WEEK SIX

 Chromosomes: Definition, general structure, classifications and functions.

 Genes: Definition, general structure, and functions.
 Relationships between chromosomes and genes.

CHROMOSOMES

Definition;

A chromosome is a microscopic thread-like structure that is made up of many proteins called

histones, transcription factors and other macromolecules.

The term chromosomes was first coined by a German anatomist called Heinrich Wilhelm
Waldeyer the word chromosome is the combination of two Greek words, ‘chroma’ means colour
and ‘soma’ means body. They are found in the nucleus of each eukaryotic cell. Chromosomes
are the basic structures of all living species. They are the carriers of the genetic, or precisely
hereditary, information from one generation to another

Structure of a Chromosome

Structurally, each chromosome comprises two long arms (q arm) and two short arms (p arm),
i.e., 4 chromosome arms held together at the centromere, resulting in the formation of an ‘X’
shaped structure.

A chromosome has 4 major parts; Centromere or primary constriction or kinetochore,

chromatids, chromatin, and telomere. Others include secondary constriction, chromomere,
chromonema, and matrix.

 Centromere or Kinetochore: It is the primary constriction at the center to which the

chromatids or spindle fibers are attached. Its function is to enable movement of the
chromosome during the anaphase stage of cell division.

 Chromatid: During cell division, a chromosome is divided into 2 identical half strands
joined by a centromere. A chromatid is each half of the chromosome joined. Each
chromatid contains DNA and separates at Anaphase to form a separate chromosome.
Both chromatids are attached to each other by the centromere.

 Chromatin: It is a complex of DNA and proteins that forms chromosomes within the
nucleus of eukaryotic cells. The chromatin consists of DNA, RNA, and protein.

 Telomere: Telomere is the terminal region of each side of the chromosome.

Classification of Chromosomes

Chromosomes are classified based on a number of factors among which includes

1. Based on position of centromere

Chromosomes are divided into four different types based on the position of the centromere.

as follows:

⟿ Metacentric Chromosome

The metacentric chromosome has its centromere centrally located between the two arms. This
gives the chromosome a typical ‘V’ shape that is seen during the anaphase. The arms of this
chromosome are roughly equal in length. In certain cells, fusion of two acrocentric chromosomes
leads to formation of metacentric chromosome.

⟿ Telocentric Chromosome

Also known as the monarchial type of chromosomes, they have a centromere that is located
towards the end of the chromosome. Thus, telocentric chromosomes have a ‘rod’ shaped
appearance. The telocentric chromosome is not present in humans.

⟿ Acrocentric Chromosome

The location of the centromere in the acrocentric chromosome is sub terminal. This causes the
short arm of the chromosome to become really short making it very difficult to observe.

⟿ Holocentric Chromosome

In holocentric chromosomes, the centromere runs through the entire length of the chromosome.
These chromosomes are very common in cells belonging to organisms in the animal and plant
kingdom.
 2. Based on the number of centromeres

Based on the number of centromeres chromosomes are also classified into 4 different categories

⟿ Acentric Chromosome

Acentric chromosomes are those that lack centromeres, i.e., the centromere are totally absent on
the chromosome.

⟿ Monocentric Chromosome

Monocentric chromosomes are those that contain a single centromere. This type of chromosome
is present in most of the organisms. The monocentric chromosomes can be called acrocentric, if
the centromere is located at the end of the chromosome. If the centromere is located towards the
center it is called metacentric chromosome. And, telocentric chromosomes are those in which the
centromere is present at the chromosome’s end.

⟿ Dicentric Chromosome

Dicentric chromosomes are those that have two centromeres that are present on its arms. These
chromosomes are formed after two chromosomal segments are fused end to end.

