refracted from a denser to a rarer medium, the speed of light
increases.
2. The frequency of light depends on the source of light, not on the medium through which
it is passing , so it does not change on refraction.
3. When light passes from a rarer to a denser medium, the wavelength decreases (since
speed of light decreases, but its frequency remains unchanged). When light passes from a
denser medium to a rarer medium, the speed of light and hence its wavelength increases.
If V is the speed of light in a medium and λ is the wavelength of light in that medium, f is the
frequency of light than V = fλ
Refractive index [μ]

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888
The refractive index of the second medium with respect to the first medium is defined as the
ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence in the first medium to the sine of the angle of
refraction in the second medium.
Factors affecting refractive index
1. Nature of the medium i.e. its optical density: As smaller the speed of light in a medium
relative to air, higher is the refractive index of that medium.
2. Physical condition such as temperature : With increase in temperature, the speed of light
in medium increases, so the refractive index of medium decreases.
3. The color or wavelength of light: The speed of light of all colors is the same in air (or
vacuum), but in any other transparent medium, the speed of light is different for different
colors. In a given medium, the speed of red light is maximum and that of the violet light is
least, therefore the refractive index of that medium is maximum for violet light and least
for red light
Principle of reversibility
According to the principle of reversibility, if a ray of light travels from medium ‘a’ to medium ‘b’
along a certain path, it will follow exactly the same path, while traveling from medium ‘b’ to
medium ‘a’. The path of a light ray is reversible.

If a plane mirror is placed at right angles to the path of the refracted ray, it is found that light
retraces back its path. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of refraction.
The refractive index of medium ‘b’ with respect to medium ‘a’ is equal to the reciprocal of the
refractive index of medium ‘a’ with respect to medium ‘b’

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Lateral displacement

When a ray of light passes through a rectangular glass slab, it is found that the emergent ray is
parallel to the incident ray produced forwards. They are not along the same line, but the
emergent ray is laterally displaced. The perpendicular distance between the incident ray
produced forwards and the emergent ray is called the lateral displacement.
Factors affecting Lateral Displacement:
1. Thickness of the glass slab: More the thickness of glass slab more is the lateral
displacement
2. Refractive Index of the medium/glass slab. More the refractive index of the glass slab is
the lateral displacement.
3. Angle of incidence: More the angle of incidence, more is the lateral displacement.
4. Wavelength of light: More the wavelength of light less is the lateral displacement.

MULTIPLE IMAGES IN A THICK PLANE GLASS PLATE OR THICK MIRROR

If a pin (or an illuminated object) is placed in front of a thick plane glass plate (or a thick mirror)
and is viewed obliquely, a number of images are seen. Out of these images, the second image is
the brightest, while others are of decreasing brightness.

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888
When an illuminated object is placed in front of a thick plane glass plate (or a thick mirror) and
is viewed obliquely, a number of images are seen. Out of these images, the second image is the
brightest, because it is formed due to strong reflection from the silvered surface, while others
are of decreasing brightness.
Prism
A prism is a transparent refracting medium bounded by five plane surfaces with a triangular
cross section.

The part of prism (ABC) that we show in ray diagram is called the principal section of the prism.
Deviation of ray of light by prism

In a prism, a ray of light suffers refraction at two inclined faces, AB and AC of the prism. In each
refraction, the ray bends towards the base of the prism.
The angle between the incident ray produced forward and the emergent ray produced backward
is called the angle of deviation (𝜹).
Prism formula: i + e =A + δ. i is angle of incidence, e is angle of emergence, A is angle of prism
and δ is angle of deviation.
In a prism, the refraction of light occurs at two inclined faces, so the emergent ray is not parallel to the
incident ray, but it is deviated towards the base of the prism. On the other hand, in a rectangular glass
slab, the refraction of light occurs at two parallel faces, so the emergent ray is parallel to the incident
ray with a lateral displacement.

Factors affecting the angle of deviation (𝜹) :

1. Angle of incidence (i): It is found that as the angle of incidence increases, the angle of
deviation first decreases, reaches a minimum value known as ‘angle of minimum

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888
deviation’ (𝛿 min), and then on further increasing the angle of incidence, the angle of
deviation increases.

When a prism is kept in minimum deviation position, it is found that:

1. The refracted ray inside the prism is parallel to the base of the prism.
2. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of emergence.
i1 = i2 and r1= r2 𝛿min = 2i – A.
2. Material of the prism (refractive index): A prism with higher refractive index produces
greater deviation.
3. Angle of the prism: Angle of deviation increases with increase in the angle of the prism.
4. Colour or Wavelength of light: Smaller the wavelength of light, greater the deviation
produced. 𝛿 violet > 𝛿 red since, μ violet > μ red. Violet light is deviated the most and red
light is deviated the least.
Simple applications of refraction of light
REAL AND APPARENT DEPTH: An object placed in a denser medium when viewed from a rarer
medium, appears to be at a depth lesser than its real depth. This is because of the refraction of

light.

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Shift or rise = Real depth - apparent depth

The shift by which the object appears to be raised, depends on

1. Dependence of shift on the refractive index: Higher the refraction index of the medium,
more is the shift.
2. Dependence of shift on the thickness of medium: Thicker the medium, more is the shift.
3. Dependence on wavelength (or color) of light: The shift decreases with the increase in
the wavelength of light used.
Note: Apparent depth of an object is always less than real depth and apparent height of an object is
always greater than real depth.

Apparent depth Apparent height

Bending of stick in water Object in rarer medium when viewed
from denser medium

In our daily life we come across many phenomena which are caused by the refraction of light.
Some of these are given below :
1. A star appears twinkling in the sky due to change in the refractive index of air with
temperature.
2. The sun is seen a few minutes before it rises above the horizon in the morning while in
the evening a few minutes longer after it sets.
3. A coin kept in a vessel and not visible when seen from just below the edge of the vessel,
can be viewed from the same position when water is poured into the vessel.
4. A print appears to be raised when a glass slab is placed over it.
5. A piece of paper stuck at the bottom of a glass slab appears to be raised when seen from
above.
6. A tank appears shallow than its actual depth.
7. A person's legs appear to be short when standing in a tank.
Critical angle and total internal reflection
Critical angle: The angle of incidence in the denser medium corresponding to which the angle of
refraction in the rarer medium is 90 is called the critical angle.

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Refractive index of medium = 1/ sinic

Factors which affect the critical angle are:

1. The color (or wavelength) of light: The critical angle for a pair of media is less for the
violet light and more for the red light. Thus, critical angle increases with increase in
wavelength of light.
2. The temperature: the critical angle increases with increase in temperature because on
increasing the temperature of medium, its refractive index decreases.

Total internal reflection: It is the phenomenon when a ray of light travelling in a denser
medium, is incident at the surface of a rarer medium such that the angle of incidence is greater
than the critical angle for the pair of media, the ray is totally reflected back into the denser
medium.
The two necessary conditions for total internal reflection are:
1. The light must travel from a denser medium to a rarer medium.
2. The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle for the pair of media.

Different cases when ray of light is passing from denser to rarer medium

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888
Application of total internal reflection in prism
1. Isosceles Right angle prism in periscope [90° deviation]

2. Isosceles right angle prism in a binocular and camera to invert the image without the
loss of intensity.[180° deviation]

3. To erect the inverted image without deviation. This action of prism is used in slide
projectors.

Some more examples of bending of ray of light by prism

1. Equilateral prism, bending Ray of light by 120°.

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2. Total internal reflection by 30°, 60°, 90° prism.

Distinguish between total internal reflection and reflection from plane mirror
Total internal reflection Reflection from a plane mirror

1. It takes place only when light passes It takes place when light is incident on a
from a denser medium to a rarer medium plane mirror from any medium at any angle
at an angle of incidence greater than the of incidence.
critical angle for that pair of media.

2. The entire light is reflected. Only a part of light is reflected while rest is
refracted and absorbed.

3. There is no loss of energy. There is a loss of energy. The energy of

The energy of the reflected ray is the reflected ray is always less than that of the
same as that of the incident ray. incident ray.

4. The image is much brighter. and the The image is less bright and the brightness
brightness remains unchanged even after gradually decreases as the silvering on the
the long use of the total reflecting device. mirror becomes old and rough.

Numericals
1. The speed of light in air is 3 x 10% m s*1. Calculate the speed of light in glass. The
refractive index of glass is 1.5.
Solution
Speed of light in air, C = 3 x 108 m / s
Refractive index of glass µ = 1.5
Speed of light in glass, V =?

C /V= µ

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888
Hence, V = C / µ
V = 3 × 108 / 1.5
V=2×108 m / s

2. The speed of light in diamond is 125,000 km s-1. What is the refractive index? (speed of
light in air = 3 x 108 m s-1)
Solution
Speed of light in diamond = 125,000 km s-1 i.e 125 × 106 m / s
Speed of light in air, c = 3 × 108 m / s
Refractive index of diamond, μd = ?
We know that,
c/v=μ
μ=c/v
μ = (3 × 108) / (125 × 106)
μ = 2.4

3. The refractive index of water with respect to air is 4/3. What is the refractive index of air
with respect to water?
Solution
The refractive index of water with respect to air is 4 / 3

air μwater = 4 / 3

Hence, the refractive index of air with respect to water is

water μair = 1 / air μwater

water μair = 1 / (4 / 3)

water μair = 3 / 4

water μair = 0.75

4. A ray of light of wavelength 5400 suffers refraction from air to glass. Taking aμg = 3/2,
find the wavelength of light in glass.
Solution
Wavelength of light in air = 5400
Refractive index of glass with respect to air is given by
aμg = 3 / 2
Also, a μg = (wavelength of light in air) / (wavelength of light in glass)
3 / 2 = (wavelength of light in air) / (wavelength of light in glass)
3 / 2 = 5400/ wavelength of light in glass
Wavelength of light in glass = 2 / 3 × 5400
Wavelength of light in glass = 3600

5. A ray of light incident at an angle 48° on a prism of refracting angle 60° suffers
minimum deviation. Calculate the angle of minimum deviation.
Solution
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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888
Angle of incidence, i = 480
Refracting angle, A = 60°
Angle of minimum deviation, δmin=?
We know that
δmin = 2i - A
δmin = 2(48) - 60
δmin = 96 - 60
δmin = 36°

6. What should be the angle of incidence for a ray of light which suffers a minimum
deviation of 36° through an equilateral prism?
Solution:
given,
Angle of prism, A = 60°
Angle of minimum deviation, δmin= 36°
Angle of incidence, i = ?
We know that
δmin= 2i - A
36 = 2i - 60
i= 48o

7. A water pond appears to be 2.7 m deep. If the refractive index of water is 4/3, find the
actual depth of the pond.
Solution:
Apparent depth = 2.7 m
Refractive index of water μw = 4 / 3
Real depth = Apparent depth × μw
Real depth = 2.7 × 4 / 3
Real depth = 3.6 m

8. A coin is placed at the bottom of a beaker containing water (refractive index = 4/3) to a
depth of 12 cm. By what height the coin appears to be raised when seen from vertically
above?
Solution
Refractive index of the water, μw = 4 / 3
Real depth at which coin is placed = 12 cm
Shift in the image = ?
Shift = Real depth × (1 – 1 / μ)
Shift = 12 × (1 – 3 / 4)
Shift = 12 / 4
Shift = 3 cm

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9. A postage stamp kept below a rectangular glass block or refractive index 1.5 when
viewed from vertically above it, appears to be raised by 7.0 mm. Calculate the thickness
of the glass block.
Solution:
Refractive index of the glass block, μg = 1.5
Shift in the image = 7 mm or 0.7 cm
Thickness of glass block or real depth = ?
Shift = Real depth × (1 – 1 / μ)
0.7 = R × (1 – 1 / 1.5)
R = (0.7 × 1.5) / 0.5
R = 2.1 cm

Complete the following diagrams [critical angle is 42°]

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5.Refraction through lens

A lens is a transparent refracting medium bounded by either the two spherical surfaces or one
surface spherical and other surface plane.
Types of lens
1. Convex lens or converging lens
2. Concave lens or diverging lens

Convex lens Concave lens

1. Lens having thin edges and thick centre is Lens having thick edges and thin centre is
called convex lens. called concave lens

2. It is also called a converging lens. It is also called as diverging lens.

Different types of convex lens

Different types of concave lens

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Converging action of convex lens

Convex lens consist of two prisms and one glass slab. Two prisms have their bases facing
towards each other. Therefore, when Ray of light passes through a prism, it bends towards the
base from both prisms. Hence Ray of light meet at one point. This is the converging action of a
convex lens.
Diverging action of a concave lens

Concave lens consist of two prisms and one glass slab. Two prisms have their bases facing away
from each other. Therefore when rays of light pass through a concave lens, they move towards
the base. Hence they move away from each other. This is the diverging action of a concave lens.

Technical terms related to lens

1. Centre of curvature (c): The center of the sphere of which the part is the lens surface.
2. Radius of curvature (R): The distance between the optical canter of curvature is known as
radius of curvature. Relation between focal length and radius of curvature: Radius of
curvature = 2 x focal length
3. Principal axis: It is the axis joining the centers of curvature of the two surfaces of the lens.
4. Optical center (o): It is a point on the principal axis through which a ray of light when
passes,emerges undeviated.
5. Principal focus (f): For convex lens: “A beam of light parallel to the principal axis after
refraction converges at a point on the principal axis is known as principal focus”. For

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888
concave lens: “A beam of light parallel to the principal axis after refraction appears to
diverge from a point on the principal axis.
6. Focal plane: A plane passing through the focal point and normal to the principal axis of
the lens.
7. Focal length: The distance between optical centre and focal point is known as focal
length.

Note: Focal length depends on the following factors:

1. Curvature of its surface: Greater the curvature (smaller radius) smaller is the focal length.
2. Refractive index: of the material of the lens: Focal length is inversely proportional to the
μ of the lens with respect to the medium in which it is placed. Example: If a lens is placed
in water instead of air, its focal length increases. Because wμg < aμg
3. Color of light: It is different for different colors. Focal length is directly proportional to
the wavelength of the color. Focal length for the red color is more than for blue color.

If the part of the lens is covered its focal length remains unchanged only intensity of the light
entering the lens decreases due to which intensity of the image reduces.

Rays to be drawn to obtain image of an object by using convex and concave lens:
1. A ray passing through F, after refraction emerges parallel to the principal axis.

2. A ray of light incident parallel to the principal axis of the lens, after refraction passes
through the second focus F2 (in a convex lens) or appears to come from the second focus
F2 (in a concave lens)

3. A ray passing through the optical center passes undeviated through the lens.

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Differentiate between real image and virtual image
REAL IMAGE VIRTUAL IMAGE

1. A real image is formed due to actual A virtual image is formed when the rays
intersection of the rays refracted by the refracted by the lens appear to meet if they
lens. are produced backwards.

2. A real image can be obtained on a screen. A virtual image can not be obtained on a
screen.

3. A real image is inverted with respect to A virtual image is erect with respect to the
the object. object.

Ray diagrams
Convex lens
Different cases Nature and uses

1. Object at infinity Nature of image

● Real
● Inverted
● Highly diminished
Uses
● Burning glass:
● Camera lens when object
is very far

2. Object beyond 2F Nature of image

● Real
● Inverted
● Diminished
Use
● Camera lens when object
is not very far

3. Object at 2F Nature of image

● Real
● Inverted
● Same size
Use
Terrestrial telescope

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4. Object between F and 2F Nature of image
● Real
● Inverted
● Magnified
Use:
Cinema and slide projector

5. Object at F Nature of image

● Real
● Inverted
● Highly magnified
Use
Collimator of spectrometer

6. Object between F and O Nature of image

● Virtual
● Erect
● Magnified
Use
Magnifying glass [Simple
microscope]

Concave lens
Position of object Nature and use

1. Object at infinity Nature:

● Virtual
● Erect
● Diminished
Use
Galilean telescope

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2. Object at any point Nature:
● Virtual
● Erect
● Diminished
Use
To rectify myopia
[short sightedness]

Sign convention
1. Object distance (u) is always negative
2. Object distance (o) is always positive
3. Image distance (v) is positive for real image and negative for virtual image
4. Image height (i) is negative for real image and positive for virtual image
5. Magnification (M) is negative for real image and positive for virtual image
6. Power of lens (P) and focal length (f) is positive for convex lens and negative for concave
lens

Power of lens:The deviation of the incident light rays produced by a lens on refraction through
it, is a measure of its power.
S.I unit of power of lens is diopter [D]

Important formulae
1. 1/f = 1/v - 1/u
2. M = v/u
3. M= i/o
4. P = 1/f(m)
Numericals:
1.
a. At what position can a candle of length 3 cm be placed in front of a convex lens so
that its image of length 6 cm be obtained on a screen placed at distance 30 cm
behind the lens?
b. What is the focal length of the lens in part (a)?
Solution

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Height of a candle (object) = 3 cm
Height of the image of the candle = 6 cm
Image distance = 30 cm
(a) The formula for magnification of a lens is
m = h’ / h
m=v/u
6 / 3 = 30 / u
∴ u = 15 cm

(b) Lens formula is

1/v–1/u=1/f
∴ 1 / 30 – 1 / -15 = 1 / f [u is negative]
∴ 1 / f = 1 / 30 + 1 / 15
1 / f = 3 / 30
∴ f = + 10 cm

2. A concave lens forms the image of an object kept at a distance 20 cm in front of it, at a
distance 10 cm on the side of the object.
a. What is the nature of the image?
b. Find the focal length of the lens.
Solution
Given,
Object distance, u = -20 cm
Image distance, v = – 10 cm
(a) It is a virtual image because the image is formed on the same side as the object. Also, since
the lens is a concave lens the image will be erect and diminished.
(b) Lens formula is
1/v–1/u=1/f
∴ 1 / -10 – 1 / -20 = 1 / f
∴ 1 / f = 1 / 20 – 1 / 10
∴ 1 / f = – 1 / 20
∴ f = – 20 cm

3. The focal length of a convex lens is 25 cm. At what distance from the optical centre of
the lens an object be placed to obtain a virtual image of twice the size?
Solution:
Focal length, f = +25 cm
Image is virtual and magnified, m = +2
For a lens, magnification is
m=v/u
∴ +2 = v / u
∴ v = 2u
Lens formula is,
1/v–1/u=1/f
∴ 1 / 2u – 1 / u = 1 / 25
∴ – 1 / 2u = 1 / 25
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∴ 2u = – 25
∴ u = – 12.5 cm

4. Where should an object be placed in front of a convex lens of focal length 0.12 m to
obtain a real image of size three times the size of the object, on the screen?
Solution:
Focal length of a convex lens, f = + 0.12 m
m = -3 (real image)
For a lens, magnification is
m=v/u
∴–3=v/u
∴ v = – 3u

Lens formula is,

1/v–1/u=1/f
∴ 1 / – 3u – 1 / u = 1 / 0.12
∴ -4 / 3u = 1 / 0.12
∴ 3u = 0.48 m
∴ u = 0.48 / 3
∴ u = – 0.16 m

5. An illuminated object lies at a distance 1.0 m from a screen. A convex lens is used to form
the image of an object on a screen placed at distance 75 cm from the lens. Find: (i) the
focal length of lens, and (ii) the magnification.
Solution:
Image distance, v = 75 cm
Object distance, u = -25 cm
Lens formula is,
1/v–1/u=1/f
∴ 1 / 75 – 1 / -25 = 1 / f
∴ 1 / f = 1 / 75 + 1 / 25
∴ 1 / f = 4 / 75
∴ f = 75 / 4
∴ f = 18.75 cm

For a lens, magnification is

m=v/u
∴ m = 75 / -25
∴ m = -3

6. A lens forms the image of an object placed at a distance 15 cm from it, at a distance 60
cm in front of it. Find: (i) the focal length, (ii) the magnification, and (iii) the nature of
the image.

