Skeletal System  Contains a hollow medullary cavity, which may

-Osteogenesis imperfecta is a genetic disorder causing have a lining of spongy bone.

fragile bones due to defective collagen.
Bone Cells  Epiphyses (Ends)
 Osteoblasts  Mostly spongy bone covered by a thin layer of
o Build bone by producing collagen and compact bone.
proteoglycans.
o Secrete Ca2+ and phosphate ions,  Ends covered with hyaline cartilage (articular
forming hydroxyapatite crystals. cartilage) for joint movement.
o Involved in ossification (bone  Epiphyseal Plate
formation), both during development
and fracture repair.  Growth plate located between the diaphysis and
 Osteocytes epiphysis.
o Mature osteoblasts that maintain the
 Site of bone lengthening during growth.
bone matrix.
o Located in lacunae, with extensions in  Becomes ossified to form the epiphyseal line
canaliculi. after growth ends.
o Long-lived, contributing to the
maintenance of bone structure.  Medullary Cavity
 Osteoclasts  Filled with bone marrow.
o Bone-destroying cells responsible for
bone reabsorption.  Red marrow for blood cell formation (replaced
o Multinucleated and break down bone by yellow marrow with age).
matrix to release Ca2+ and phosphate  Periosteum
into the blood.
o Develop from red bone marrow cells.  Connective tissue membrane covering the outer
Bone Structure surface of the bone.
 Spongy Bone
 Outer layer has blood vessels and nerves; inner
o Porous with less bone matrix and more
layer contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
space.
o Composed of trabeculae  Collagen fibers from tendons and ligaments
(interconnecting bone plates) filled with integrate with the periosteum.
marrow and blood vessels.
o Osteocytes within trabeculae obtain  Endosteum
nutrients through canaliculi.  Single cell layer lining internal bone cavities.
 Compact Bone
o Dense, solid outer layer with more  Contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
matrix and fewer pores.
 Bone Development
o Contains osteons (functional units) with
concentric rings of matrix around  Intramembranous Ossification
central canals.
 Occurs in skull bones, mandible, and clavicle
o Central canals house blood vessels, diaphyses.
nerves, and connective tissue.
 Begins around the 5th week of embryonic
o Osteocytes in lacunae between development.
lamellae, connected by canaliculi for
nutrient and waste exchange.  Connective tissue membranes become cranial
bones starting around the 8th week, completed
 Structure of a Long Bone by 2 years.
 Diaphysis (Shaft)  Features centers of ossification that expand to
form bone.
 Center portion composed mainly of compact
bone.  Endochondral Ossification
  Begins with a cartilage model. o Joints allow movement between bones,
while ligaments limit excessive motion.
 Replaces cartilage with bone in many other
bones. 4. Mineral Storage
 Key Points o Bones store minerals like calcium and
phosphorus.
 Long bones have a central diaphysis, end
epiphyses, and an epiphyseal plate for growth. o Minerals are released into the blood
when needed.
 Bone marrow in the medullary cavity shifts from
red to yellow with age. o Adipose tissue in bone cavities stores
energy as lipids.
 Periosteum and endosteum are critical for bone
growth and repair. 5. Blood Cell Production
 Ossification processes form bones either o Red bone marrow in bones produces
directly from connective tissue or by replacing blood cells and platelets.
cartilage.
Bone Histology
 Extracellular Matrix
o Organic Component: Primarily collagen
and proteoglycans, providing flexibility
and strength.
o Inorganic Component: Mainly
hydroxyapatite (calcium phosphate),
giving weight-bearing strength.
 Types of Bone Cells
o Osteoblasts: Build bone matrix and
initiate ossification.
o Osteocytes: Maintain bone matrix,
located in lacunae.
Functions of the Skeletal System o Osteoclasts: Break down bone matrix,
1. Body Support involved in bone reabsorption.

o Provides a rigid framework to support  Compact Bone vs. Spongy Bone

body tissues. o Compact Bone: Dense with fewer
o Cartilage offers flexible support in pores, organized into osteons.
structures like the nose and ears. o Spongy Bone: Porous with more space,
o Ligaments hold bones together. composed of trabeculae filled with
marrow.
2. Organ Protection
Key Points
o Hard bone protects vital organs (e.g.,
skull protects the brain, rib cage shields  Bone Matrix Composition
the heart and lungs). o 35% Organic: Collagen and
3. Body Movement proteoglycans for flexibility and
strength.
o Skeletal muscles, attached to bones by
tendons, enable movement. o 65% Inorganic: Hydroxyapatite crystals
for weight-bearing strength.
 o Balance of Components: Adequate changes bone shape, and regulates
collagen prevents brittleness, while calcium levels.
proper mineral content maintains
 Process
strength.
o Osteoclasts: Remove old bone matrix.
Growth in Bone Length
 Epiphyseal Plate o Osteoblasts: Deposit new bone matrix.

