Infections and Respiratory System
Overview
Systemic Allergy and Immune
System: Inhaled particles rely on the
immune system for defense, as daily Pleural Cavity: Contains pleural
air cannot be entirely filtered. fluid to lubricate and prevent friction
during breathing.
Gas Exchange: Happens in the
respiratory membrane, composed
of:
Muscles of Respiration
o Alveolar epithelium (lining of
Inspiration (Inhalation)
alveoli).
Quiet Inspiration:
o Capillary endothelium (lining
of capillaries near alveoli). o Muscles involved:
Thickness Impact: Any change (e.g., Diaphragm: Contracts,
increased thickness) affects oxygen flattens, and increases
and carbon dioxide exchange. thoracic volume by 2/3.
External intercostal
muscles: Pull ribs
Lungs: Anatomy and Features
upward.
Shape and Location: Cone-shaped;
o Control center: Medulla
base rests on the diaphragm, apex
oblongata.
extends 1 inch (2.5 cm) above the
clavicle. Forced Inspiration: Includes
accessory muscles:
Lobes:
o Sternocleidomastoid, scalenes,
o Left lung: 2 lobes.
pectoralis, serratus anterior,
o Right lung: 3 lobes. and latissimus dorsi.
Fissures: Divide lungs into lobes. Expiration (Exhalation)
Key Structures: Quiet Expiration: Passive process
due to elastic fibers in alveoli and
o Hilum: Entry point for bronchi, lung tissue.
blood vessels, and lymphatics.
Forced Expiration: Uses muscles
o Cardiac notch: Indentation in such as:
the left lung to accommodate
the heart. o Abdominal muscles: Rectus
abdominis, transversus
Bronchopulmonary Segments: abdominis.
Functional divisions; allow partial
removal without impairing lung o Internal intercostal muscles.
function.
Inhalation and Exhalation Process:
Pleura
Inhalation (Inspiration):
Layers:
Stimulus from the medulla
o Parietal pleura: Lines thoracic oblongata triggers the diaphragm
cavity. and external intercostal muscles to
contract.
o Visceral pleura: Covers lungs.
This contraction increases the
volume inside the thoracic cavity.
As the volume increases, pressure o Pressure in the pleural cavity
decreases (Boyle’s Law). must be lower than alveolar
pressure to allow proper lung
When lung pressure drops below
expansion.
atmospheric pressure, air flows in
from the outside. o Injury (e.g., stab wounds) can
lead to increased pleural
Exhalation:
pressure, hindering lung
Once the volume decreases, expansion and impairing gas
pressure increases. exchange.
Alveolar pressure becomes greater
than atmospheric pressure, and air
Lung Volumes and Capacities:
is expelled from the lung
Tidal Volume (TV): The normal
volume of air inhaled and exhaled with
Key Concepts: each breath.
Atmospheric Pressure: 360 mmHg Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV):
The maximum volume of air that can
Inhalation: be inhaled after normal inhalation.
o Higher pressure: Atmospheric Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV):
o Lower pressure: Alveolar (to The maximum volume of air that can
allow airflow in) be exhaled after normal exhalation.
Exhalation: Residual Volume (RV): The amount
of air remaining in the lungs after
o Higher pressure: Alveolar (to maximal exhalation.
expel air)
Lung Capacities:
o Lower pressure: Atmospheric
Inspiratory Capacity (IC): IRV + TV.
Factors Affecting Lung Function:
Functional Residual Capacity
1. Lung Recoil: (FRC): ERV + RV.
o Elastic Fibers and Surface Total Lung Capacity (TLC): All lung
Tension cause the lungs to volumes combined (TV + IRV + ERV +
return to their resting size after RV).
expansion.
Note: Residual volume and functional
o Surface Tension is reduced by residual capacity cannot be measured using
surfactant which prevents a spirometer.
alveolar collapse.
2. Surfactant:
o Phospholipid secreted by
alveolar cells.
o Reduces surface tension at
the air-water interface in alveoli.
o Prevents alveolar collapse
and ensures gas exchange.
3. Pleural Pressure:
o 🡆 Thinner membrane =
better gas exchange (more
Partial Pressure:
efficient diffusion)
o Oxygen moves from alveoli
Respiratory Surface Area:
(high partial pressure) to blood
(low partial pressure). o 🡇 Decreased surface area
(e.g., lung removal) =
o Carbon dioxide moves from
decreased diffusion
blood (high partial pressure) to
efficiency
alveoli (low partial pressure).
o 🡆 Increased surface area =
Respiratory Membrane Thickness:
improved gas exchange
o Thickening (due to diseases
Oxygen Transport and
like fibrosis) decreases gas
Hemoglobin's Role:
exchange efficiency.
o Hemoglobin transports 98% of
oxygen in the blood.
Special Considerations at High and Low o When tissues need oxygen,
Altitudes:
hemoglobin releases oxygen.
High Altitude (e.g., Mount
o Increase in hydrogen ions
Everest): Atmospheric pressure is
(from CO2 conversion to
lower, making inhalation more
bicarbonate) = lower blood pH
difficult due to reduced oxygen
(more acidic).
availability.
Factors Affecting Oxygen
Diving (Deep Sea): Higher
Transport:
atmospheric pressure increases the
difficulty of exhalation due to higher o Partial Pressure of Carbon
surrounding pressure. Dioxide (pCO2):
Additional Information: 🡇 Increased carbon
dioxide = hemoglobin
In the case of drowning, water fills
releases more oxygen
the alveoli, preventing gas exchange
to tissues.
by blocking space for oxygen and
carbon dioxide diffusion. o pH:
Surfactant plays a crucial role in 🡇 Lower pH (more
reducing surface tension and acidic) = hemoglobin
preventing alveolar collapse, ensuring releases oxygen.
effective gas exchange.
o Temperature:
🡇 Increased
temperature (e.g., fever
or exercise) =
hemoglobin releases
Respiratory Membrane Thickness: oxygen.
o 🡇 Thicker membrane (due to o Glucose Metabolism:
fluids, infections, or tumors) =
🡇 Active metabolism
poorer gas exchange
(e.g., exercise) =
hemoglobin releases
oxygen.
Carbon Dioxide and Respiratory
Regulation:
o Carbon dioxide (not oxygen)
regulates respiration.
o 🡇 Increased carbon dioxide =
increased breathing rate to
expel excess CO2.
Respiratory Control:
o Chemoreceptors detect
changes in carbon dioxide
levels and blood pH.
o 🡇 Increased CO2 levels =
signals to the medulla
oblongata to initiate breathing.
Breathing Control in Practice:
o 🡇 Holding breath causes
carbon dioxide buildup,
which triggers the body to
resume breathing.
Autopsy and Drowning:
o Fluid in alveoli suggests the
person was alive and
drowned.
o Little fluid in alveoli suggests
the person likely died before
being submerged.
o