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Solution
Given,
Object distance, u = – 15 cm
Image distance, v = – 60 cm
(i) Lens formula is,
1/v–1/u=1/f
∴ 1 / – 60 – 1 / – 15 = 1 / f
∴ 1 / f = 1 / 15 – 1 / 60
∴ 1 / f = 3 / 60
∴ f = 60 / 3
∴ f = 20 cm

For a lens, magnification is

m=v/u
∴ m = – 60 / – 15
∴ m = +4

(iii) The nature of the image is erect, virtual and magnified.

7. A lens forms the image of an object placed at a distance of 45 cm from it on a screen

placed at a distance 90 cm on the other side of it. (a) name the kind of lens. (b) find: (i)
the focal length of lens, (ii) the magnification of the image.
Solution:
Object distance, u = – 45 cm
Image distance, v = + 90 cm

(a) The image is real since the image is formed on the other side of the lens. Hence, the lens is
a convex lens.

(b)

(i) Lens formula is,

1/v–1/u=1/f
∴ 1 / 90 – 1 / – 45 = 1 / f
∴ 1 / f = 1 / 90 + 1 / 45
∴ 1 / f = 3 / 90
∴ f = 30 cm

(ii) For a lens, magnification is

m=v/u
∴ m = 90 / – 45
∴m=–2

8. An object is placed at a distance of 20 cm in front of a concave lens of focal length 20 cm.

find: (a) the position of the image, and (b) the magnification of the image

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Solution:
Given,
Object distance, u = – 20 cm
Focal length, f = – 20 cm (concave lens)

(a) Lens formula is,

1/v–1/u=1/f
∴1/v=1/f+1/u
∴ 1 / v = 1 / – 20 + 1 / – 20
∴ 1 / v = – 2 / 20
∴ v = -10 cm
Hence the image is 10 cm in front of the lens on the same side as the object.

(ii) For a lens, magnification is

m=v/u
∴ m = -10 / – 20
∴ m = + 0.5

9. A convex lens forms an inverted image of size the same as that of the object which is
placed at a distance 60 cm in front of the lens. Find: (a) The position of image, and (b)
The focal length of the lens.
Solution:
A convex lens forms an inverted, real and an image of the same size as the object when the
object is placed at 2f i.e u = 2f

(a) In such cases, the image is formed at the point which is double the focal length on the other
side of the lens (2f2)

(b) To find the focal length of this lens, we use the relationship
Object distance (u) = 2f
Object distance = 60 cm (given)
60 = 2f
f = 60 / 2
f = 30
Hence, the focal length of this lens is 30 cm

10. A concave lens forms an erect image of 1/3rd size of the object which is placed at a
distance 30 cm in front of the lens. Find: (a) The position of image, and (b) The focal
length of the lens.
Solution:

Distance of the object u = – 30 cm

Magnification m = h’/ h
=1/3
The magnification is

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888
m = h’ / h
m=v/u
1 / 3 = v / -30
v = -10 cm
Therefore the image is formed at 10 cm from the lens.

Len’s formula is
1/f=1/v–1/u
1 / f = 1 / – 15
f = -15 cm
Hence, the focal length is 15 cm and the image is formed at 10 cm from the lens.

11. The power of a lens is +2.0 D. Find its focal length and state what kind of lens it is?
Solution:
Power of the lens = +2D
Since the power is positive,
∴ The lens is convex

Let focal length be F

Power = 1 / F
2=1/F
F=1/2m
F = 0.5 m
∴ The focal length is 0.5 m and the lens is a convex lens

12. Express the power (with sign) of a concave lens of focal length 20 cm.
Solution:
P = 1 / F (in metre)
P = 1 / 0.2 m
P = 5D
As it is a concave lens so power is negative
Therefore P = – 5D

13. The magnification by a lens is -3. Name the lens and state how are u and v related?
Solution:
Here the negative value of magnification indicates that the image is real and inverted. The
magnitude of magnification is greater than 1, which means the image is enlarged. Hence, the
lens should be a convex lens.
The relation between u and v is given by
m=v/u
-3 = v / -u
v = 3u
This shows the image distance is 3 times that of object distance.

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14. A concave lens is a focal length of 30 cm. Find the position and magnification (m) of
image for an object placed in front of it at distance 30 cm. State whether the image is real
on virtual?
Solution:
Object distance, u = -30 cm
Focal length, f = -30 cm
Image distance, v = ?
Len’s formula is
1/f=1/v–1/u
1 / -30 = 1 / v – 1 / -30
1 / v = -1 / 30 – 1 / 30
1 / v = -2 / 30
1 / v = – 1 / 15
v = -15

The relation between u and v is

m=v/u
m = -15 / -30
m = 0.5
∴ The image formed is virtual and erect

15. Find the position and magnification of the image of an object placed at distance of 8.0
cm in front of a convex lens of focal length 10.0 cm. Is the image erect or inverted?
Solution:
Object distance, u = – 8 cm
Focal length, f = 10 cm
Image distance v = ?

Len’s formula is
1/f=1/v–1/u
1 / 10 = 1 / v – 1 / -8
1 / v = 1 / 10 – 1 / 8
1 / v = (4 – 5) / 40
1 / v = – 1 / 40
v = – 40 cm
The object is placed between the focus and optical center of the lens. So the image formed is
virtual and erect.

How will you differentiate between a convex and a concave lens by looking at (i) a distant
object and (ii) a printed page?
Ans:
● (i) On seeing a distant object through the lens, if its inverted image is seen, the lens is
convex and if the upright image is seen, the lens is concave.
● (ii) On keeping the lens near a printed page, if letters appear magnified, the lens is convex
and if the letters appear diminished, the lens is concave.

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●
State two applications each of a convex lens and concave lens.
Ans:
Application of a convex lens are
● (i) The objective lens of a telescope, camera, slide projector, etc, is a convex lens which
forms the real and inverted image of the object.
● (ii) Our eye lens is also a convex lens. The eye lens forms the inverted image of the object
on the retina
Application of concave lens are
● (i) A concave lens is used as the eye lens in a Galilean telescope to obtain the final erect
image of the object.
● (ii) A person suffering from short sightedness or myopia wears spectacles having a
concave lens.

What is magnifying glass? State its two uses.

Ans:
● Magnifying glass is a convex lens of short focal length. It is mounted in a lens holder for
practical use. It is used to see and read the small letters and figures and also used by
watchmakers to see the small parts and screws of the watch.

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6.Spectrum
The phenomenon of splitting of white light by a prism into its constituent colors is known as
dispersion.

Spectrum:The band of colors seen, on passing white light through a prism is called the
spectrum.

Cause of dispersion of light:

The cause of dispersion of white light is the change in speed of light with wavelength. When
white light enters the first surface of a prism, light of different colors due to their different
speeds in glass, gets deviated through different angles towards the base of prism
Note:
1. The dispersion (or splitting) of white light into its constituent colors takes place at the
first surface of the prism.
2. The violet color is deviated the most, while the red color is deviated the least.
3. On the second surface of the prism, only refraction takes place (from glass to air) and
different colors are deviated through different angles.
4. The prism does not produce colors, but it only splits the various colors present in the
light incident on it.
Pure and impure spectrum
Spectrum in which a sharp boundary can be seen between different colors is called a pure
spectrum. Spectrum in which the sharp boundary is not seen between two color. Each color
mixed with another color is called an impure spectrum.
Wavelength and frequency of different colour in white light.

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Electromagnetic spectrum

COMMON PROPERTIES OF ALL ELECTRO-MAGNETIC RADIATIONS:

1. Do not require any material medium for their propagation.
2. All travel with the same speed in a medium. [3 x 108 m/s in vacuum or air]
3. Exhibit the properties of reflection and refraction.
4. Not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
5. Transverse in nature.
Comparison between ultraviolet and infrared spectrum
Ultraviolet spectrum Infrared spectrum

Wavelength 100 Ao to 4000 Ao 8000 Ao to 107 Ao

Method of ● Silver chloride solution ● a. Heating effect blackened bulb

detection turns dark brown. thermometer shows a rapid
● Chemical activity on dyes increase in temperature.
& photographic plates. ● Thermopile is used to detect
Chemically active - also infrared rays
known as ‘actinic rays’.

Source Electric arcs, sparks, mercury All heated bodies – heated iron ball,
vapor lamps, sun. flame, fire, sun

Effect on Strongly affects photographic Do not affect photographic plates. (Used

Photographic plates. in darkrooms for developing
plates photographs).

Harmful Effects Over exposure causes skin Over exposure causes skin burns.
cancer.

Uses ● For sterilizing purposes. ● For therapeutic purposes by

● For detecting the purity of doctors.
gems, eggs, ghee. In ● Photography at night, in mist/fog.
producing vit D in food of ● In dark rooms – for developing
plants and animals. photographs.
● As signals during war.
● In remote controls of AC , TV, etc.

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Scattering effect Usually scattered by dust Less scattered by atmosphere.

particles in ( used in photography at
atmosphere. night/mist/fog).

Fluorescence Cause fluorescence on striking a Do not cause fluorescence on striking a

fluorescent material (ZnS fluorescent material.
screen).

Prism used Quartz prism is used. Absorbed by Rock - salt prism is used. Absorbed by
glass prism. glass prism.

Comparison of other electromagnetic waves

GAMMA X - RAYS MICROWA RADIO -
RAYS VES WAVES

WAVELE Less than 0.1 0.1 – 100 A 107 – 1011 A Greater than
NGTH A Less than 0.01 – 10 nm 106 – 1010 nm 1011A
0.01 nm Greater than
1010 nm

SOURCES Obtained in Produced when Produced by Antenna of

emissions highly energetic crystal radio and
from cathode rays are oscillators. television
radio-active stopped by a
substances heavy metal
due to energy target of high MP.
changes in
the nucleus of
their atoms.

PROPERT Cause More chemically

IES fluorescence active than UV.
on striking Strongly affect
fluorescent photographic
materials. films. Cause
Can easily fluorescence on
penetrate ZnS.
through 30 Can penetrate
cm thick iron through human
& human flesh, but are
body. stopped by
Smallest bones.
wavelengt
h. Most
energetic
radiations.

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888
USES In medical To detect For In radar
science – to fractures in satellite communicat
kill cancer bones & teeth communica ion. In radio
cells (radiography) tion. For & TV
(Radio-therap For analysis of transmissio
y). diagnostic atomic & n.
In industry to purposes – molecular
check welding. CAT scans. structure.
To study atomic For
arrangement in cooking in
crystals & in microwav
complex e ovens. In
molecules. By radar
detective communic
HARMFUL agencies to ation.
EFFECT detect concealed
precious metals.
Cause
immense
biological
damage.

Scattering of light
Scattering is the process of absorption and then re-emission of light energy.
Cause of scattering of light
The air molecules of size smaller than the wavelength of incident light absorb the energy of
incident light and then re-emit it without change in its wavelength. The scattering of light is not
the same for all wavelengths of incident light. The intensity of scattered light is found to be
inversely proportional to the fourth power of wavelength of light. The wavelength of violet light
is least (~ 4000 À) and that of red light is most (- 8000 À), therefore from the incident white
light, violet light is scattered most and the red light is scattered least (violet light is scattered
nearly 16 times more than the red light).
Some applications of scattering of light
1. Red color of sun at sunrise and sunset: At the time of sunrise and sunset, the light from
sun has to travel the longest distance of the atmosphere to reach the observer. Since the
blue light of short wavelength is scattered more, much of it is lost, while the red light of
long wavelength is scattered a little, so it is not much lost. Thus blue light is almost
absent in sunlight reaching the observer and only the red
2. White color of sky at noon: At noon, the sun is directly above our head, so we get the light
rays directly from the sun after traveling the shortest distance, without much scattering
of any particular color. Hence the sky is seen white.
3. Blue color of sky: The blue (or violet) light due to its short wavelength is scattered more
as compared to the red light of long wavelength. Thus the light reaching our eye directly
from the sun is rich in red color, while the light reaching our eye from all other directions
is the scattered blue light. Therefore the sky in direction, other than the direction of the

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 ICSE-X Physics by MOHAN BHATT 917 222 8888
sun, is seen blue.
4. Black color of sky in absence of atmosphere:If there would have been no atmosphere,
there would be no scattering of light and no scattered light would reach our eyes and thus
the sky will appear black (instead of blue).
5. White color of clouds: The clouds are nearer the earth surface and they contain dust
particles and aggregates of water molecules of size bigger than the wavelength of visible
light.
6. Use of red light for the danger signal: the wavelength of red light is longest, therefore the
light of red color is scattered least by the air molecules of the atmosphere.

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7.Sound
Sound is the form of energy that gives us the sensation of hearing.
Sound is classified into three types:
1. Infrasonic sound: frequency of sound below 20 Hz is called infrasonic sound.
2. Audible sound: frequency of sound between 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz is called audible sound.
3. Ultrasonic sound: frequency of sound above 20,000 Hz is called ultrasonic sound.
Wave: A disturbance that transfers energy progressively from one point to another in a medium
without there being a direct contact between the two points is called a wave.
Waves are broadly classified into two types, mechanical waves and electromagnetic waves
● Mechanical waves are those ways that require a material medium for their propagation.
They are also called elastic waves. Sound wave is a mechanical wave.
● Electromagnetic waves are those ways that do not require any material medium for their
propagation. They can travel through vacuum. Light wave is an electromagnetic wave.
Mechanical waves are further classified into two types, longitudinal wave and transverse wave.
● A longitudinal wave is that wave in which the particles of the medium vibrate about their
main positions along the line of direction of propagation of the wave. Longitudinal waves
consist of alternate compression and rarefaction.
● A transverse wave is that wave in which the particles of the medium vibrate about their
mean position at right angles to the direction of propagation of the wave. Transverse
waves consist of alternate crests and troughs.
Some important terms:
1. Amplitude: It is the maximum displacement of the particles of the medium from the
mean position. Unit: cm, m
2. (λ) Wave Length: It is the distance between two nearest identical points of a wave. OR The
distance traveled by the wave in 1 time period. Unit: cm, m.
3. (T) Time Period of oscillation: It is the time taken by a particle to complete one vibration
or one cycle. Unit : second.
4. Frequency: (f) It is the number of complete vibrations made by a particle of the medium
in one second. Unit: hertz
5.
Relation between T and f.
T = 1/f OR f= 1/T
Wave velocity (V): It is the distance covered by the wave in one second.
V= Distance/Time

V = λ/T OR V = λ f

CHARACTERISTICS OF WAVES
1. Wave motion requires a material medium for its propagation.
2. Velocity of a wave remains constant in a homogeneous medium.
3. Wave motion is possible in an elastic, inertial, and frictionless medium.

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4. Each particle begins its motion a little later than its predecessor.
5. When a wave propagates it is the disturbance that travels forward, vibrations that travel
forward, the energy that travels forward without the actual physical transfer of matter.
Distinguish between light and sound waves
Light waves Sound waves

1. These are electromagnetic waves. These are mechanical waves.

2. They can travel in vacuum They require a material medium for

propagation.They cannot travel in
vacuum.

3. The speed of light wave is very high The speed of sound wave is low

4. The wavelength of light waves The wavelength of sound waves is in

(visible) is very small, of the order of the range of 10-2 m to 10 m.
10-6 m.

5. These waves are transverse. In air, these waves are longitudinal.

Reflection of sound
The returning back of a sound wave on striking a rigid surface is called the reflection of sounds.
Sound wave also follow law of reflection i.e. Angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection and
incident ray reflected ray and normal lies on the same plane
Echo: The sound heard after reflection from a distant obstacle after the original sound has
ceased, is called an echo.
Conditions necessary to hear an echo:
1. The minimum distance between the source and the obstacle is 17m. OR Reflected sounc
reaches back in the ear are more than 0.1 second. persistence of hearing)
2. The wavelength of the sound waves should be less than height of the obstacle
3. The intensity of sound waves should be more
4. There must be smooth rigid and dense medium to reflect sound
To find the speed of sound by using the formula given below:
V = total distance traveled/time taken = 2d/t where d - the distance between reflecting surface
and
source of sound t = the time interval in which echo heard
Acoustics: It is the study of sound : It is very important for construction of large auditoriums. In
such places it is provided with heavy curtains, thick carpets, the walls and the roots are covered
wit sound absorbing materials because in the halls, sound gets reflected, echo of the sound
becomes the
major problems.
Reverberations: If there are repeated reflections at the reflecting surface, The sound gets
prolonged. This effect is known as Reverberation.
e.g. When thunder takes place a series of echoes are formed from high rise buildings, hillocks etc
thereby giving rise to reverberations

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Practical application of Reverberation
1. Megaphone is a horn-shaped tube. Megaphone are used for addressing a small group of
people.
2. Stethoscope: It is a medical diagnostic instrument based on reverberation.
Difference between echo and Reverberation
Echo Reverberation

1. Repetition of sound from the distant surface, If there are repeated reflections at the
after the original sound has ceased is called reflecting surface, The sound gets
echo prolonged. This effect is known as
Reverberation.