⟿ Polycentric Chromosome

Polycentric chromosomes are those that contain more than two centromeres. These chromosomes
are very common in plants, for example, the Adder’s-tongue fern has 1262 chromosomes.
 3. Based on the function of chromosomes
 Autosomes: They do not contain information related to sexual reproduction and
determination. They are identical in both sexes. There are 44 pairs of autosomes and
they contain information related to phenotypic characters.
 Allosomes: Are sex chromosomes that are different from autosomes in shape,
behavior, size and structures. These chromosomes help in determining the sex of the
progeny. If the offspring receives the X chromosome of the mother and father, it
results in a girl (XX). If the offspring receives an X chromosome and a Y
chromosome from the parents, it results in a male child (XY). The donation of the X
or Y chromosome by the father helps determine the sex of the child.

Functions of Chromosome

I. Genetic inheritance: Chromosomes carry the genetic information that is passed from
parents to offspring during reproduction.
II. Gene expression: Genes located on chromosomes are responsible for the production of
proteins, which carry out various functions in the cell and regulate the traits and
characteristics of an organism.
III. Cell division: Chromosomes play a crucial role in the process of cell division, ensuring
that genetic material is properly distributed to daughter cells.
IV. Genetic Code Storage: Chromosome contains the genetic material that is required by the
organism to develop and grow. DNA molecules are made of chain of units called genes.
Genes are those sections of the DNA which code for specific proteins required by the cell
for its proper functioning.
V. Sex Determination: Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes out of which one pair is the
sex chromosome. Females have two X chromosomes and males have one X and one Y
chromosome. The sex of the child is determined by the chromosome passed down by the
male. If X chromosome is passed out of XY chromosome, the child will be a female and
if a Y chromosome is passed, a male child develops.
VI. Formation of Proteins and Storage: The chromosomes direct the sequences of proteins
formed in our body and also maintain the order of DNA. The proteins are also stored in
the coiled structure of the chromosomes. These proteins bound to the DNA help in proper
packaging of the DNA.

Species of some Plant and Animals with their Number of chromosomes

1 Homo sapiens (Man) 46

2 Zea mays (Corn or maize) 20

3 Triticum vulgare (common wheat) 42

4 Ascaris lumbricoides (Giant roundworm) 48

5 Musca domestica (Housefly) 12

6 Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly) 8

GENES

Definition;

Genes are distinct segments of DNA that serve as the basic units of heredity in living
organisms. Genes are known to occupy a fixed position (locus) on a chromosome. Each gene
contains the instructions for building a specific protein or regulating a particular trait or
function within an organism.

Genes are inherited from parents during reproduction. Offspring receive one copy of each
gene from each parent, resulting in a combination of genetic material that contributes to the
individual’s unique traits. Inherited genes can determine traits such as eye color, blood type,
susceptibility to certain diseases, and other physical and physiological characteristics.

The number of genes in an organism’s genome (the entire set of chromosomes) varies
significantly between species. For example, whereas the human genome contains an
estimated 20,000 to 25,000 genes, the genome of the bacterium Escherichia coli houses
precisely 5,416 genes.

Structure of a gene

Genes are encoded within long strands of DNA strands. DNA consists of nucleotide
monomers, which are comprised of a pentose sugar (Deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and
either one of the four nitrogenous bases: Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), or
Guanine (G). A molecule of DNA is present as a double helix, meaning that it contains two
DNA strands running in antiparallel directions bonded through hydrogen bonds.

Functions of a gene

1. They control the functions of DNA and RNA.

2. Genes help in the formation of proteins, which are very important building blocks of life.

3. They also take care of the production of enzymes.

4. These enzymes play a crucial role in conducting different chemical processes and
reactions in the body.

5. Genes consist of a particular set of functions and instructions.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GENES AND CHROMOSOMES

 DNA makes genes and genes subsequently make chromosomes.

 Gene is the functional unit of hereditary, and Chromosome as a whole is the carrier of
hereditary information from generation to generation.
 Genes contain a long polymer of DNA to code for a lot of multiple proteins. And, a
chromosome contains various genes that code for a multiple of multiples of proteins.
 A gene with a huge polynucleotide of DNA can express a specific genetic trait. And,
a chromosome that contains a lot of genes can express various genetic traits as a
whole.
 The activity of the whole chromosome is controlled by the various genes present in
it. And, the gens are directly dependent on the structure of the DNA present in it