o Location: Separates the epiphysis from o Compact Bone: Osteoclasts remove

the diaphysis in long bones. bone from the inside, and osteoblasts
add bone to the outside.
o Function: Area where new bone
lengthens. o Spongy Bone: Bone matrix is removed
from trabecular surfaces and replaced
 Zones of the Epiphyseal Plate with new matrix.
1. Zone of Resting Cartilage: Contains  Mechanical Advantages
slowly dividing chondrocytes.
o Hollow Cylinder: Lighter and supports
2. Zone of Proliferation: Chondrocytes more weight than a solid rod.
divide and form columns, creating new
cartilage. o Medullary Cavity: Keeps the bone light
by expanding as the bone grows in
3. Zone of Hypertrophy: Chondrocytes diameter.
mature and enlarge.
Bone Repair
4. Zone of Calcification: Cartilage matrix
calcifies, chondrocytes die, and blood  Steps in Bone Repair
vessels invade. 1. Hematoma Formation: Blood clot forms
5. Zone of Ossification: Osteoblasts at the fracture site, disrupting blood
deposit new bone matrix on the supply and causing inflammation.
calcified cartilage. 2. Callus Formation: A callus forms around
 Growth Hormone the fracture, stabilizing the bone with
cartilage and new bone tissue.
o Role: Stimulates cartilage formation and
bone elongation by influencing the 3. Callus Ossification: Cartilage in the
activity of chondrocytes and osteoblasts callus is replaced by spongy bone.
in the epiphyseal plate. 4. Bone Remodeling: New compact bone
 Closure of the Epiphyseal Plate replaces the callus, and the medullary
cavity is restored.
o Event: Epiphyseal plate ossifies and
becomes the epiphyseal line, stopping  Apply It 3: If the astronaut experienced a bone
bone lengthening. fracture in space, the repair time might be
longer than on Earth due to lower gravity, which
o Timing: Occurs between 12 and 25 can affect bone density and healing rates.
years of age.
Calcium Homeostasis
 Apply It 2: If cartilage growth did not occur in
long bones during childhood, individuals would  Role of Bone
not grow in height, leading to stunted growth. o Calcium Storage: Bones store and
Bone Remodeling release calcium to maintain blood
calcium levels.
 Purpose
 Hormonal Regulation
o Need for Remodeling: Replaces old
bone with new bone, adapts to stress, o Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
  Direct Effects: Stimulates o Features: Covered with articular
osteoclasts to increase bone cartilage for smooth joint movement.
resorption, raising blood
calcium levels. o Metaphysis

 Kidneys: Increases calcium o Definition: The region between the

reabsorption and activates diaphysis and epiphysis.
calcitriol. o Features: Includes the epiphyseal plate
 Small Intestine: Indirectly (growth plate) in growing bones; in
increases calcium absorption adults, it is known as the epiphyseal
through calcitriol. line.

o Calcitriol o Periosteum

 Source: Active form of vitamin o Definition: A dense, vascular connective

D3. tissue membrane covering the outer
surface of bones.
 Function: Increases calcium
absorption in the intestines and o Features: Provides a surface for muscle
reabsorption in kidneys. and tendon attachment; contains cells
for bone growth and repair.
o Calcitonin
o Endosteum
 Function: Lowers blood calcium
levels by inhibiting osteoclast o Definition: A thin layer of connective
activity. tissue lining the medullary cavity.

 Microbes in Bone Health o Features: Contains osteoblasts and

osteoclasts involved in bone remodeling
o Osteomyelitis: Bacterial infection and repair.
causing bone damage.
o Medullary Cavity
o Treatment: Antibiotics, possible surgery,
or bone grafting. o Definition: The central hollow space
within the diaphysis of long bones.
 Theoretical Approach for Osteomyelitis
o Features: Houses yellow marrow in
o Bone Loss Reduction: Research into adults (fat storage) or red marrow in
treatments that could prevent bone loss children (blood cell production).
while targeting bacteria, such as drugs
that inhibit osteoclast activity or o Articular Cartilage
stimulate osteoblast function. o Definition: Smooth, white tissue that
o Skeletal Anatomy Overview covers the ends of bones in joints.