2. Distinct sound is heard Sound overlaps

3. Minimum distance between source and Distance should be less than 17 m

Reflector should be 17 m

Use of echoes:
1. Dolphins detect their energy and obstacles by emitting ultrasonic waves and hearing
echo.They use ultrasonic waves for hunting their prey.
2. Bats can produce and detect the sound of high frequency up to about 100 kHz. The sound
produced by the flying bats gets reflected back from any obstacle in front of it. By hearing
The echoes bats can detect the presence of the obstacle in the dark. They can tv sate
without colliding with the obstacles. This process of detecting obstacles is called sound
ranging
3. Trawler man or tisherman sends ultrasonic sound waves from a source into the sea anc
receives the waves reflected from the tish in the detector. The position of tish is calculated
by using the relation d = Vt/2 where t is time taken for to and fro journey of the waves. V
is speed of sound in water [approximately 1500 m/s]
4. SONAR: (Sound Navigation and Ranging): It is an instrument for the purpose of echo
depth sounding to detect the presence of the obstacle inside the sea and to determine the
depth of the sea.It is based on the principle of reflection of ultrasonIc sound waves.
Ultrasonic waves are sent all directions trom the ship and then received on their return
after reflection. The velocity of sound in water is known, by measuring the time taken by
sound to go to the sea bed and return the navigator can calculate depth of the sea.
[Ultrasonic waves (frequency above 20 kHz) are more energetic than the audible sound,
and have the following three properties which make them suitable for a wide variety of
uses :
a. They can travel undeviated through a long distance,
b. They can be confined to a narrow beam.
c. They are not easily absorbed in a medium.]
5. RADAR: The echo method is used in RADAR (radio detection and ranging) to detect the
presence of the obstacles. Principle used here is reflection of electromagnetic waves such
as radio waves or microwaves from the obiect.
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6. Sonography: Sonar Scanners are used by Doctors to look inside the human body. They
send out ultrasonic waves which are reflected by body tissues and organs.
7. Echocardiography: Ultrasonic waves are used to construct the image of the heart.

Numericals:
1. The wavelength of waves produced on the surface of water is 20cm. If the wave velocity
is 24m s-1, calculate (i) the number of waves produced in one second and (ii) the time in
which one wave is produced.
Solution:
(i) The number of waves produced in one second or frequency
= velocity / wavelength
= 24 / 20 × 10-2
= 120 Hz

(ii) Time in which one wave is produced = 1 / frequency

= 1 / 120
= 8.3 × 10-3 seconds

2. Calculate the minimum distance in the air required between the source of sound and the
obstacle to hear an echo. Take the speed of sound in air = 350 m s-1
Solution:
Velocity = 2D / 0.1
D = (350 × 0.1) / 2
D = 17.5 m

3. What should be the minimum distance between the source and reflector in water so that
echo is heard distinctly? (The speed of sound in water = 1400m/s)
Solution:
Velocity = 2D / Time
1400 = 2 × D / 0.1
D = 1400 × 0.1 / 2
D = 70 m

4. A man standing 25 m away from a wall produces a sound and receives the reflected
sound. (a) Calculate the time after which he receives the reflected sound if the speed of
sound in air is 350 m/s-1. (b) Will the man be able to hear a distinct echo? Explain the
answer.

Solution
(a) Velocity = 2D / Time
Time = 2 × 25 / 350

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Time = 0.143 seconds

(b) The reflected sound reaches the man 0.1 second after the original sound is heard and this
original sound persists only for 0.1 second. Therefore the man able to hear a distinct echo.

5. A RADAR sends a signal to an airplane at a distance 300 km away, with a speed of 3 × 108
m s-1. After how much time is the signal received back after reflecting from the airplane?
Solution:
Speed of sound transmitted from RADAR = 3 × 108 m s-1
The distance at which the signal is transmitted = 300 km = 300000 m

The signal travels twice, i.e when transmitted and when it is being received by the RADAR, the
distance is calculated twice.
Total distance the signal travels = 2 × 300000 m
Time taken to receive the signal back after reflecting from the airplane is
t = 2d / s
t = (2 × 3 × 105) / 3 × 108
t = 0.002 seconds
Therefore after 0.002 seconds, the signal is received back after reflecting from the aeroplane.

6. A man standing 48 m away from a wall fires a gun. Calculate the time after which an
echo is heard. (The speed of sound in air is 320m/s-1).
Solution:
Velocity = 2 × D / Time
Time after which an echo is heard = 2D / velocity
= 2 × 48 / 320
= 0.3 seconds

7. A ship on the surface of water sends a signal and receives it back from the submarine
inside water after 4s. Calculate the distance of the submarine from the ship. (The speed
of sound in water is 1450 m s-1).
Solution:
2D = velocity× time
D = (velocity× time) / 2
D = (1450 × 4) / 2
D = 2900 m
D = 2.9 km

8. A pendulum has a frequency of 5 vibrations per second. An observer starts the pendulum
and fires a gun simultaneously. He hears an echo from the cliff after 8 vibrations of the
pendulum. If the velocity of sound in air is 340m s-1, find the distance between the cliff
and the observer.
Solution:

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5 vibrations by pendulum per second
So, for 8 vibrations = 8 / 5 seconds
= 1.6 seconds
Velocity = 2 × D / time
340 = 2 × D / 1.6
D = (340 × 1.6) / 2
D = 272 m

9. A person standing between two vertical cliffs produces the sound. Two successive
echoes are heard at 4s and 6s. Calculate the distance between the cliffs. (Speed of sound
in air = 320m/s)
Solution:
The distance of the first cliff from the person, 2 × D1 = velocity × time
D1 = (320 × 4) / 2
D1 = 640 m
Distance of the second cliff from the person, D2 = (320 × 6) / 2
D2 = 960 m
Distance between cliffs = D1 + D2
= 640 + 960
= 1600 m

10. A person standing at a distance x in front of a cliff fires a gun. Another person B
standing behind the person A at a distance y from the cliff hears two sounds of the fired
shots after 2s and 3s respectively. Calculate x and y (take speed of sound 320 m/s)
Solution:
The person B hears two of the fired shots, the first one is direct from the gun while another
sound comes after reflection from the cliff
Given the speed of sound 320 m / s
Time taken by the sound to reach from A to B directly
Speed = distance / time
320 = (y – x) / 2
(y – x) = 320 × 2
(y – x) = 640——————(i)
After reflection from the cliff
320 = (y + x) / 3
(y + x) = 320 × 3
(y + x) = 960—————-(ii)

By adding equation (i) and (ii)

2y = 1600
y = 1600 / 2
y = 800 m
x = 160 m

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11. On sending an ultrasonic wave from a ship towards the bottom of a sea, the time interval
between sending the wave and receiving it back is found to be 1.5 s. If the velocity of the
wave in seawater is 1400 m/s, find the depth of sea.
Solution:
Depth of the sea = (velocity × time) / 2
= (1400 × 1.5) / 2
= 1050 m

12. The figure below shows the distance-displacement graph of two waves A and B.
Compare (i) the amplitude, (ii) the wavelength of the two waves.

Solution:
Amplitude is the maximum displacement from the mean position.
For A the maximum displacement = 10 cm and
For B the maximum displacement = 5 cm
The ratio of maximum amplitude is A1 / A2 = 10 / 5 = 2 / 1 = 2: 1
Wavelength of A = 8 cm
Wavelength of B = 16 cm
The ratio of wavelength is λ1 / λ2 = 8 / 16 = 1 / 2 = 1: 2

Vibration
To and fro or back and forth motion of particles is called vibration.
Vibrations are classified into three types:
1. Natural vibrations or free vibrations
2. Damped vibrations
3. Forced vibrations
Natural vibration:
The periodic vibrations of a body in the absence of any external force on it, are called natural or
free vibrations.
Bodies with free vibrations have a definite frequency and time period, depending on their shape,
size and structure. The frequency of a freely vibrating body is called its natural frequency and
time period is called the natural period.
Note: In free vibrations, the amplitude and frequency remain constant, in absence of any
resistance. Theoretically, free vibrations are possible only in vacuum. The presence of medium
(such as air) offers resistance due to which the energy of the body and its amplitude of
vibration do not remain constant but gradually decrease with time. An ideal free vibration
cannot be realized in practice

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Displacement-time graph for free or natural vibration.

Examples:
1. When the tuning fork is gently stuck then it performs natural vibration. The sound of a
single frequency produced by a tuning fork is called a pure note.
2. The Bob of the simple pendulum displaced from its mean positions vibrates with its
natural frequency that depends on its length and acceleration due to gravity.
3. A load is suspended from a spring when pulled and released and starts vibrating with
natural vibration. The frequency of vibration will be different for the same load on
different springs and it will be different for different loads on the same spring.
4. When an air column in a flute is made to vibrate, it vibrate with its natural frequency,
which is inversely proportional to the length of air column.
5. When a string in instruments like sitar, guitar, etc. is plucked once it vibrates, which its
natural frequency, which is directly proportional to the square root of tension in the
string, inversely proportional to the radius of string and inversely proportional to the
length of string. In piano various strings are set in vibration with its own natural
frequency because they are of different thickness and under different tensions.
6. If a stretched string is plucked from the center, the string vibrates in one loop, this
vibration of maximum amplitude and minimum frequency is called principal note or
fundamental note of frequency f and all other notes of different frequencies are called
subsidiary notes.
Damped vibration
The periodic vibrations of a body of decreasing amplitude in presence of a Resistive force are
called damped vibrations.
The energy of the vibrating body continuously dissipated in doing work against the force of
friction. So its amplitude gradually decreases after sometime when it has lost all its energy, it
stops vibrating.

Examples of damped vibrations

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1. When a slim branch of a tree is pulled and then released, it makes damped vibrations.
2. A tuning fork when stroked on a rubber pad, executes damped vibrations in air.
3. A simple pendulum oscillating in air (or any other medium) executes damped vibrations.
4. The vibrations of a spring having a mass at its end, in air are damped vibrations.
FORCED VIBRATION:
The vibration of a body which takes place under the influence of an external periodic force
acting on it, are called forced vibrations.
Three forces are acting on a body executing force vibration
1. The restoring force.
2. The frictional force
3. The external periodic force (driving force)
Characteristics of forced vibrations:
1. Under the influence of external periodic force, a body does not vibrate with its natural
frequency but acquires the frequency of the external periodic force.
2. The magnitude of amplitude of vibration depends on the frequency of the driving force,
although it remains constant with time.
3. The amplitude of oscillations is very small if the frequency of external force is different
from the natural frequency of the body.
4. The amplitude of oscillations is very large if the frequency of external force is the same as
that of the natural frequency of the body.
Examples of forced vibrations
1. When the stem of a vibrating tuning fork is pressed against the top of a table, the tuning
fork produces forced vibrations in the table top. The table top has a much larger vibrating
area than the tuning fork, so the forced vibrations of the tabletop send forth a greater
energy and produce a louder (or more intense) sound than that produced by the tuning
fork.
2. The vibrations produced in the diaphragm of a microphone sound box with frequencies
corresponding to the speech of the speaker, are forced vibrations.
3. In a guitar, when an artist plays on its strings by his fingers, the vibrations in them cause
forced vibrations in the air enclosed in its hollow box.
4. In stringed instruments provided with a hollow sound box containing air, strings are
made to vibrate by plucking which produce forced vibrations in the air of the sound box.
The surface area of the air in the sound box is large, so the forced vibrations of air send
forth a greater energy and cause a loud sound.
Comparison between the types of vibration
Free or Natural vibration Damped vibration Forced vibration

1. These vibrations occur in These vibrations occur when These vibrations occur in
the absence of any there is a resisting force the presence of an external
resisting force. opposing the free vibrations. periodic force.

2. The energy of these There is some loss of energy in There is an increase in

vibrations remains each vibration, in the form of energy due to these
constant. heat. vibrations.

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3. The frequency of The frequency of vibration is The frequency of vibration
vibration is equal to the less than the natural frequency may be more or less than the
natural frequency and and remains constant. natural frequency of the
remains constant. external force and changes
with the change in the
frequency of driving force.

4. The amplitude of The amplitude of vibration The amplitude of vibration

vibration remains decreases gradually with time. may be small or large,
constant depending on the frequency
of the driving force.

RESONANCE
Resonance is a special case of force vibration. When the frequency of the externally applied
periodic force on a body is equal to or integral multiple of its natural frequency, the body readily
begins to vibrate with an increased amplitude. This phenomenon is known as resonance. The
vibrations of large amplitudes are called resonant vibrations.
Condition for resonance: resonance occurs only when the applied force causes forced vibration
in the body and the frequency of the applied force is exactly equal or an integral multiple of
the natural frequency of the vibrating body.
Examples of resonance
1. Resonance in air column: Two cylindrical tubes are connected by rubber pipe, filled with
water. Vibrating tuning fork is held just above the one of the cylindrical tube, by adjusting
the level of water in the tube by moving the other tube, a loud sound is heard. This
happens when the natural frequency of the air column above the water in the tube equals
the frequency of the tuning fork.
2. When a vehicle is driven at a particular speed then different parts of the body begin to
vibrate and produce rattling sound. Reason: At a particular speed, when any part of the
body has a natural frequency equal to the frequency of piston, Resonance takes place.
Then the parts of the body vibrate with large amplitude and produce the rattling sound.
To stop the rattling sound, change the speed of the vehicle.
3. The soldiers are not asked to march past when crossing a bridge. Reason: Rhythmic
marching of soldiers over a bridge sets it swinging. If the frequency of the movement of
soldiers marching becomes exactly equal to the frequency of the vibrating bridge due to
resonance, such a bridge will start vibrating with larger amplitude and it may collapse.
4. Tuning wireless receiver, radio, television etc we adjust the natural frequency equal to
the incoming wireless carrier waves. When two frequencies match the energy is absorbed
from the incoming waves and the loud sound of incoming signal is heard.
5. Voice dialing in a telephone is based on resonance.
6. Working of remote control of any electronic device is based on resonance.
7. All musical stringed instruments and sonometers are provided with a sound box. The box
is so constructed that the column of air inside it has a natural frequency which is the same
as that of the stretched string on it, so that when the string is made to vibrate, the air
column inside the box is set into resonant vibration and produces louder sound.

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8. Resonance with tuning forks: If the tuning fork A set into vibration, the air column starts
vibrating and it is communicated to the sound box of the B. the air column of B starts
vibrating with the larger amplitude due to the resonance

9. Phenomenon of resonance in a simple pendulum: When the pendulum A is set oscillating ,

the pendulum B, C and D are set into force, vibrating with the frequency of the pendulum
A. The pendulum B whose length is the same as that of A resonates with the pendulum A,
hence it vibrates with the larger amplitude. The time period and frequency of pendulum A
and B are the same (both are of the same length). The amplitude of the pendulum C and D
is smaller than that of A.

Characteristics of sound
Loudness and intensity:
It is the subjective property of musical sound which determines the degree of sensation
produced in the ear and enables us to distinguish between two sounds of the same pitch and
quality. It is measured in phon.
Intensity is the amount of energy of sound waves falling per second per unit area. It is measured
in watt/m2. In general, higher the intensity of the sound is the sound.
The loudness or intensity depends on the following factors
1. Amplitude: Loudness is directly proportional to square of amplitude Sound waves with
small
amplitudes are soft while those with large amplitudes are loud.

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Two sound wave having same frequency but different loudness

2. Distance of the observer from the source: Loudness is inversely proportional to square of
distance
3. Density of the medium: Loudness of sound increases with increase in density of a
vibrating body.
4. Surface area of the vibrating body: loudness of sound increases with increase in surface
area of vibrating body.
Pitch or Shrillness:
It is a subjective property of musical sound. It is defined as shrillness or
sharpness of sound.
Pitch is that characteristic of sound by which an acute (or shrill) note can be distinguished
from a grave or flat note. It is the sensation produced by the ear. It depends on the frequency of
the waves received by the ear. The pitch is said to be large if the frequency is large and vice
versa.The sound produced by an object vibrating with a low frequency (high ʎ) is described as
flat or low pitched. The sound produced by an object vibrating with high frequency is described
as shrill or high pitches or shrill sound. It is characteristic of sound which enables a person to
differentiate between two sounds with equal loudness but having different frequency.

Two sound wave having same loudness but different frequency

Examples:
1. Children and women have short vocal chords, which vibrate with high frequency (high
pitch) men have long vocal chords, hence they have a low pitch.

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2. Relative motion between the source and listener. When a source of sound is moving
towards the listener the pitch of the sound appears to rise when the source of sound is
moving away from the listener the pitch of the sound appears to fall. This is known as
Doppler’s effect. The siren of an approaching police car sounds high pitch and as the car
drives past the sound becomes low pitch. Because when the car approaches, the sound
waves ahead of him are compressed. These short waves are stretched out. These longer
waves have a lower frequency, so the siren sound low pitch.
3. Pressing different keys of the harmonium, but they are easily differentiated due to
different pitches.
4. The wings of the bee and mosquito vibrate with the high frequency. Hence the sound
produced by them is more shrill.

Musical instrument:
1. String instrument: Eg. Violin, Guitar
When a string under tension T is plucked, then it begins to vibrate transversely. The
frequency of vibration is given by:

L = length of the string

m = mass per unit length of the string
T = tension
The frequency of sound can be adjusted by vary the length, thickness, tension of the
wire.
2. Pipe instrument: E.g., Clarinet, Harmonium, Saxophone, Flute. They produce the sound by
means of vibration of air in pipes. The frequency of sound can be adjusted by the length of the
air column in the pipe. The frequency of the vibration of the air column is inversely proportional
to the length of the air column.
3. Membrane instrument: E.g. table, brass, drum, dholak, human vocal chord. They produce the
sound by means of vibration of the membrane. The frequency of the sound can be adjusted by
varying the tension on the thin membrane. The enclosed air in a drum helps to increase the
loudness of the sound. The pitch of the voice depends on the length and the tension of the vocal
cord and the quality of the voice depends on the position of the tongue.

Quality and timbre:

The note of different instruments having the same frequencies and the same loudness are
distinguished by this characteristic. This is because of the different waveforms produced by
different musical instruments. The notes produced which depend on the shape and size of the
instrument.The quality of a note depends on the waveform. Because of this quality, we can
recognize a person from his voice without even seeing him. The waves produced by different
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instruments having same amplitude (loudness) and same frequencies (pitch) but of different
waveforms given in the diagram.

Note:
1. All stringed instruments are provided with a hollow box known as sound box. Reason:
Vibrating string having a very small area by itself cannot produce a loud sound. When the
strings are set into vibrations, forced vibrations are produced in the sound box (a hollow
box filled with air) which has a large area and a large volume of air which produces a loud
sound of the same frequency which can be heard.
2. A bell-like musical instrument (Jaltarang) can be made from several bottles partly filled
with water to a different level. Tap the bottles with a wooden spoon. Notice that the fuller
the bottle is, the higher the pitch it makes. The bottle with less water is proportional to
the length of the air column.
3. The stretched string on being set into vibration produces an audible sound. Because
vibrating strings set up vibrations (compressed and refraction) are received by the ear as
sound. This sound is not audible if the string is set into vibration on the surface of the
moon. Absence of air or media to carry the sound energy on the moon.

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8.CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Current means flow and electricity means energy of charge
Charges are of two types positive and negative
Positive charges (Cations) are formed by loss of electrons
Negative charges (Anions) are formed by gain of electrons
S.I. Unit of electric charge is coulomb

Current is the rate of flow of charge across a cross-section normal to the direction of flow of
current.

Electric current is a scalar quantity

S.I. Unit of electric current is ampere (A)

Ampere: Electric current is set to be 1 ampere are when charge of 1 coulomb is flowing for one
second

Total charge present on any object is multiple of a fixed number called electronic charge
Electronic charge = 1.6 x 10-19 coulomb

Calculate number of electron present in one coulomb

Solution
1 electron = 1.6 x 10-19 C
∴ Number of electrons present in one coulomb = 1/1.6 x 10-19 C = 6.25 x 1018 electrons

Sources of electricity
There are two type of sources of electricity
1. Direct current source (D.C). Example: cells and batteries
2. Alternating current source (A.C). Example: Dynamo and generator

Direct current source Alternating current source

1. Direction and magnitude of current is Direction and magnitude of current

fixed fluctuate

2. Energy conversion is chemical energy to Energy conversion is mechanical energy

electrical energy to electrical energy

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Direction of current (conventional and electronic)
Conventionally, the direction of current is taken positive in the direction of flow of positive
charge. Therefore, conventionally, the current will be negative in the direction of flow of
electrons. The rate of flow of electrons in a direction is called the electronic current in that
direction. The conventional current (or simply current) is in a direction opposite to the direction
of motion of electrons. The magnitude of conventional current is the rate of flow of total charge
across the given cross-section.

Electric potential and potential difference

Electric potential at a point:The potential at a point is defined as the amount of work done in
bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that point.
It is denoted by the symbol V. It is a scalar quantity.

If W joule of work is done in bringing the test charge Q coulomb from infinity to the point, then
electric potential V at the point is given as V=W/Q
S.I unit of electric potential is volt (V)
the potential at a point is said to be 1 volt when 1 joule of work is done in bringing 1 coulomb
charge from infinity to that point. Thus 1 volt = 1 joule / 1 coulomb

Potential difference:The potential difference (p.d.) between two points is equal to the work done
in moving a unit positive charge from one point to the other.
It is a scalar quantity.
S.I unit of electric potential is volt (V)
The potential at a point is said to be 1 volt when 1 joule of work is done in bringing 1 coulomb
charge from infinity to that point. Thus 1 volt = 1 joule / 1 coulomb

Electric resistance [R]

The obstruction offered to the flow of current by the wire is called its electrical resistance
Cause of resistance:
A metal wire has free electrons which move in a random manner in absence of any cell connected
across it. When the ends of the wire are connected to a cell, the electrons start moving from the
negative terminal of the cell to its positive terminal through the metal wire. During their
movement, they collide with
the fixed positive ions and other free electrons of the wire due to which their speed decreases
and their direction of motion changes. After each collision, they again accelerate towards the
positive terminal and suffer collisions with the other positive ions and free electrons again. This
process continues. As a result, The electrons do not move in bulk with an increasing speed, but
they drift towards the positive terminal Thus the wire offers some resistance to the flow of
electrons (or current) through it.

Ohm's law: Ohm's law states that current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional
to the potential difference applied across its ends provided its temperature is constant. i.e., I ∝V
or
V ∝ I or V = IR where R is the resistance of the conductor.
If I= 1, then V = R
Thus the resistance of a conductor is numerically equal to the potential difference across its
ends when unit current flows through it
The S.I. unit of potential difference is volt and that of current is ampere, so the unit of resistance
is volt/ampere = ohm. It is denoted by the symbol Ω (omega).

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1 ohm:The resistance of a conductor is said to be 1 ohm if 1 ampere current flows through it when
a potential difference of 1 volt is applied across the ends of the conductor,
1 ohm = 1 volt/1 ampere

Conductance: The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance.

V-I and I-V graph of ohmic resistor

V-I graph I-V graph

Slope of V-I graph gives Resistance Slope of I-V graph gives Conductance

Graph of non ohmic resistor

Differences between ohmic and non ohmic resistors

Ohmic resistor Non ohmic resistor

1. It obeys the Ohm's law. i.e., V/I is constant It does not obey Ohm's law i.e., V/I is not the
for all values of V or I. same for all values V or I.

2. The graph for potential difference V versus The graph for potential difference V versus
current I is a straight line. current I is not a straight line.

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3. The slope of V-I graph is same at all values The slope of the V-I graph is different at
of V or I at a given temperature different values of V or I even at a given
Examples: All metallic conductors such as temperature.
silver, iron, copper, nichrome, electrolyte Examples : Junction diode, LED, transistor,
with suitable electrodes, etc. filament of a bulb, etc.

Factors affecting electric resistance

● Length of the conductor: length of the conductor is directly proportional to the electric
resistance
● Area of cross-section of the conductor (thickness): Thickness of the conductor is
inversely proportional to the resistance of the conductor.
● Temperature of the conductor: Temperature of the conductor is directly proportional to
the resistance of the conductor
● The material of conductor: The resistance of a wire depends on the number of collisions
which the electrons moving through it suffer with the other electrons and fixed positive
ions of the wire.
●
V-I graph of a conductor at different temperature

T1 is greater than T2 as resistance of T1 is more.

Specific resistance or Resistivity
Specific Resistance or Resistivity [p] : Specific Resistance of a material is the resistance of a wire
of that material of unit length and unit area of cross-section.

S I unit is ohm meter [Ωm].

Factors affecting Specific resistance or Resistivity
1. Nature of the material: The specific resistance of a substance is its characteristic. It is
different for different substances. It is very low for metals, low for semiconductor, but
very high for insulators
2. Temperature:The specific resistance of a substance depends on its temperature. It
increases with the increase in temperature for metals, but it decreases with the increase
in temperature for semiconductors. For some alloys e.g. constantant, manganin, it
remains practically constant with change in temperature.

Specific Resistance of a material is constant at a given temperature and it does not depend on the
shape and size of the conductor.

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If a given wire is stretched such that its length gets doubled, and its area of cross-section will get
halved [volume remains unchanged]. Resistance will increase to four times of its previous value.
If a given wire is stretched such that its length gets tripled, then its area of cross-section will get
one-third [volume remains unchanged]. Resistance will increase to nine times of its previous
value.
If a given wire is doubled on itself, its length is halved, and its area of cross-section gets doubled
[volume remains unchanged]. Resistance will become one-fourth of its previous value.
In each of the above cases, the specific resistance remains unchanged.

Difference between Resistance and Resistivity (specific resistance)

Resistance Resistivity

1. The obstruction offered to the flow of Specific Resistance or Resistivity [p] :

current by the wire is called its electrical Specific Resistance of a material is the
resistance resistance of a wire of that material of unit
length and unit area of cross-section.

2. S.I. Unit is ohm S.I unit is ohm meter

3. It depends on the length and thickness of It is independent of the length and

the conductor. thickness of the conductor.

Conductance (G): The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance. (G) = 1 / 𝑅

S.I. unit of conductance is ohm-1 or siemen(S).
Conductivity (𝜎): The reciprocal of specific resistance [or resistivity] is known at conductivity.
Its S I unit is Ω-1𝑚-1 .
Superconductors: A superconductor is a substance of zero resistance (or infinite conductance)
at a very low temperature.
e.g. mercury < 4.2 K, lead < 7.25 K, niobium < 9.2 K are the superconductors.

Choice of material of a wire:

1. Connecting wire: connecting wire is made up of copper as copper has low resistivity and
high melting point.
2. Filament of bulb: filament of bulb is made up of tungsten as tungsten has high melting
point and high resistivity.
3. Electric fuse: electric fuse is made up of solder, an alloy of lead and tin because the solder
has high resistivity and low melting point.
4. The heating element in appliances such as heater, toaster, oven, etc.: A nichrome wire is
used because the specific resistance of nichrome is high and its resistance increases to a
great extent with the increase in temperature.
5. The resistance wires (or standard resistors): They are made from alloys such as
manganin, constantan, etc. Such wires are of high resistance and their resistance almost
does not change due to change in temperature.

Electromotive force [E.M.F]:- The potential difference between the terminals of a cell when no
current flows through it (when it is in open circuit) is known as the emf (electromotive force) of
the cell. It is the maximum potential difference that a cell can supply.
S.I unit emf is volt.
The e.m.f. of a cell is defined as the energy spent (or the work done) per unit charge in taking a

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positive test charge around the complete circuit of the cell (i.e., in the circuit outside the cell as well as
in the electrolyte inside the cell).

Factors affecting the e.m.f. of a cell

The e.m.f. of a cell depends on:
a. the material of the electrodes
b. the electrolyte used in the cell.

Electromotive force is independent of

a. the shape of electrodes,
b. the distance between the electrodes,
c. the amount of electrolyte.
TERMINAL VOLTAGE OF A CELL [V]
When current is drawn from a cell i.e., when the cell is in closed circuit ), the potential difference
between the electrodes of the cell is known as its terminal voltage.
S.I unit of terminal voltage is volt
The terminal voltage of a cell is defined as the work done per unit charge in carrying a positive test
charge around the circuit connected across the terminals of the cell.

Voltage drop [v]: The work done in carrying a unit charge through the electrolyte is called the
voltage drop in the cell. It is so called because this voltage is not available to us for use.
S.I unit of voltage drop is volt

Relationship between e.m.f. and terminal voltage of a cell.

Difference between electromotive force and terminal voltage

Electromotive force Terminal voltage

1. It is measured by the amount of work done It is measured by the amount of work done
in moving a unit positive charge in the in moving a unit positive charge in the
complete circuit inside and outside the circuit outside the cell.
cell.

2. It is the characteristic of the cell, ie., it It depends on the amount of current drawn
does not depend on the amount of current from the cell. More the current drawn from
drawn from the cell. the cell, less is the terminal voltage.

3. It is equal to the terminal voltage when the It is equal to the e.m.f. of the cell when cell is
cell is not in use, while greater than the not in use, while less than the e.m.f. when
terminal voltage when the cell is in use. the cell is in use.

Internal resistance
The resistance offered by the electrolyte inside the cell, to the flow of current, is called the
internal resistance of the cell.
It is denoted by the symbol r. Its unit is the ohm [symbol Ω (omega).]
If current I is drawn from the cell of which internal resistance is r, the voltage drop is v= Ir

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Relationship between electromotive force, electric current, external resistance and internal
resistance.
Electric current = electromotive force/(external resistance + internal resistance)

Factors affecting internal resistance of a cell.

1. The surface area of the electrodes - larger the surface area of electrodes, less is the
internal resistance.
2. The distance between the electrodes - more the distance between the electrodes, greater
is the internal resistance.
3. The nature and concentration of the electrolyte - less ionic the electrolyte or higher the
concentration of electrolyte, greater is the internal resistance.
4. The temperature of the electrolyte - higher the temperature of the electrolyte, less is the
internal resistance.

Combination of resistors
Resistance in series Resistance in parallel

1.

2. Rs= R1 + R2 + ……….. + Rn 1/Rp = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + ……… + 1/Rn

3. Same current passes through each Same potential difference across each
resistor. resistor.

4. V = V1 + V2 + V3 + ... I = I1 + I2 + I3 + ...

5. Increases the equivalent resistance of the Decreases the equivalent resistance of the
circuit. circuit.

6. Decreases the equivalent resistance of the Decreases the equivalent resistance of the
circuit. circuit.

7. Slope in a V-I graph {R} of a series Slope in a V-I graph {R} of a parallel
combination is greater than that of a combination is lower than that of a series
parallel combination. combination

According to the law of conservation of energy, energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, it
can only transform from one form to another form.

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Conversion of electrical energy into various forms:
Electric fan Electrical energy to mechanical energy

Dynamo / generator Mechanical energy to electrical energy

Electric bulb / LED / CFL Electrical energy to light energy

Solar cell / Solar panels Light energy to electrical energy

Microphone Sound energy to electrical energy

Loudspeakers Electrical energy to sound energy

Mobile battery while charging Electrical energy to chemical energy

Mobile battery while in use Chemical energy to electrical energy

Air conditioner / refrigerator Electrical energy to thermal energy

Thermopile Thermal energy to electrical energy

Joule’s law:
By using the definition of potential difference
V = W/Q
∴ W = VQ ——————-- i

By definition of electric current

I = Q/t
∴ Q = It ———————--ii

By ohm’s law
V = IR ————————-iii

By substituting equation ii and iii in i we get

W = IR x It
∴ W = I2Rt

As we know work is same as energy and heat, we can say E = I2Rt or H = I2Rt

H = I2Rt is known as joule’s law of heating, which states that Heat generated in an electrical
circuit is directly proportional to the square of electric current, resistance of circuit and the time for
which current is flowing.

Different formulae of electrical energy:

1. E = I2Rt
2. E = VIt
3. E = V2t / R
4. E = Pxt
Electric power: The rate at which electric energy is supplied is known as electric power.
S.I. unit of electric power is watt.

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One watt is the electric power consumed when a current of 1 ampere flows through a circuit
having a potential difference of 1 volt.

Different formulae of electric power:

1. P = E / t
2. P = VI
3. P = I2R
4. P = VI
Commercial unit of electrical energy:

S.I. unit of electrical energy is joule. As joules are very small in practical use, some higher units
of energy are used as commercial units.

Watt-hour: One watt-hour (Wh) is the electrical energy consumed by an electrical appliance of
power 1 watt when it is used for 1 hour.
1 watt-hour = 1 watt × 1 hour
= 1 W × (60 × 60 s) = 3600 J
Thus, 1 Wh = 3600 J

Kilowatt-hour: One kilowatt-hour (kWh) is the electrical energy consumed by an electrical

appliance of power 1 kilowatt when it is used for 1 hour.
1 kilowatt-hour (or 1 kWh)
= 1 kilowatt × 1 hour = 1000 watt × 1 hour
= 1000 J s-1 × (60 × 60 s)
= 3.6 × 106 J
Thus, 1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 J

Power rating of an appliance:

Power rating of an appliance tells us the rate at which it consumes electrical energy.
For example, the power rating of an electrical bulb is 60 W - 220 V. Says that, If the bulb is
connected to a 220 V supply it will consume 60 J of electrical energy per second.

Power rating of a appliance help us in finding:

1. The resistance of the filament or heating element of the appliance when it is in use.
2. The safe limit of the current which can flow through the appliance while in use [R = V2/P
and I= P/V]

Example: the power rating of an electrical bulb is 60 W - 220 V.

R = V2/P = 220 x 220 / 60 = 806.7 ohm. I = P/V = 60/220 = 0.3 ampere

If the current through the bulb exceeds the safe limit, the bulb may fuse.

If the bulb is connected at a voltage higher than the rated value, an excessive current will flon
through the filament of the bulb which will raise its temperature to the extent that the filament
will melt and the bulb will get fused.

If the bulb is connected to a slightly higher voltage, the bulb will consume more power and glow
more brightly.

If the bulb is connected to a slightly lower voltage, the bulb will consume less power and glow
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less with a faint dull light.

Household consumption of electrical energy:

An electric meter measures the amount of electrical energy consumed by various appliances in a
house in a given period of time
The consumer pays the cost of electrical energy consumed in kWh.

Numericals [Part A]
1. In a conductor, 6.25 × 1016 electrons flow from its & end A to B in 2 s. Find the current
flowing through the conductor. (e = 1.6 × 10-19 C)
2. A current of 1.6 mA flows through a conductor. If charge on an electron is - 1.6 × 10-19
coulomb, find the number of electrons that will pass each second through the cross
section of that conductor.
3. Find the potential difference required to flow a current of 200 mA in a wire of resistance
20 ohm.
4. An electric bulb draws 1.2 A current at 6.0 V. Find the resistance of the filament of bulb
while glowing.
5. A car bulb connected to a 12 volt battery draws 2 A current when glowing . What is the
resistance of the filament of the bulb ? Will the resistance be more, same or less when the
bulb is not glowing ?
6. Calculate the current flowing through a wire of resistance 5 S connected to a battery of
potential difference 3 V.

7. In an experiment of verification of Ohm's law, following observations are obtained.

Potential difference (V) in 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
volt

Electric current (I) in 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

ampere
Draw a V-I graph and use this graph to find :
a. the potential difference V when the current I is 0.5 A,
b. the current I when the potential difference V is 0.75 V,
c. the resistance in the circuit.
8. Two wires of the same material and same length have radii r1 and r2 respectively. Compare
: (i) their resistances, (i) their specific resistance.
9. A given wire of resistance 1 2 is stretched to double its length. What will be its new
resistance?
10. A wire of resistance 3 ohm and length 10 cm is stretched to length 30 cm. Assuming that it
has a uniform cross section, what will be its new resistance?
11. A wire of resistance 9 ohm having length 30 cm is tripled on itself. What is its new
resistance?
12. What length of copper wire of specific resistance 1.7 × 10-8 ohm meter and radius 1 mm is

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required so that its resistance is 1 ohm ?
13. The filament of a bulb takes a current 100 mA when potential difference across it is 0.2 V.
When the potential difference across it becomes 1.0 V, the current becomes 400 mA.
Calculate the resistance of filament in each case and account for the difference.
Solution

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Numericals [Part B]

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Solution:

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1. An electric bulb of resistance 500 ohm draws current 0.4 A from the source. Calculate:
(a) the power of the bulb and (b) the potential difference at its end.