o A. Major Features of a Typical Bone o Features: Reduces friction and absorbs

shock during movement.
o Diaphysis
o Bone Matrix
o Definition: The central shaft of a long
bone. o Definition: The intercellular substance
of bone tissue.
o Features: Contains the medullary cavity,
which is filled with marrow. o Features: Composed of organic
components (collagen fibers) and
o Epiphysis inorganic salts (calcium phosphate).
o Definition: The rounded end of a long o B. Anatomical Portions of the Skeleton
bone, which articulates with other
bones. o Axial Skeleton
o Components: o Examples: Bones of the skull (e.g.,
frontal, parietal), ribs, sternum.
o Skull: Includes cranial and facial bones.
o Irregular Bones
o Auditory Ossicles: Small bones in the
middle ear (malleus, incus, stapes). o Description: Bones with complex
shapes that do not fit into the other
o Hyoid Bone: A U-shaped bone in the categories.
neck.
o Examples: Vertebrae, some facial bones
o Vertebral Column: Consists of cervical, (e.g., sphenoid, ethmoid).
thoracic, lumbar vertebrae, sacrum, and
coccyx. o Sesamoid Bones
o Thoracic Cage: Composed of ribs and o Description: Small, round bones
sternum. embedded in tendons.
o Appendicular Skeleton o Examples: Patella (kneecap).
o Components: o Bone Count Summary
o Pectoral Girdle: Includes the clavicles o Average Adult Skeleton: 206 bones
(collarbones) and scapulae (shoulder
blades). o Axial Skeleton: 80 bones

o Upper Limbs: Consists of humeri (arms), o Appendicular Skeleton: 126 bones

ulnae, radii (forearms), carpals (wrists), o Note: The actual number of bones can
metacarpals (hands), and phalanges vary among individuals and decrease
(fingers). with age as some bones fuse together.
o Pelvic Girdle: Composed of the hip
bones (coxal bones).
o Lower Limbs: Includes femurs (thighs),
tibiae, fibulae (lower legs), patellae
(kneecaps), tarsals (ankles), metatarsals
(feet), and phalanges (toes).
o C. Bone Shapes
o Long Bones
o Description: Bones that are longer than
they are wide, with a shaft and two
ends.
o Examples: Femur, humerus.
o Short Bones
o Description: Bones roughly cube-
shaped, with length and width
approximately equal.
o Examples: Carpals (wrist bones), tarsals
(ankle bones).
o Flat Bones
o Description: Thin and flat, often with a
slight curve.
 o Examples: Vertebrae, certain facial
bones.
Skeletal Terminology
1. Foramen
o Definition: A hole in a bone.
o Function: Allows passage of nerves or
blood vessels.
o Plural: Foramina.
2. Canal / Meatus
o Definition: An elongated, tunnel-like
passage through a bone.
o Function: Also allows passage of
structures.
Bone Shapes and Skeletal Terminology
3. Fossa
Bone Shapes
o Definition: A depression or hollow in a
1. Long Bones bone.
o Definition: Longer than they are wide. o Function: Often serves as an articulation
o Function: Facilitate movement of surface or muscle attachment area.
appendages. 4. Tubercle
o Examples: Most bones of the upper and o Definition: A small, rounded projection
lower limbs (e.g., femur, humerus). or knob on a bone.
2. Short Bones o Function: Site of muscle attachment.
o Definition: Approximately as wide as 5. Tuberosity
they are long.
o Definition: A larger, roughened
o Function: Aid in transferring force projection on a bone.
between long bones.
o Function: Also serves as a site of muscle
o Examples: Wrist bones (carpals), ankle attachment.
bones (tarsals).
6. Process
3. Flat Bones
o Definition: A sharp projection from a
o Definition: Thin and flattened. bone.
o Function: Provide protection and o Function: Typically a site of muscle or
strength for soft organs. ligament attachment.
o Examples: Skull bones, ribs, scapulae 7. Condyle
(shoulder blades), sternum.
o Definition: A smooth, rounded end of a
4. Irregular Bones bone.
o Definition: Complex shapes that do not o Function: Forms a joint with another
fit into the other categories. bone (often referred to as a "knuckle").
o Function: Specialized functions like Key Points:
protection and flexibility.
  Bone shapes are categorized into four types: o Location: Between the parietal bones
long, short, flat, and irregular, each serving and the occipital bone.
different functions.
4. Squamous Suture
 Skeletal terminology includes specific terms to
describe various features of bones, such as o Location: Between the parietal and
foramina for holes, canals for tunnel-like temporal bones.
passages, and condyles for joint surfaces.  Additional Sutures: All other skull bones are
connected by various sutures named for the
bones they join.
Top of the Skull
 Term: Calvaria (cal-VAY-ree-ah)
 Function: Often removed for interior
examination of the skull.
Facial Bones
 Function: Form the facial structure; contain
cavities for the eyes, nose, and mouth.
 Role: Serve as attachment sites for facial
expression muscles.
Key Points:
Skull Overview
 The skull is made up of 22 bones: 8 cranial
Components of the Skull bones and 14 facial bones.