Solution:
Resistance of electric bulb (R) = 500 ohm
Current drawn from the source (I) = 0.4 A
(a) Power of the bulb (P) = VI
V=I×R
V = 0.4 × 500
V = 200 V
(b) The potential difference at its end is 200 V
Therefore,
Power (P) = VI
P = 200 × 0.4
P = 80 W

2. A current of 2 A is passed through a coil of resistance 75 Ω for 2 minutes. (a) How much
heat energy is produced? (b) How much charge is passed through the resistance?

Solution:
Current (I) = 2 A
Resistance, R = 75 Ω
Time, t = 2 min or 120 s
(a) Heat produced, H = I2Rt or
H = (2)2 (75) (120) J = 36000 J
(b) Charge passed through the resistance, Q = It
Q = (2) (120) C
Q = 240 C

3. Calculate the current through a 60 W lamp rated for 250 V. If the line voltage falls to 200
V, how is power consumed by the lamp affected?

Solution:
Power, P = 60 W
Voltage, V = 250 V
We know that,
Power, P = VI
I=P/V
I = 60 / 250
I = 0.24 A
Resistance of lamp R = V2 / P
R = (250)2 / 60
R = 1041.6 ohm
If voltage falls to 200 V, then the power consumed will be
P = V2 / R
P = (200)2 / 1041.6
P = 38.4 W

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4. An electric bulb is rated ‘100 W, 250 V’. How much current will the bulb draw if
connected to a 250 V supply?

Solution:
Power, P = 100 W
Voltage, V = 250 V
We know that,
Power, P = VI
I=P/V
I = 100 / 250
I = 0.4 A

5. An electric bulb is rated at 220 V, 100 W. (a) What is its resistance? (b) What safe current
can be passed through it?

Solution:
(a) Power, P = 100 W
Voltage, V = 220 V
We know that,
Power, P = V2 / R
R = (220)2 / 100
R = 484 ohm
(b) The safe limit of current that can be passed through it is
I=P/V
I = 100 / 220
I = 0.45 A

6. A bulb of power 40 W is used for 12.5 h each day for 30 days. Calculate the electrical
energy consumed.

Solution:
Energy consumed for each day, E = P × t
E = 40 × 12.5
E = 500 Wh
Energy consumed for 30 days
E = 500 × 30
E = 15000 Wh
E = 15 kWh

7. An electric press is rated ‘750 W, 230 V’. Calculate the electrical energy consumed by the
press in 16 hours

Solution:
Energy, E = Power × time
E = 750 × 16
E = 12000 Wh
E = 12 kWh

8. An electrical appliance having a resistance of 200 ohm is operated at 200 V. Calculate the

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energy consumed by the appliance in 5 minutes (i) in joule, (ii) in kWh

Solution:
Resistance, R = 200 ohm
Voltage, V = 200 V
Time, t = 5 minutes
t = 5 × 60 sec
t = 300 sec
As we know,
Energy, E = V2t / R
(i) In joules
E = [(200)2× 300] / 200
E = 60000 J
(ii) In kWh
As 1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 J
1 J = 1 / 3.6 × 106 kWh
60000 J = 60000 / 3.6 × 106
60000 J = 0.0167 kWh

9. A bulb rated 12 V, 24 W operates on a 12 volt battery for 20 minutes. Calculate:

(i) the current flowing through it, and
(ii) the energy consumed.

Solution:
Power, P = 24 W
Voltage, V = 12 V
Current, I =?
We know that,
Power, P = VI
(i) The current flowing through it is
I = 24 / 12
I=2A
(ii) Energy, E = P × t
E = 24 × 20 × 60
E = 28,800 J

10. A current of 0.2 A flows through a wire whose ends are at a potential difference of 15 V.
Calculate:
(i)The resistance of the wire, and
(ii)The heat energy produced in 1 minute.

Solution:
Current, I = 0.2 A
Potential difference, V = 15 V
Time, t = 60 sec
As V = IR
(a) To calculate the resistance of the wire
R=V/I
R = 15 / 0.2

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R = 75 ohm
(b) To calculate the heat energy produced in 1 minute
Heat energy, H = I2Rt
H = (0.2)2 × 75 × 60
H = 180 J

11. What is the resistance, under normal working conditions, of an electric lamp rated at
‘240 v’, 60 W? If two such lamps are connected in series across a 240 V mains supply,
explain why each one appears less bright.

Solution:
Voltage, V = 240 V
Power, P = 60 W
We know that,
P = V2/ R
R = V2 / P
R = (240)2 / 60
R = 960 ohm
I=P/V
I = 60 / 240
I = 0.25 A
Thus when one lamp is connected across the mains, it draws 0.25 A current. If two such
lamps are connected in series across the mains, current through each bulb becomes
[240 / (960 + 960) ohm] = 0.125 A (i.e., current is halved.) Hence, heating (= I2Rt) in
each bulb becomes one fourth, so each bulb appears less bright.

12. Two bulbs are rated 60 W, 220 V and 60 W, 110 V, respectively. Calculate the ratio of their
resistances.

Solution:
Voltage, V1 = 220 V
V2 = 110 V
Power, P1 = P2 = P = 60 W
We know that, R = V2 / P

R1 = V12 / P

R1 = (220)2/ 60

R2 = V12 / P

R2 = (110)2/ 60
Now, dividing R1 and R2 we get,
R1 / R2 = [(220)2 / 60] / [(110)2 / 60]
R1 / R2 = 4 / 1
R1: R2 = 4: 1

13. An electric bulb is rated 250 W, 230 V.

(i) the energy consumed in one hour, and

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(ii) the time in which the bulb will consume 1.0 kWh energy when connected to 230 V
mains?

Solution:
Power, P = 250 W
Voltage, V = 230 V
(i) Energy, E = P × t
Time, t = 1 × 60 × 60
t = 3600 sec
We know that,
E = 250 × 3600
E = 9 × 105 J
(ii) 1000 Wh = 250 × t
time, t = 1000 / 250
t = 4 hours

14. Three heaters each rated 250 W, 100 V are connected in parallel to a 100 V supply.
Calculate:
(i)The total current taken from the supply,
(ii)The resistance of each heater, and
(iii)The energy supplied in kWh to the three heaters in 5 hours.

Solution:
Power, P = 250 W
Voltage, V = 100 V
(i) Current through each heater, I =?
As P = VI
I=P/V
I = 250 / 100
I = 2.5 A
∴ Current taken for the three heaters
= 3 × 2.5
= 7.5 A
(ii) Resistance for each heater, R = V / I
R = 100 / 2.5
R = 40 ohm
(iii) Time for which energy is supplied, t = 5 h
Energy, E = P × t
E = 250 × 5
E = 1250 Wh
E = 1.25 kWh
Energy for three heaters = 3 × 1.25
= 3.75 kWh

15. A bulb is connected to a battery of p.d. 4 V and internal resistance 2.5 ohm. A steady
current of 0.5 A flows through the circuit. Calculate:
(i)The total energy supplied by the battery in 10 minutes,
(ii)The resistance of the bulb, and
(iii)The energy dissipated in the bulb in 10 minutes.

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Solution:
Voltage, V = 4 V
Resistance of the battery, RB = 2.5 ohm
Current, I = 0.5 A
(i) Energy supplied by the battery, E = V2t / R
t = 10 × 60
t = 600 sec
R=V/I
R = 4 / 0.5
R = 8 ohm
E = [(4)2 × 600] / 8
E = 1200 J
(ii) Total resistance, R = 8 ohm
Resistance of the battery, RB = 2.5 ohm
Resistance of the bulb, Rbulb= 8 – 2.5 ohm
Rbulb= 5.5 ohm
(iii) Energy dissipated in the bulb in 10 min, E = I2Rt
E = (0.5)2 × 5.5 × 600
E = 825 J

16. Two resistors A and B of 4 ohm and 6 ohm, respectively are connected in parallel. The
combination is connected across a 6 volt battery of negligible resistance. Calculate: (i)
the power supplied by the battery, (ii) the power dissipated in each resistor.

Solution:
Resistance, RA= 4 ohm
Resistance, RB = 6 ohm
Voltage, V = 6 V
(i) Since the resistances are connected in parallel
Equivalent Resistance, 1 / R = 1 / RA + 1 / RB
1/R=1/4+1/6
1 / R = 10 / 24
R = 2.4 ohm
We know that,
Power, P = V2 / R
P = (6)2 / 2.4
P = 15 W
(ii) Power dissipation across each resistor, P = VI
Current across resistor RA, IA = V / RA
IA = 6 / 4 = 1.5 A
Power dissipation across resistor RA,
P = VIA
P = 6 × 1.5
P=9W
(iii) Current across resistor RB, IB = V / RB
IB = 6 / 6
IB = 1 A
Power dissipation across resistor RB,

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P = VIB
P=6×1
P=6W

17. A battery of e.m.f. 15 V and internal resistance 2 ohm is connected to two resistors of
resistances 4 ohm and 6 ohm joined in series. Find the electrical energy spent per
minute in a 6 ohm resistor.

Solution:
e.m.f. of battery, V = 15 V
Internal resistance of battery, RB = 2 ohm
Resistances given in circuit,
R1 = 4 ohm and R2 = 6 ohm
(i) When resistors are connected in series,
Equivalent resistance, R = RB + R1 + R2
R = 12 ohm
Current in the circuit, I = 15 / 12
I = 1.25 A
Now,
Voltage across resistor R2, V2 = IR = 1.25 × 6
V2 = 7.50 V
Time, t = 1 min = 60 sec
Energy across R2, E = V2t / R
E = [(7.5)2 × 60] / 6
E = 562.5 J

18. Water in an electric kettle connected to a 220 V supply took 5 minutes to reach its boiling
point. How long will it take if the supply had been of 200 V?

Solution:
P = V2 / R
Heat gained = (V2 / R) × t
(V12 / R) × t1 = (V22 / R) × t2
t2 = (V1 / V2)2 × t1
t2 = (220 / 200)2 × 300
t2 = 363 s
t2 = 6.05 min

19. An electric toaster draws current 8 A in a circuit with source of voltage 220 V. It is used
for 2 h. Find the cost of operating the toaster if the cost of electrical energy is ₹ 4.50 per
kWh

Solution:
Voltage, V = 220 V
Current, I = 8 A
Time, t = 2 h
Energy, E = VIt
E = 220 × 8 × 2
E = 3520 Wh

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E = 3.52 kWh
Cost of energy = ₹ 4.50 per kWh
∴ Cost of 3.52 kWh of energy = ₹ 4.50 × 3.52 kWh
= ₹ 15.84

20. An electric kettle is rated 2.5 kW, 250 V’. Find the cost of running the kettle for two
hours at ₹ 5.40 per unit.

Solution:
Power of kettle, P = 2.5 kW
Voltage, V = 250 V
Time, t = 2 h
As, Energy, E = P × t
E = 2.5 × 2
E = 5 kWh
Cost per unit of energy = ₹ 5.40
Cost for 5 kWh of energy = 5.40 × 5 = ₹ 27

21. A geyser is rated 1500 W, 250 V. This geyser is connected to 250 V mains. Calculate:
(i)The current drawn,
(ii)The energy consumed in 50 hours, and
(iii)The cost of energy consumed at ₹ 4.20 per kWh.

Solution:
Power of geyser, P = 1500 W
Voltage, V = 250 V
(i) Current, I = P / V
I = 1500 / 250
I=6A
(ii) Time, t = 50 h
Energy, E = P × t
E = 1500 × 50
E = 75000 Wh
E = 75 kWh
(iii) Cost per unit of energy = ₹ 4.20
Cost for 75 kWh of energy = 4.20 × 75 = ₹ 315

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9.House electric circuits

Distribution of electricity from power generating station:
At the generating station the electric power is generated at 11 KV a am(at the frequency of 50
Hz). The power is transmitted over using distances at a high voltage to minimize loss of
energy during the transmission. For a given power the current becomes low at high voltage
hence loss of energy due to excess heating of wire is minimized. The alternate voltage is
stepped up from 11 KV to 132 KV in the generating station (grid substation), this voltage is
stepped down from 132 KV to 33 KV and transmitted to the city substation and it is further
stepped down from 33 KV to 220 V for supply to the consumer.

Electricity supply to a House:

The electric connections for the supply of electric power from the city substation to the
distribution box of a house at 220 V through meter, main fuse and main switch. The cable has
three wires (i) Live, (phase) (ii) Neutral (zero potential) (iii) Earth-wire (zero potential).
Before the electric line is connected to the meter, a company fuse of rating 50 A is connected to
the live wire. From the meter connections are made to the distribution board through a main
fuse and main switch which is double pole switch. [In a double pole switch used to cut the
connections of live and neutral simultaneously]. From the distribution board the wires go to
different parts of the house.

House wiring or power distribution:

In the house following two systems of wiring commonly used
1. Tree system [Not in portion]
2. Ring system
Tree system:
In this system different branch lines are taken from the distribution board for the different
parts of the house.
Advantages:
The different circuits are connected in parallel at the distribution board so that if there is a
short circuiting in one distribution circuit, its fuse will blow off, without affecting electric
supply in the other distribution circuits. All the appliances in each line work at the same
voltage.
Disadvantages:
1. It requires plugs, sockets of different sizes for different current carrying capacities.
When the fuse in one distribution line blows, all the appliances in that distribution line
are disconnected from the power supply.
2. This wiring is expensive.
Ring system of wiring:

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The wires starting from the main fuse box run around all the rooms of the house and come
back to the fuse box again. A separate connection is taken from the live wire of the ring for
each appliance.
Advantages:
1. In case of short circuit or overloading, the fuse of one appliance burns and it doesn't
affect the other appliances.
2. The length of the wire required is less. Therefore it is less expensive. Plugs and sockets
all of same size can be used
3. In installing a new appliance a new line upto the distribution box is not required. The
appliances can be directly connected to the ring main in the room.
Why is household distribution done in parallel?
1. If there is a short-circuiting or overloading in one particular circuit, then only the fuse
of that circuit will melt, but the power supply to other circuits is not affected.
2. SInce all the circuits are connected in parallel, theretore, as the resistance due to
appliances goes on increasing, the overall resistance of the circuit decreases Thus, more
current flows in the various circuits, depending on the resistance of the appliances.
Hence, each appliance receives an optimum amount of current.
3. Potential difference across each appliance remains the same.

Fuse: An electric fuse is a safety device which is used to limit the current in an electric circuit. The use
of a fuse thus safeguards the circuit and the appliances connected in that circuit from being
damaged.
Current in the circuit exceeds the specific value due to following reason:
1. Short circuiting
2. Overloading
3. Fluctuating of electric current
Note:
1. Short circuiting: When live comes in direct contact with the neutral wire the current
does not pass through the appliances, the resistance in the path of the current is
negligible. Very high current flows through the circuit producing a large amount of heat.
This results in a fire.
2. These days miniature circuit breakers (MCB) are used for lighting circuits. They switch
off the circuit for a very short duration (25 millisecond) in case of short circuit.

Fuse wire is an alloy of lead and tin called solder: Because solder has low melting point and
High resistance so that its temperature rise rapidly.

Principle: A fuse works on the heating effect of electric current.

Thickness of the fuse wire depends on its current rating. Higher the current rating, thicker is
the fuse wire.

Note:

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1. Fuse is always connected to the live wire of the circuit. It will not be connected to the
neutral wire.
Reason: If it is connected to the neutral wire electrical appliances will continue in contact with
live wire, even though the fuse wire melts due to the overloading. If any electrical appliances is
touched the person will get an electric shock.
2. Fuse is always connected in the beginning of the circuit.
Reason: the current in the circuit exceeds the limiting value the fuse will melt first before the
appliance is damaged
3. Copper wire can not be used as a fuse wire.
Reason: It has a low resistance compared to the fuse wire. The amount of heat produced is not
enough to melt this wire to break the circuit.
4. The fuse provided with an electric appliance to protect it against electric faults must be
of current rating slightly higher than the maximum current that can be taken by that
electrical appliance before it gets overheated.

Switch: It is a device which is used to allow current to flow into the appliance and cut it off. It is
always connected to live wire. If the switch is connected to Neutral wire, if we touch the metal
body electrical appliances we get a shock even when it is off as appliances will be in contact
with high potential live wire.
There are 2 types of switches: Single pole switch & Double pole switch.
1. Single Pole Switch: Disconnects only the live wire from the appliance. eg. switches used
with appliances to start or stop the flow of current in it Main switch: it is used to cut off
the electrical power supply to the house.
2. Double Pole switch: Disconnects both the live and neutral wires simultaneously. eg.
main switch at the distribution board. The dual-control switch used in staircase
lighting is a special kind of double-pole switch. Circuit with dual control switches
(staircase wiring): Dual control switches (double pole type switches) are used for
staircase etc. with such switches any appliance say Fan, bulb etc can be switched off or
on from two different places.

Electric switches should never be touched with wet hands.

No electric switch should be operated with wet hands, because
1. water generally contains minerals, which make it conducting. Thus, if moisture on the
hands, comes in contact with the terminals of the switch, it forms a conducting path,
and hence, one receives a severe electric shock
2. Resistance of the wet hand is very less compared to dry hand so in case of shock very
heavy current will flow through the body if the hand is wet.

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Three pin plugs and sockets
Three pins power socket Three pins plugs

Sockets: Sockets are fixtures in an electrical circuit. They are provided with three brass
cylinders embedded in plastic materials. Upper bigger hole is for earth connection, the right
hole is for live, the left is for neutral.
Plugs: Plug is a fixture provided with three cylindrical pins made of brass embedded in plastic
casing.
The top pin is for the earthing, the left pin is for Live and the right pin is for neutral.

Function of Plug is to connect an appliance with the power circuit. Top pin is earthing which
prevents electrical shock.

Earthing (Grounding): To avoid the electric shock the metal body of the electric appliances is
connected to thick copper wire which is buried deep in he earth and at is a copper plate
surrounded by a mixture of charcoal and common salt. If the appliances are earthed the excess
of electrons (current) flows to the earth through the earthing wire and people don't get electric
shock. Resistance of the human body is higher than that of leads used for earth connection
current flows to earth via leads keeping the man safe.
Earthing also saves the appliance from being damaged in case of short circuit and
overloading
Note:
1. Earth wire is always connected to the metallic part of the appliance
2. If a metal body is painted, it should be removed from a place where earth wire is
connected as paint acts as a layer of insulation.
The earth pin of the plug is always made longer and thicker , Because:
1. The earth pin being thicker can never enter in live or neutral sockets and hence a given
electrical appliance can get connected only at proper electrical position.
2. The earth pin being longer gets connected to earth terminal first as compared to live or
neutral pin. This ensures that the user will not get an electrical shock if a given electrical
appliance is short circuit.

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Hazards of electricity:
There are two major danger of electricity
1. Fire: Fire is caused due to overheating of cable wires due to short circuit or break of
insulation wires etc.
2. Electric shock: Electric shock due to poor insulation of wires or appliance touch with
wet hands.
The following Precautions should be taken while handling electrical appliances
1. The switch is always connected to the line wire.
2. An electrical switch should not be touched with wet hands. Because water forms a
conducting layer between the hand and the live wire of the switch through which the
current passes to the hand and we may get an electric shock.
3. One must use wires according to the power voltage rating of the device
4. Earthing wire must be provided in an electrical circuit
5. Use good quality insulated wires

Types of wire
Name of wire Function Old color code New color
code

Live or phase It carries electric current from the Red Brown

wire source to the appliance.

Neutral wire It brings electric current back from Black Light blue
appliance to the source.

Earth wire It prevents us from electric shock. Green Green or

yellow

High tension Wires: High tension wires are used for high voltage and heavy current. It has a
low resistance and large surface area. The resistance is kept low so as to allow a heavy current
to pass through it. The surface area is made large so that it radiates the heat produced more
quickly to the surroundings. So instead of taking a single thick wire of low resistance, the high
tension wire is made by twisting together a number of thin wires insulated from each other.
This provides a larger surface area as compared to a single thick wire.

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10. Electromagnetism
1. How is the magnetic field due to a straight current-carrying wire affected if current in
the wire is (a) decreased, (b) reversed?
Answer
(a) The magnetic field will decrease on decreasing the current

(b) If the direction of current is reversed, the direction of the magnetic field is also
reversed.

2. State a law, which determines the direction of the magnetic field around a
current-carrying wire.
Answer
The direction of the magnetic field around a current-carrying wire is determined by the
right-hand thumb rule. It states that if we hold the current-carrying conductor in our
right hand such that the thumb points in the direction of flow of current, then the
fingers encircle the wire in the direction of the magnetic field lines.

3. A straight wire lying in a horizontal plane carries a current from north to south.
(a) What will be the direction of the magnetic field at a point just underneath it?
(b) Name the law used to arrive at this answer in part (a).
Answer
(a) The direction of the magnetic field at a point just underneath is towards east.

(b) The name of the law is the right-hand thumb rule.

4. A wire, bent into a circle, carries a current in (a) an anticlockwise direction (b) a
clockwise direction. What polarity does this face of the coil exhibit?
Answer
(a)The face of the coil exhibit north polarity

(b)The face of the coil exhibit south polarity

5. What is the direction of the magnetic field at the centre of a coil carrying current in (i)
the clockwise, (ii) the anticlockwise direction?
Answer
(i) The direction of the magnetic field at the centre of a coil carrying current in the
clockwise direction is along the axis of the coil inwards.

(ii) The direction of the magnetic field at the centre of a coil carrying current in the
anticlockwise direction is along the axis of the coil outwards.

6. The diagram shows a spiral coil wound on a hollow cardboard tube AB. A magnetic
compass is placed close to it. Current is switched on by closing the key.
(a) What will be the polarity at the ends A and B?
(b) How will the compass needle be affected? Give a reason.

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Answer
(a) The polarity at the end A is the north pole and at the end B is the south pole.
(b) The north pole of the compass needle will deflect towards West
Reason: End A of the coil behaves like north pole which repels the north pole of the
compass needle towards the west

7. State two ways by which the magnetic field due to a current-carrying solenoid can be
made stronger.
Answer
The magnetic field due to a current-carrying solenoid can be made stronger by following
ways
(i) By increasing the number of turns of winding in the solenoid and
(ii) By increasing the current through the solenoid

8. (a) What name is given to a cylindrical coil of diameter less than its length?
(b) If a piece of soft iron is placed inside the coil mentioned in part (a) and current is
passed in the coil from a battery, what name is then given to the device so obtained?
(c) Give one use of the device mentioned in part (b).
Answer
(a) A cylindrical coil of diameter less than its length is solenoid.
(b) Electromagnet is the name of the device obtained.(c) Electromagnet is used in
electric bell.

9. The diagram in the figure shows a coil wound around a soft iron bar XY. (a) State the
polarity at the end X and Y as the switch is pressed. (b)Suggest one way of increasing
the strength of electromagnet so formed.

Answer
(a) The polarity at the end X – north pole and at Y – south pole
(b) By reducing the resistance of the circuit by means of the rheostat to increase the
current in the coil.

10. What is an electromagnet? Name two factors on which the strength of the magnetic
field of an electromagnet depends and state how it depends on the factors stated by
you.
Answer

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An electromagnet is a temporary strong magnet made by passing current in a coil wound
around a piece of soft iron. It is an artificial magnet.
The strength of the magnetic field of an electromagnet depends on:
(i) By increasing the number of turns of winding in the solenoid and
(ii) By increasing the current through the solenoid.

11. Figure shows the current flowing in the coil of wire wound around the soft iron
horseshoe core. (a) State the polarities developed at the ends A and B.
(b) How will the polarity at the ends A and B change on reversing the direction of
current?
(c) Suggest one-way increase the strength of magnetic field produce.

Answer
(a) At the end A – south pole and at end B – north pole
(b) Polarities get reversed. A will become north pole and B will become south pole
(c) By increasing the current

12. State two advantages of an electromagnet over a permanent magnet.

Answer
(i) An electromagnet can produce a strong magnetic field
(ii) By changing the current in its solenoid, the strength of the magnetic field of an
electromagnet can easily be changed

13. State three differences between an electromagnet and a permanent magnet.

Answer
Electromagnet Permanent Magnet

1. Electromagnets are made up of soft Permanent magnets are made up

oil of steel

2. Polarity of electromagnets can be Permanent magnets have fixed

reversed polarity

3. Strength of electromagnets can be Permanent magnets have fixed

increased or decreased by changing strength
electric current

14. How is the working of an electric bell affected, if alternating current be used instead of
direct current?
Answer
If an a.c. source is used in place of the battery, the core of electromagnet will get
magnetised, but the polarity at its ends will change. Since the attraction of the armature
does not depend on the polarity of the electromagnet, the bell will still ring on pressing
the switch.

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15. Multiple choice question
Question: 1
The presence of the magnetic field at a point can be detected by:
(a) A strong magnet
(b) A solenoid
(c) A compass needle
(d) A current-carrying wire
Answer
The presence of a magnetic field at a point can be detected by a compass needle

Question: 2
On reversing the direction of current in a wire, the magnetic field produced by it:
(a) Gets reversed in direction
(b) Increases in strength
(c) Decreases in strength
(d) Remains unchanged in strength and direction
Answer
On reversing the direction of current in a wire, the magnetic field produced by it gets
reversed in direction

Question: 3
In an electric motor, the energy transformation is:
(a) From electrical to chemical
(b) From chemical to light
(c) From mechanical to electrical
(d) From electrical to mechanical
Answer
(d)
In an electric motor, the energy transformation is from electrical to mechanical.

16. Define Lorentz force and name the three factors on which the magnitude of force on a
current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field depends and state how the force
depends on the factor stated by you.
Answer
Lorentz force is the force experienced by a current carrying conductor when placed in a
magnetic field in a direction other than the direction of magnetic field
The factors on which the magnitude of the force on a current-carrying conductor placed
in a magnetic field depends directly are as follows:
(i) On strength of magnetic field B
(ii) On current I in the conductor
(iii) On length L of conductor

17. State condition in each case for the magnitude of the force on a current-carrying
conductor placed in a magnetic field is (a) zero, (b) maximum
Answer
(a) Force will be zero when the current in the conductor is in the direction of the
magnetic field
(b) When current in a conductor is normal to the magnetic field

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18. Name and state the law which is used to determine the direction of the force on a
current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field.Answer
Fleming’s left-hand rule: Stretch the forefinger, central finger and the thumb of your
left hand mutually perpendicular to each other. If the forefinger indicates the direction
of the magnetic field and the central finger indicates the direction of current, then the
thumb will indicate the direction of motion of the conductor.

19. State the unit of magnetic field in terms of the force experienced by a current-carrying
conductor placed in a magnetic field.
Answer
The unit of magnetic field in terms of the force experienced by a current-carrying
conductor placed in a magnetic field is Newton/ampere × meter (or NA-1m-1)

Note: SI unit of magnetic induction is tesla

20. What is an electric motor? State its principle.

Answer
An electric motor is a device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.

Principle: An electric motor (dc motor) works on the principle that when an electric
current is passed through a conductor placed normally in a magnetic field, a force acts
on the conductor as a result of which the conductor begins to move and thus mechanical
energy is obtained.

21. State two ways by which the speed of rotation of an electric motor can be increased
Answer
The speed of rotation of an electric motor can be increased by the following ways(i) By
increasing the strength of the current in the coil
(ii) By increasing the number of turns in the coil

22. State Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction.

Answer
Faraday formulated the following two laws of electromagnetic induction:

(i) Whenever there is a change in magnetic flux linked with a coil, an e.m.f. is induced.
The e.m.f. induced lasts so long there is a change in the magnetic flux linked with the
coil.

(ii) The magnitude of e.m.f. induced is directly proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux linked with the coil. If magnetic flux changes at a constant rate, a steady
e.m.f. is produced.

23. State two factor on which the magnitude of induced e.m.f in a coil depend
Answer
The magnitude of induced e.m.f. in a coil depends on the following two factors:
(i) On the rate of change of magnetic flux with each turn, and
(ii) On the number of turns in the coil.

24. (a)What kind of the energy change takes place when a magnet is moved towards a coil
having a galvanometer between its ends?(b)Name the phenomenon.

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Answer
(a) When a magnet is moved towards a coil having a galvanometer between its ends then
mechanical energy changes to electrical energy.
(b) The phenomenon is known as electromagnetic induction.

25. State Fleming’s right-hand rule.

Fleming’s right-hand rule: Stretch the thumb, central finger and forefinger of your right
hand mutually perpendicular to each other. If the forefinger indicates the direction of
the magnetic field and the thumb indicates the direction of motion of the conductor,
then the central finger will indicate the direction of induced curren

What is Lenz’s law?

According to Lenz’s law, the direction of induced e.m.f. (or induced current) is such that
it opposes the cause which produces it.

26. Explain how Lenz's law shows the conservation of energy in electromagnetic
induction.
Answer
It shows that the mechanical energy spent in doing work, against the opposing force
experienced by the moving magnet, is transformed into the electrical energy due to
which current flows in the solenoid. Thus Lenz’s law is based on the law of conservation
of energy.

27. The diagram shows a coil of several turns of copper wire near a magnet NS. The coil is
moved in the direction of the arrow shown in the diagram.

(i) In what direction does the induced current flow in the coil?
(ii) Name the law used to arrive at the conclusion in part (i).
(iii) How would the current in coil be altered if
(a) the coil has twice the number of turns,
(b) the coil was made to move three times faster?
Answer
(i) The North pole generates when the coil is moved in the direction of the magnet and
current starts flowing from A to B
(ii) Lenz’s law
(iii) (a) Current is directly proportional to the number of turns. Hence, the current
becomes twice.
(b) Current becomes thrice

28. The diagram shows a fixed coil of several turns connected to a centre zero
galvanometer G and a magnet NS which can move in the direction shown in the
diagram.

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(a)Describe the observation in the galvanometer if (i) the magnet is moved away
rapidly, (ii) the magnet is kept stationary after it has moved into the coil, (iii) the
magnet is then rapidly pulled out of the coil.

(b) How would the observation in (i) of part (a) change if a more powerful magnet is
used?
Answer:
(a) (i) The direction of deflection remains constant in the galvanometer, if the magnet is
moved away rapidly
(ii) The deflection becomes zero, if the magnet is kept stationary after it has moved into
the coil
(iii) The deflection again occurs in the opposite direction, if the magnet is rapidly pulled
out of the coil
(b) The deflection is increased

29. Name and state the principle of a simple a.c. generator. What is its use
Answer
An A.C. generator works on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
Statement: In a generator, if a coil is rotated in a magnetic field, then due to rotation, the
magnetic flux linked with the coil changes and therefore an e.m.f. is induced between the
ends of the coil. Thus a generator acts as a source of current in an external circuit
containing load when connected between the ends of its coil.

Use: A.C. generator is used to supply power or electricity to a device that requires
alternating current.

30. State (i) two dis-similarities, and (ii) two similarities between a D.C. motor and an A.C.
generator.
Answer
Two dis similarities
AC generator DC motor

1. A generator is a device which A d.c. motor is a device which converts the

converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy into the mechanical
the electrical energy energy

2. A generator works on the principle A d.c. motor works on the principle of force
of electromagnetic induction acting on a current-carrying conductor
placed in a magnetic field.
Similarities between AC generator and DC motor
1. In both a coil it rotated between two poles of a magnet
2. In both energy is transformed from one form to another

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11.Calorimetry
The science of measurement of the quantity of heat is called calorimetry.
Heat is a form of energy obtained due to random motion of molecules of a body
S.I. unit of heat is joule and CGS unit is erg
Other unit of heat:
Calorie (cal.): One calorie is the quantity of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 g
of pure water by 1°C from 14.5°C to 15.5°C.
1 calorie = 4.186 J or 4.2 joule
Kilocalorie: 1 kg calorie is the quantity of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of
pure water by 1°C from 14.5°C to 15.5°C.
1 kilocalorie = 1000 calorie = 4200 J

Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. It determines the direction of flow of
heat when two bodies at different temperatures are placed in contact.
The S.I. unit of temperature is kelvin (K)
The other most common unit of temperature is degree Celsius (oC)
T K = 273 + t oC
Zero Kelvin is called absolute zero as it is the lowest possible temperature. It is the temperature
at which all molecular motion ceases.
Note: The difference of temperature in Celsius scale is same as the difference of temperature in
Kelvin scale.

Differences between heat and temperature

Heat Temperature

1. Heat is a form of energy obtained due to Temperature is a quantity that determines

random motion of molecules of a body. the direction of flow of heat when two bodies
at different temperatures come in contact.

2. It is the total internal energy of the It is the measure of average kinetic energy of
molecules of the body. the molecules of the body.

3. Heat is the cause. Temperature is the effect.

4. The SI unit of heat is joule (J). The SI unit of temperature is kelvin (K).

5. When two bodies are brought in contact, When two bodies at different temperatures
the total amount of heat produced is equal make contact, the resultant temperature is
to the sum of heat of two bodies. It is an any temperature in between their
additive quantity. temperatures. it is not an additive quantity.

6. Heat is measured by the principle of Temperature is measured by a thermometer.

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calorimetry with the help of a calorimeter.

Heat or thermal capacity (C'):

Heat Capacity: (Thermal capacity): The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of the
substances through 1°C is called the heat capacity.
If the heat capacity of a vessel is 40J/K. It means that the heat energy required to raise the
temperature of that vessel by 1K (or 1°C) is 40 joules.
S.I. unit of heat capacity is J/K or JK-1
Specific heat capacity (c): The quantity of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a unit
mass of a substance through 1°C is called specific heat capacity of the substance.
S.I of specific heat capacity is J/kg K or J kg-1K-1
Specific heat capacity of ice 2100 J/kgK, specific heat capacity of water 4200J.kg-1k-1. It means
that amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1kg of water through 1°C is 4200 joules.

Relation between heat capacity and specific heat capacity:

Heat capacity = mass × specific heat capacity
This relationship proves that heat capacity is directly proportional to the mass of a body and the
specific heat capacity of the body.
Some applications of high heat capacity
1. The base of a cooking pan is made thick and heavy: By making the base of a cooking pan
thick, its thermal capacity becomes large and it imparts sufficient heat energy at a low
temperature to the food for its proper cooking. Further it keeps the food warm for a long
time, after cooking.
2. The base of electric iron is made up of thick metal: By making the base of an electric iron
thick, its thermal capacity becomes large and it imparts sufficient heat energy at a low
temperature and it will remain hot even after it is switched off

Heat required to (Q) raise the temperature θ by is given as

Q = Heat capacity × Rise in temperature
Q = mcθ
The amount of heat transferred to or by a body depends on the following factors:
1. Change in its temperature (directly proportional)
2. Mass of the body (directly proportional)
3. Specific heat capacity (directly proportional)

Advantages of high specific heat capacity of water:

Due to high specific heat of water (water doesn’t cool quickly and doesn’t heat quickly) it can be
used for heating as well as cooling purposes.
1. It is used as coolant in the radiators of cars. When water is circulating around the heat
engine it absorbs heat. Due to high specific heat capacity (4.2 j/gK) it can absorb more
heat than any other liquid for the same rise of temperature. It is also used in fire
extinguishers.

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2. Hot water bottles are used for fomentation. The water in the bottles can store a large
amount of heat energy for a longer time period due to high specific heat capacity of water
(4.2 j/gK) Hot water bottles provide heat energy for fomentation for a longtime.
3. Sometimes wet cloth is applied on the forehead of a person having a high fever. The water
absorbs a large amount of heat from the head and lowers the body temperature.
4. In cold countries wine and juice bottles are placed under water. This is because water
doesn’t not cool quickly due to high specific heat capacity and avoids the freezing of wine
and juice in the bottles.
5. Farmers fill their fields with water to protect the crops from frost. The specific heat
capacity of water is large. For every degree drop in temperature it releases 4200 joules of
heat per kilogram. Therefore it doesn’t allow the temperature in the surrounding area of
plants to fall below 0°C. If the temperature drops below 0°C the water in the veins of
plants would freeze and increase in volume. The veins would burst and plants would die.
6. The land and sea breezes are the consequences of high specific heat capacity of water
which is about 5 times that of sand. During the day time the temperature of land rises
rapidly as compared to sea. The air above the land becomes hot and light hence rises up.
To make up for this drop in pressure the cooler air from sea starts blowing towards the
land setting up Sea Breeze. Similarly land breeze will take place.The land and sea breeze
have an influence on the climate of coastal region. Places near the sea don't get too cold
during the night.

Differences between heat capacity and specific heat capacity

Heat capacity or thermal capacity Specific heat capacity

1. It is the amount of heat required to raise It is the amount of heat required to raise the
the temperature of the entire body through temperature of the unit mass of the body by
1°C. 1°C.

2. It depends on the mass of the body It is independent of the mass of the body

3. Formula is C' = Q/ΔT Formula is c = Q/m x ΔT

4. S.I. unit is J/K S.I. unit is J/kgK

Principle of Calorimetry (principle of method of mixtures): The principle of calorimetry is the

conservation of heat. i.e. heat lost by a hot body is equal to heat gained by a cold body when they
are in contact provided there is no loss of heat to the surroundings. The law on which the above
principle is based is law of conservation of energy.

Calorimeter: The apparatus used to find the amount of heat gained or lost is known as
calorimeter. It is a copper vessel which is polished outer and inside to reduce heat loss due to
radiation. To avoid loss of heat by conduction It is placed in a wooden box. The space between
the calorie meter and the wooden box is filled with wool which again is a bad conduction. To
avoid loss of heat by convection it is tightly closed by a wooden lid. The thermometer is used to
measure the final temperature of the mixture and stirrer used to mix the contents.
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Copper is preferred over other metals for making calorimeters:

1. It is a good conductor of heat so that it attains the temperature of its contents in a very
short time.
2. It has a low specific heat capacity so that it takes less amount of heat from its contents to
attain the temperature of contents.

Numericals based on heat capacity, specific heat capacity and the principle of calorimetry.

1. By imparting heat to a body, its temperature rises by 150C. What is the corresponding
rise in temperature on the Kelvin scale?
Solution:
The size of 1 degree on the Kelvin scale and the size of 1 degree on the Celsius scale are
equal. Hence, on both the Kelvin and Celsius scales the difference or change in
temperature is the same. Therefore the corresponding rise in temperature on the Kelvin
scale will be 15 K

2. (a)Calculate the heat capacity of a copper vessel of mass 150 g if the specific heat
capacity of copper is 410 J kg-1 K-1.
(b)How much heat energy will be required to increase the temperature of the vessel in
part (a) from 25° celsius to 35° celsius?

Solution:
(a) Given
Mass of copper vessel = 150 g
= 0.15 kg
The specific heat capacity of copper = 410 J kg-1 K-1
We know that,
Heat capacity = Mass × specific heat capacity
= 0.15 kg × 410 J kg-1 K-1
= 61.5 JK-1
Change in temperature = (35 – 25)0C
= 100 C
= 10 K
(b) The energy required to increase the temperature of vessel
△Q = mc△T
△Q = 0.15 × 410 × 10
△Q = 615 J

3. A piece of iron of mass 2.0 kg has a heat capacity of 966 J K-1. Find
(i) Heat energy needed to warm it by 15oC, and
(ii) Its specific heat capacity in the S.I unit.

Solution:
(i) We know that,
Heat energy needed to raise the temperature by 15o C = heat capacity × change in
temperature
Heat energy required = 966 J K-1 × 15 K

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Heat energy required = 14490 J

(ii) We know that,

Specific heat capacity = heat capacity / mass of substance
Specific heat capacity = 966 / 2
Specific heat capacity = 483 J kg-1 K-1

4. Calculate the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 100 g of copper
from 20° C to 70° C. Specific heat of capacity of copper =390 J kg-1 K-1.

Solution:
Given
Mass of copper m = 100 g
= 0.1 kg
Change of temperature △t = (70 – 20)o C
= 500 C
Specific heat capacity of copper = 390 J kg-1 K-1
Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 0.1 kg of copper is
Q = m × △t × c
Q = 0.1 × 50 × 390
Q = 1950 J

5. 1300 J of heat energy is supplied to raise the temperature of 0.5 kg of lead from 20° C to
40° C. Calculate the specific heat capacity of lead.

Solution:
Given
Heat energy supplied = 1300 J
Mass of lead = 0.5 kg
Change in temperature = (40 – 20)o C
= 20° C
Specific heat capacity of lead
C = △Q / m△T
C = 1300 / 0.5 × 20
C = 130 J kg-1 K-1

6. Find the time taken by a 500 W heater to raise the temperature of 50 kg of material of
specific heat capacity 960 J kg-1 K-1, from 18° C to 38° C. Assume that all the heat energy
supplied by the heater is given to the material.

Solution:
Specific heat capacity of material c = 960 J kg-1 K-1
Change in temperature △T = (38 – 18)o C
= 20° C or 20 K
Power of heater P = 500 W
△Q = mc△T
△Q = 50 × 960 × 20
Time taken by a heater to raise the temperature of material
t = △Q / P

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t = (50 × 960 × 20) / 500
t = 1920 seconds
t = 32 minutes

7. An electric heater of power 600 W raises the temperature of 4.0 kg of a liquid from 10° C
to 15° C in 100 s. Calculate:
(i) the heat capacity of 4.0 kg of liquid, and
(ii) the specific heat capacity of liquid

Solution:
Power of heater P = 600 W
Mass of liquid m = 4.0 kg
Change in temperature of liquid = (15 – 10)oC
= 5o C (or 5 K)
Time taken to raise its temperature = 100 s
Heat energy required to heat the liquid
△Q = mc△T and
△Q = P × t
△Q = 600 × 100
△Q = 60000 J
c = △Q / m△T
c = 60000 / (4 × 5)
c = 3000 J kg-1 K-1
= 3 × 103 J kg-1 K-1
Heat capacity = c × m
Heat capacity = 4 × 3000 J kg-1 K-1
Heat capacity = 1.2 × 104 J / K

8. 0.5 kg of lemon squash at 30° C is placed in a refrigerator which can remove heat at an
average rate of 30 J s-1. How long will it take to cool the lemon squash to 5° C? Specific
heat capacity of squash = 4200 J kg-1 K-1.

Solution:
Change in temperature = 30 – 5
= 25 K
△Q = mc△T
△Q = 0.5 × 4200 × 25
△Q = 52500 J
t = △Q / P
t = 52500 / 30
t = 1750 s
t = 29 min 10 sec

9. A mass of 50 g of a certain metal at 150° C is immersed in 100 g of water at 11° C. The

final temperature is 20° C. Calculate the specific heat capacity of the metal. Assume that
the specific heat capacity of water is 4.2 J g-1 K-1.

Solution:
Heat liberated by metal = m × c × △t

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= 50 × s × (150 – 20)
Heat absorbed by water = mw × sw × △t
= 100 × 4.2 × (20 – 11)
Heat energy lost = heat energy gained
50 × c× (150 – 20) = 100 × 4.2 × (20 – 11)
c = 0.582 J g-1 K-1

10 45 g of water at 50o C in a beaker is cooled when 50 g of copper at 18° C is added to it. The
. contents are stirred till a final constant temperature is reached. Calculate the final
temperature. The specific heat capacity of copper is 0.39 J g-1 K-1 and that of water is
4.2J g-1 K-1. State the assumptions used.

Solution:
Mass of water (m1) = 45 g
Temperature of water (T1) = 50° C
Mass of copper (m2) = 50 g
Temperature of copper (T2) = 18° C
Final temperature (T) =?
The specific heat capacity of the copper c2 = 0.39 J / g / K
The specific heat capacity of water c1 = 4.2 J / g / K
m1c1 (T1 – T) = m2c2 (T – T2)
T = (m1c1T1 + m2c2T2) / (m2c2 + m1c1)
T = (45 × 4.2 × 50) + (50 × 0.39 × 18) / (45 × 4.2) + (50 × 0.39)
T = (9450 + 351) / (189 + 19.5)
T = 9801 / 208.5
T = 47° C

11. 200 g of hot water at 80° C is added to 300 g of cold water at 10° C. Neglecting the heat
taken by the container, calculate the final temperature of the mixture of water. Specific
heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg-1 K-1.

Solution:
Mass of hot water (m1) = 200 g
Temperature of hot water (T1) = 80° C
Mass of cold water (m2) = 300 g
Temperature of cold water (T2) = 10° C
Final temperature (T) =?
m1c1 (T1 – T) = m2c2 (T – T2)
c1 = c2
T = m1T1 + m2T2 / m2 + m1
T = [(200 × 80) + (300 × 10)] / 500
T = (16000 + 3000) / 500
T = 19000 / 500
T = 38° C

12 The temperature of 600 g of cold water rises by 15° C when 300 g of hot water at 50° C is
added to it. What was the initial temperature of the cold water?

Solution:

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Mass of hot water (m1) = 300 g
Temperature (T1) = 50° C
Mass of cold water (m2) = 600 g
Change in temperature of cold water (T – T2) = 15° C
Final temperature = To C
The specific heat capacity of water is c
m1c (T1 – T) = m2c (T – T2)
300 (50 – T) = 600 (15)
T = 6000 / 300
T = 20° C
Final temperature = 20° C
Change in temperature = 15° C
Initial temperature of cold water = 20° C – 15° C
= 5° C

13. 1.0 kg of water is contained in a 1.25 kW kettle. Calculate the time taken for the
temperature of water to rise from 25° C to its boiling point 100° C. Specific heat capacity
of water = 4.2 J g-1 K-1.

Solution:
Heat energy = Power × time
Heat energy contained by water = 1000 × 4.2 × 75
1000 × 4.2 × 75 = 1250 × time

time = (1000 × 4.2 × 75) / 1250

time = 315000 / 1250
time = 252 sec
time = 4 min 12 sec

Change of state and Latent heat

Melting: The change from solid to liquid phase by the absorption of heat at a constant
temperature is called melting.
Melting point:The constant temperature at which a solid changes to liquid is called the melting
point of the solid.
Note:
1. For a pure substance, melting point and freezing point are identical.
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2. For a given mass of substance, the amount of heat energy absorbed during melting is the
same as that rejected during freezing.
Boiling: The change from liquid to gas (or vapour) phase on absorption of heat at a constant
temperature, is called vaporization or boiling..
Boiling point:The particular temperature at which vaporisation or boiling occurs is called the
boiling point of liquid.
Note: For a pure substance, the boiling point and condensation point are identical.

Factors affecting melting and boiling point:

Melting point Boiling point

Impurities The melting point of a substance The boiling point of a substance

decreases by presence of impurities in increases by the presence of
it. impurities in it.

Pressure The melting point of the substances The boiling point of a liquid increases
which contract on melting (like ice) with the increase in pressure and
decreases by the increase in pressure. decreases with the decrease in
On the other hand, the melting point of pressure.
the substances (such as wax, lead, etc.)
which expand on melting, increases by
the increase in pressure.

Why does the melting point of ice decrease with increase in pressure whereas copper increases
with increase in pressure?
Ans: due to anomalous expansion of water ice contract on melting therefore, when pressure is
applied, it can contact easily. Hence melting point decreases, whereas copper expands on
melting so when pressure is applied, it will take more energy to expand hence melting point
increases.

Why is a pressure cooker mast to cook food at high altitude?

Ans:At high altitudes, such as hills and mountains, the atmospheric pressure is low less than
one atmospheric pressure), therefore water boils at a temperature lower than 100°C and so it
does not provide the required heat energy to its contents for cooking. Thus cooking there
becomes very difficult and it takes a much longer time. Therefore, to increase the boiling point
pressure cooker is a must.

Why is salt added to ice to make a freezing mixture?

Ans:The melting point of a substance decreases by the presence of impurities in it. The melting
point of ice decreases from 0°C to - 22°C on mixing salt to it in proper proportion. This fact is
utilized in making the freezing mixture by adding salt to ice. The freezing mixture is used in
preparing "kulphies'

Why Cooking become easier and faster?

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The boiling point of a liquid increases by addition of impurities to it. If common salt is added to
water, it boils at a temperature higher than 100°C. Hence, we add salt while cooking pulses,
because the salt in water provides sufficient heat energy to its contents. Cooking thus becomes
easier and faster.

Latent heat and specific latent heat

Heat energy is absorbed by a solid during melting and an equal amount of heat energy is
liberated by the liquid during freezing, without showing any change in temperature. Similarly,
heat energy is absorbed by a liquid during vaporisation and an equal amount of heat energy is
liberated by the vapor during condensation, without showing any change in temperature. Since
the heat energy absorbed (or liberated) in change of phase is not externally manifested by any
rise or fall in temperature, it is called the latent heat (hidden heat).
Latent heat when expressed for unit mass, is called specific latent heat.

Specific latent heat of fusion: The amount of heat required to melt unit mass of solid,
completely into liquid at a constant temperature is called specific, latent heat of that solid.

Specific latent heat of vaporisation: the amount of heat required to change unit mass of liquid
completely into a gas at constant temperature is called latent heat of vaporisation of that liquid.

Specific latent heat (L) = Heat absorbed or lost (Q) / mass (m)
S.I. unit of specific latent heat is J/kg

Heating curve of ice at -10°C to steam at 100°C

Note: Heat supplied to a substance during its change of state does not cause any rise in
temperature. because heat is used to change the potential energy of the molecules while
changing the iner molecular distance during the change of state. Temperature is average kinetic
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energy of molecules of a body since there is no change in kinetic energy of molecules of body
during change of state, temperature remains the same.
Natural consequences of High specific Latent Heat of Ice:
1. Ice has a high latent heat of fusion (80 cal/g). It is due to this fact that snow on the
mountains does not melt all at once but changes into water slowly as it gets heat from the
sun. If the latent heat would not have been so high, all the snow would have flooded very
quickly even with a small amount of heat and there would have been floods in the rivers.
2. The ponds and lakes in cold countries freeze at a very slow rate. The freezing does not
start immediately even after water becomes 0°C. One gram of water to freeze 80 calories
will have to be removed. Because of this value of latent heat the freezing will take place
slowly. The water on the surface will freeze first when temp goes below 0°C, but below the
surface not frozen due to the anomalous expansion of water which enables aquatic
animals to survive.
3. Soft drinks are cooled by ice rather than ice cold water because every kg of ice will extract
336000 J of heat energy more than water at 0°C.
4. It becomes very cold after a hailstorm. Ice has the highest specific latent heat of fusion,
which is equal to 336 J/g. Every gram of ice on melting absorbs 336 J of heat energy from
the surroundings. As a result, the weather becomes very cold.
5. Weather gets pleasant when freezing starts in cold countries. Every gram of water on
freezing releases 336 joules of heat due to very high latent heat of fusion of ice.
6. One feels Ice-cream at 0°C colder than water at 0°C. Because ice-cream absorbs more heat
or extra heat to melt. Because the latent heat of fusion of ice cream is very high.
7. 1 gram of water at 0°C has 336 joules. Which is more than 1 gram of ice at 0°C. Because 1
gram of ice at 0°C absorbs 336 joules of heat energy to convert into water at 0°C.

Numerical is based on heat and latent heat

1. 10 g of ice at 0° C absorbs 5460 J of heat energy to melt and change to water at 50° C.
Calculate the specific latent heat of fusion of ice. Specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J
kg-1 K-1.

Solution:
Mass of ice = 10 g
= 0.01 kg
Amount of heat energy absorbed, Q = 5460 J
Specific latent heat of fusion of ice =?
Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg-1 K-1
Amount of heat energy required by 10 g (0.01 kg) of water at 00 C to raise its temperature
by 50° C = 0.01 × 4200 × 50
= 2100 J
Let Specific latent heat of fusion of ice = L Jg-1
Then,
Q = mL + mc△t
5460 = 10 × L + 2100
L = 3360 / 10
L = 336 J g-1

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2. How much heat energy is released when 5.0 g of water at 20° C changes into ice at 0° C?
Take specific heat capacity of water =4.2 J g-1 K-1, specific latent heat of fusion of ice =
336 J g-1.

Solution:
Mass of water m = 5.0 g
Specific heat capacity of water c = 4.2 J g-1 K-1
Specific latent heat of fusion of ice L = 336 J g-1
Amount of heat energy released when 5.0 g of water at 200 C changes into water at 0o C =
5 × 4.2 × 20
= 420 J
Amount of heat energy released when 5.0 g of water at 00 C changes into ice at 0° C = 5 ×
336 J
= 1680 J
Total amount of heat released = 1680 J + 420 J
= 2100 J

3. A molten metal of mass 150 g is kept at its melting point 800° C. When it is allowed to
freeze at the same temperature, it gives out 75000 J of heat energy.

(a)What is the specific latent heat of the metal?

(b) If the specific heat capacity of metal is 200 J kg-1 K-1, how much additional heat
energy will the metal give out in cooling to – 50° C?

Solution:
Mass of metal = 150 g
Specific latent heat of metal L = Q / m
= 75000 / 150
= 500 J g-1
Specific heat capacity of metal is 200 J kg-1 K-1
Change in temperature = 800 – (-50)
= 800 + 50
= 8500 C (or 850 K)
△Q = mc△T
△Q = 0.15 × 200 × 850
△Q = 25500 J

4. A refrigerator converts 100 g of water at 20° C to ice at -10° C in 73.5 min. calculate the
average rate of heat extraction in watt. The specific heat capacity of water is 4.2 J g-1 K-1,
specific latent heat of ice is 336 J g-1 and the specific heat capacity of ice is 2.1 J g-1 K-1.

Solution:
Amount of heat released when 100 g of water cools from 20° C to 0° C
= 100 × 20 × 4.2
= 8400 J
Amount of heat released when 100 g of water converts into ice at 0° C = 100 × 336
= 33600 J
Amount of heat released when 100 g of ice cools from 00 C to -10° C = 100 × 10 × 2.1

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= 2100 J
Total amount of heat = 8400 + 33600 + 2100
= 44100 J
Time taken = 73.5 min
= 4410 s
Average rate of heat extraction (power)
P=E/t
P = 44100 / 4410
P = 10 W

5. In an experiment, 17 g of ice is used to bring down the temperature of 40 g of water at 34°

C to its freezing temperature. The specific heat capacity of water is 4.2 J g-1 K-1. Calculate
the specific latent heat of ice. State one important assumption made in the above
calculation.

Solution:
Mass of ice m1 = 17 g
Mass of water m2 = 40 g
Change in temperature = 34 – 0
= 34 K
Specific heat capacity of water is 4.2 J g-1K-1
Assuming there is no loss of heat, heat energy gained by ice (latent heat of ice), Q = heat
energy released by water
Q = 40 × 34 × 4.2
Q = 5712 J
Specific latent heat of ice L = Q / m
= 5712 / 17
= 336 J g-1
Assumption: There is no loss of energy.

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6.. Find the result of mixing 10 g of ice at -10° C with 10 g of water at 10° C. Specific heat
capacity of ice is 2.1 J g-1 K-1, specific latent heat of ice = 336 J g-1, and specific heat
capacity of water = 4.2 J g-1 K-1.

Solution:
Let whole of the ice melts and let the final temperature of the mixture be T oC
Amount of heat energy gained by 10 g of ice at – 10° C to raise its temperature to 0° C = 10
× 10 × 2.1
C = 210 J
Amount of heat energy gained by 10 g of ice at 00 C to convert into water at 0° C = 10 × 336
C = 3360 J
Amount of heat energy gained by 10 g of water (obtained from ice) at 0° C to raise its
temperature To C = 10 × 4.2 × (T – 0)
= 42 T
Amount of heat energy released by 10 g of water at 10° C to lower its temperature to T0 C
= 10 × 4.2 × (10 – T)
= 420 – 42T
Heat energy gained = Heat energy lost
210 + 3360 + 42 T = 420 – 42T
T = -37.5C
This cannot be true because water cannot exist at this temperature.
So the whole ice does not melt. Let m gram of ice melt. The final temperature of the
mixture becomes 0° C
So, amount of heat energy gained by 10 g of ice at -10° C to raise its temperature to 00 C =
10 × 10 × 2.1
= 210 J
Amount of heat energy gained by m gm of ice at 0° C to convert into water at 0° C
= m ×336 = 336 m
Amount of heat energy released by 10 g of water at 10° C to lower its temperature to 0° C =
10 × 4.2 × (10 – 0)= 420
Heat energy gained = Heat energy lost
210 + 336 m = 420
m = 210 / 336
m = 0.625 gram

7. A piece of ice of mass 40 g is added to 200 g of water at 50° C. Calculate the final
temperature of the water when all the ice has melted. Specific heat capacity of water =
4200 J kg-1 K-1 and specific latent heat of fusion of ice =336 x 103 J kg-1.

Solution:
Let the final temperature of the water when all the ice has melted = T oC
Amount of heat lost when 200 g of water at 50o C cools to T oC
= 200 × 4.2 × (50 – T)
= 42000 – 840T
Amount of heat gained when 40 g of ice at 00 C converts into water at 00 C = 40 × 336 J
= 13440 J
Amount of heat gained when temperature of 40 g of water at 00 C rises to T0 C = 40 × 4.2
× (T – 0)

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= 168T
We know that,
Amount of heat gained = amount of heat energy lost
13440 + 168T = 42000 – 840T
168T + 840T = 42000 – 13440
1008T = 28560
T = 28560 / 1008
T = 28.33oC

8. 250 g of water at 30° C is contained in a copper vessel of mass 50 g. Calculate the mass of
ice required to bring down the temperature of the vessel and its contents to 50° C. Given
specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 336 x 103 J kg-1, specific heat capacity of copper =
400 J kg-1 K-1, the specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J kg-1 K-1.

Solution:
Mass of copper vessel m1 = 50 g
Mass of water contained in copper vessel m2 = 250 g
Mass of ice required to bring down the temperature of vessel = m
Final temperature = 50 C.
Amount of heat gained when ‘m’ g of ice at 0° C converts into water at 0° C = m × 336 J
Amount of heat gained when temperature of ‘m’ g of water at 0° C rises to 50 C = m × 4.2 ×
5
Total amount of heat gained = m × 336 + m × 4.2 × 5
Amount of heat lost when 250 g of water at 300 C cools to 50 C = 250 × 4.2 × 25
= 26250 J
Amount of heat lost when 50 g of vessel at 300 C cools to 50 C = 50 × 0.4 × 25
= 500 J
Total amount of heat lost = 26250 + 500
= 26750 J
We know that amount of heat gained = amount of heat lost
m × 336 + m × 4.2 × 5
= 26750
357 m = 26750
m = 26750 / 357
m = 74.93 g
∴ mass of ice required is 74.93 g

9. 2 kg of ice melts when water at 100° C is poured in a hole drilled in a block of ice.
Whatmass of water was used? Given: Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg-1 K-1,
specific latent heat of ice = 336 × 103 J Kg-1.

Solution:
Since the whole block does not melt and only 2 kg of it melts, so the final temperature
would be 0° C.
Amount of heat energy gained by 2 kg of ice at 00 C to convert into water at 0° C = 2 ×
336000
= 672000 J
Let the amount of water poured = m kg
Initial temperature of water = 100° C

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Final temperature of water = 0° C
Amount of heat energy lost by m kg of water at 100o C to reach temperature 0oC = m ×
4200 × 100
= 420000 m J
We know that heat energy gained = heat energy lost
672000 J = m × 420000 J
m = 672000 / 420000
m = 1.6 kg

10. Calculate the total amount of heat energy required to convert 100 g of ice at -10° C
completely into water at 100o C. Specific heat capacity of ice = 2.1 J g-1 K-1, specific heat
capacity of water = 4.2 J g-1 K-1, specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 336 J g-1

Solution:
Amount of heat energy gained by 100 g of ice at – 10° C to raise its temperature to 0°C =
100 × 2.1 × 10
= 2100 J
Amount of heat energy gained by 100 g of ice at 0° C to convert into water at 0° C = 100 ×
336
= 33600 J
Amount of heat energy gained when the temperature of 100 g of water at 0° C rises to
100oC = 100 × 4.2 × 100
= 42000 J
Total amount of heat energy gained is = 2100 + 33600 + 42000
= 77700 J
= 7.77 × 104 J

11. The amount of heat energy required to convert 1 kg of ice at -10° C completely into water
at 100° C is 777000 J. Calculate the specific latent heat of ice. Specific heat capacity of ice =
2100 J kg-1 K-1, Specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J kg-1 K-1.

Solution:
Amount of heat energy gained by 1 kg of ice at – 10o C to raise its temperature to 0oC = 1 ×
2100 × 10
= 21000 J
Amount of heat energy gained by 1 kg of ice at 0°C to convert into water at 0°C, = L
Amount of heat energy gained when the temperature of 1 kg of water at 0° C rises to 100°
C = 1 × 4200 × 100 =420000 J
Total amount of heat energy gained = 21000 + 420000 + L
= 441000 + L
Given that the total amount of heat gained is 777000 J
So, 441000 + L = 777000
L = 777000 – 441000
L = 336000 J kg-1

12. 200 g of ice at 0 °C converts into water at 0 °C in 1 minute when heat is supplied to it at a
constant rate. In how much time, 200 g of water at 0 °C will change to 20 °C? Take specific
latent heat of ice = 336 J g-1.

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Solution:
Mass of ice, mice= 200 g
Time for ice to melt, t1 = 1 min
= 60 s
Mass of water, mw = 200 g
Temperature change of water, ΔT = 200 C
Rate of heat exchange is constant. So, power required for converting ice to water is the
same as the power required to increase the temperature of the water.
Pice = Pwater
Eice / t1 = Ewater/ t2
miceL / t1 = mwcwΔT / t2
t2 = (mwcw ΔT × t1) / miceL
t2 = (200 × 4.2 × 20 × 60) / 200 × 336
t2 = 15 s

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12.Radioactivity
Smallest particle of an element is an atom. Atoms consist of electrons, protons and neutrons.
Neutrons and protons are confined in the nucleus. Hence they are called nucleons. Electrons are
revolving around the nucleus in orbit and they are called extranuclear particles.
Representation of an atom.
A
ZX

X represents an atom
Z represents atomic number: Atomic number is the number of protons is the nucleus of an atom
A represents atomic weight or atomic mass number: the sum of the number of protons and
neutrons is atomic weight or atomic mass number.

Mass of an atom [a.m.u] = 1.67 x 10-27 kg

Mass of electron = 9.1 x 10-31 kg
Charge of electron or proton = 1.6 x 10-27 C
Neutron is electrically neutral.

Isotopes Isobars Isotones

Definition The atoms of the The atoms of The atoms of different

same element, different elements elements having different
having the same which have the same atomic number different
atomic number Z, mass number A, but mass number but the
but different mass different atomic same number of neutrons
number A, are called number Z, are called are called isotones
isotopes. isobars.

Atomic number Same Different Different

Atomic mass Different Same Different

Number of Different Different Same

neutrons

Chemical Same Different Different

properties

Physical Different Same Different

properties

Example 6C12 and 6C14 C14 and 7N14

6 Na23 and 12Mg24
11

Note:
1. Two kinds of isotopes:

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i. Stable isotopes – no. of neutrons nearly equal to no. of protons in the
nucleus.
ii. Unstable isotopes – no. of neutrons much more than no. of protons in the
nucleus. They undergo radio-active decay and are of great medical and
industrial use. Eg. 92U235, 92U238
2. If the number of protons and neutrons get interchanged inside the nucleus, they are
called mirror isobars. Example: 11Na23 and 12Mg23 are the mirror isobars.

Radioactive substance: The substances which disintegrate (or decay) by the spontaneous
emission of radiations, are called the radioactive substances e.g. uranium, radium, polonium,
thorium, actinium, etc.
The isotopes of nearly all the elements of atomic number higher than 82 (i.e., after lead in the
periodic table) are radioactive because in their nucleus, the number of neutrons is much more
than the number of protons. These are called the natural radioactive substances.
Any physical change (such as change in pressure and temperature) or chemical change (such as
excessive heating, freezing, action of strong electric and magnetic fields, chemical treatment, oxidation
etc.) does not change the nature of radiation emitted by the substance and its rate of decay. This clear
shows that radioactivity is a nuclear phenomenon.
Note: Radioactivity is a nuclear phenomenon therefore any chemical changes like oxidation or
reduction will not make any changes to radioactivity of any radioactive substance. For example
pure uranium or any compounds of uranium have the same radioactivity and are equally
harmful.

Radioactivity: Radioactivity is a nuclear phenomenon. It is the process of spontaneous emission

of alpha or beta and gamma radiations from the nucleus of atoms during their decay.
Note:
1. In a single radioactive decay, alpha & beta are never emitted simultaneously. There will
be either an alpha emission or a beta emission, which is accompanied by gamma
radiation.
2. The daughter product after the emission of either a-particle or B-particle, may again be
radioactive and it may further decay by emitting either the -particle or the B-particle.
This process continues till a stable nucleus is formed.
3. From a radioactive substance, containing a large number of atoms, there is no way of
knowing when or which nucleus of the atom will decay at any moment, hence radioactive
decay is a random phenomenon. There is no law by which the disintegration of an
individual nucleus can be known or predicted.
Differences between chemical change and nuclear change
Chemical change Nuclear change

1. Change in the number of orbital electrons. Change in the number of orbital

electrons.

2. Small amount of energy required (eV). Large amount of energy required (MeV).

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3. Lead to formation of compounds. Lead to formation of another element.

Deflection of alpha, beta and gamma in an electric field.

Deflection of alpha, beta and gamma in a magnetic field.

Properties of alpha, bata and gamma rays

Property Alpha particles Beta particles Gamma rays

Rest mass 4 times a.m.u Negligible No mass

[4 x 1.67 x 10-27 kg] [9.1 x 10-31 kg] [rest mass is zero]

Velocity Nearly 107 m s-1 About 2.7 x 108 ms-1 3 x 108 ms-1

Ionization Махіmum (10000 times Less than alpha particle Minimum

potential of gamma) but 100 times of gamma
rays

Penetrating Small [3 cm to 8 cm in Large, upto few meter in very large, upto few
power air] air 100 meter in air

Magnetic and Deflect less than beta as Deflect more than alpha as No deflection as it is

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electric field it is a heavy particles it is lighter particles not a particle

fluorescence Cause fluorescence Cause fluorescence Cause fluorescence

Photographic Affect Photographic Affect Photographic plate Affect Photographic

plate plate plate

Nature Positive particles Negative particles Neutral radiation

Stopping Thin paper, human skin About 1 mm thick lead or About 30 cm thick iron
substance about 5 mm thick or few meter thick
aluminum concrete

Biological Less damage More damage Immense damage

damage

Note:
1. Alpha particles consist of 2 protons and 2 neutrons [like nucleus of helium]. If an alpha
particle gains an electron, it changes into a singly ionized helium atom and if it gains two
electrons, it changes to the helium atom.
2. Beta particles are like streams of electrons. two electrons, it changes to the helium atom.
If beta particles are stopped by metals of high melting point and high atomic number ,
like tungsten, it produces X-rays.

Changes with in the nucleus in alpha, beta and gamma emission.

Alpha emission: When an atom of radioactive element emits alpha particle its atomic number
reduces by 2 and mass number reduces by 4.

Example:

Beta emission: When an atom of a radioactive element emits beta particle its atomic number
increases by 1 and atomic mass number remains the same.

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Example:

Note: The electron emitted in B-decay does not exist in the nucleus. It.is created as a result of
decay of one neutron into a proton inside the nucleus and is instantaneously emitted. It is not
possible for electrons to stay inside the nucleus.

Gamma emission: when an atom of a radioactive element emits gamma ray there is no change
in atomic number or atomic mass number.

Star indicates the excited state of the nucleus. Thus in gamma emission, the excited nucleus
comes to its ground state.

RADIOISOTOPES: The radioactive isotopes of some elements with atomic number Z < 82 are
called radioisotopes. Eg. [ 27 Co 60, 6C 14 , 19 K 40, 15 P 32 ]. They are also prepared artificially.

Uses of radioisotopes:
Medical uses Scientific uses Industrial Uses

Radio-active Tracer salts are Alpha particles are used as Radio isotopes like 92U 235
used to detect brain tumors & projectiles in nuclear are used as fuel in atomic
blood clots & Radiocardiology. reactions. energy reactors.
[to study blood circulation}

Gamma radiation from Co- To estimate the age of rocks, The ionizing effect of
60 is used to kill cancer cells fossils using Carbon Dating radiation is used in making
& tumors→Radiotherapy. i.e. by studying the rate of luminescent signs.
decay of C-14 [6 C 14] by beta Beta radiations are used to
emissions in the remains of control the thickness of
dead plants. paper, plastic, metal sheets.

Gamma rays emitted by radio Radio-active Tracer salts are Radio-isotopes are used by
isotopes are used to sterilize used in agriculture to study engineers to avoid charge
bandages, dressings, syringes the effect of fertilizers on accumulation by friction.
etc. plants.

Sources of harmful Radiations:

1. Radio-active fallout from nuclear power plants – Accidents in the nuclear reactor may
release a large amount of radioactive radiation into the atmosphere, which will not only

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affect the life of people in the immediate neighborhood, but also in far off places, where
they will reach due to air currents.
2. Nuclear Waste: The spent fuel rods from nuclear reactors are still quite radio-active, and
give out harmful nuclear radiations, though they are a nuclear waste. They cannot be
dumped in open garbage bins as they can contaminate the soil and water and affect
human & living organisms.
3. Cosmic radiations: Gamma and X-rays from outer space reach the earth’s atmosphere
and can be harmful to humans.
4. Particle Accelerators: High energy particle accelerators produce harmful X-rays.

Harmful Biological Effects of Harmful Radiations:

1. Short term recoverable effects – diarrhea, sore throat, loss of hair, nausea, etc. - affects
the individual exposed to the radiations.
2. Long term irrecoverable effects – Leukemia, cancer- affects the individual exposed to
the radiation.
3. Genetic Effects – genes [DNA, RNA] in the living cell get mutated and affect later
generations.

Safety precautions in handling radioactive substance:

1. The nuclear material must be kept in thick lead containers with mouths and plugged with
thick corks. Alpha particles can easily be stopped by a thin metal sheet, but for β particles
we need a thicker metal sheet whereas gamma radiation needs very thick lead sheets.
2. The nuclear reactors should be embedded in thick concrete walls so as to prevent a
leakage of gamma radiation.
3. Workers in nuclear establishments must wear lead-lined aprons and gloves. They must
wear special lead glasses to protect their eyes.
4. The workers must wear special film badges.
5. The nuclear material should be handled with mechanical tongs.

The safety measures in establishment of nuclear power plants:

1. The nuclear reactor must be shielded with lead and sheet walls so as to stop radiations
from escaping out to the environment during its normal operation.
2. The nuclear reactors must be housed in an airtight building of strong concrete structure
which can withstand earthquakes, fires and explosions.
3. There must be a back-up cooling system for the reactor core, so that in case of failure of
one system, the other cooling system could take its place and the core is saved from
overheating and melting.
Cosmic rays:
They are radiation from outer space that reach the earth from all directions usually with very
high energy and penetrating power. They consist of charged particles mostly protons but alpha
particles, electrons and other particles are also present.

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Background radiation:
The radiations from all the sources both natural and the artificial to which the living beings are
exposed all the time are called background radiations. Since its total dose is not very large, it
does not cause any serious biological damage to us.

Sources of background radiation:

1. Radioactive substances such as carbon-14, potassium-40
2. Radium content in the human body
3. Cosmic rays present in the upper atmosphere
4. Radioactive substance in the earth’s crust
Some important questions
1. A certain nucleus A (mass number 238 and atomic number 92) is radioactive and becomes
a nucleus B (mass number 234 and atomic number 90) by the emission of a particle.
a. Name the particle emitted.
b. Explain how you arrived at your answer.
Solution:
a. The particle emitted is an alpha particle
b. The atomic number is decreased by 2 and the mass number is decreased by 4. This
happens when an alpha particle is emitted.
2.
a. An atomic nucleus A is composed of 84 protons and 128 neutrons. The nucleus A
emits an α particle and is transformed into a nucleus B. What is the composition of
B?
b. The nucleus B emits a β particle and is transformed into a nucleus C. What is the
composition of C?
c. What is the mass number of the nucleus A?
d. Does the composition of nucleus C change if it emits the γ radiation?
Solution:
a. The composition of B becomes 82 protons and 126 neutrons
b. The composition of C becomes 83 protons and 125 neutrons
c. The mass number of nucleus A = number of protons + number of neutrons 84 + 128 = 212
Thus the mass number of nucleus A = 212
d. The composition of nucleus C does not change if it emits the γ radiation

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