 Total Bones: 22  The cranial bones protect the brain and have
features for muscle attachment.
o Cranial Bones: 8
 Sutures are immovable joints connecting the
o Facial Bones: 14 skull bones.
Cranial Bones  The calvaria is the upper part of the skull, often
 Function: House and protect the brain. removed for examination.

 Features: The cranial bones have visible ridges  Facial bones form the face and provide cavities
and lines for muscle attachment. and attachment sites for muscles.

 Connection: Connected by immovable joints

called sutures.
Principal Sutures
1. Coronal Suture
o Location: Between the frontal and
parietal bones.
2. Sagittal Suture
o Location: Between the two parietal
bones.
3. Lambdoid Suture
  The frontal bone is prominent in the forehead
region and forms the roof of the eye sockets
and nasal cavity.
 It contains important features such as the
supraorbital foramen, glabella, frontal sinus,
and anterior cranial fossa.
 The coronal suture connects it with the parietal
bones

Cranial Bones Overview

Cranial Bones
 Total: 8
o Frontal Bone: 1
o Parietal Bones: 2
o Temporal Bones: 2
o Occipital Bone: 1
o Sphenoid Bone: 1
o Ethmoid Bone: 1
Frontal Bone
 Location: Forehead region.
 Connections:
o Connected to the parietal bones by the
coronal suture.
 Functions:
o Forms the roof of the eye orbit and the
nasal cavity.
o Contains the supraorbital foramen (or
notch), which allows passage for a
blood vessel and nerve.
o Houses the frontal sinus, part of the
paranasal sinuses.
o Forms the anterior cranial fossa, which
supports the frontal lobes of the brain.
 Additional Features:
o Glabella: Smooth region of bone
between the two orbits.
Key Points:
 2. Tympanic Part:
 Houses the external auditory
canal (external acoustic
meatus), which transmits sound
waves to the eardrum.
 The external ear surrounds this
canal.
3. Petrous Part:
 Extends inward and is a thick,
bony ridge.
Parietal and Temporal Bones  Contains the middle and inner
Parietal Bones ears.

 Location: Form nearly half of the superior  The internal auditory canal is
portion of the skull. located here and serves as the
opening for nerves involved in
 Connections: hearing and balance.
o Joined by the sagittal suture (connects  Externally, features the mastoid
the two parietal bones). process, a prominent bony
projection posterior to the
o Connected to the occipital bone by the
external ear.
lambdoid suture.
 The mastoid process has
o Along with the temporal bones, they mastoid air cells connected to
constitute the majority of the lateral the middle ear, which can be
part of the skull. infected (mastoiditis).
Key Points:  Neck muscles involved in head
 The parietal bones are crucial for forming the rotation attach to the mastoid
top and sides of the skull. process.

 They are linked with important sutures that Key Points:

define the shape of the skull.  Squamous Part: Forms the zygomatic arch and
Temporal Bones mandibular fossa.

 Location: Positioned on the sides of the skull,  Tympanic Part: Contains the external auditory
connecting via the squamous sutures. canal.

 Subdivisions:  Petrous Part: Houses structures related to

hearing and balance and features the mastoid
1. Squamous Part: process with mastoid air cells.
 Meets the parietal bone. These bones play critical roles in the protection and
support of sensory organs (like the ears), and facilitate
 Features the zygomatic process,
muscle attachments that aid in head movement.
extending toward the zygomatic
bone to form the zygomatic
arch (side bridge of the skull).
 Contains the mandibular fossa
(an oval-shaped depression for
the mandible attachment).
 o Foramen Lacerum: Visible in dried
skulls; in life, it is covered by cartilage.
Occipital Bone
 Location: Forms the majority of the posterior
wall and base of the skull.
 Key Features:
o Foramen Magnum: Large opening
where the brainstem connects to the
spinal cord.
o Occipital Condyles: Rounded
projections on either side of the
foramen magnum; articulate with the
first cervical vertebra, allowing nodding
movements.
o Nuchal Lines: Sites for neck muscle
attachments.
Sphenoid Bone
 Appearance: Single bone extending across the
skull, resembling a butterfly.
 Key Features:
o Sella Turcica: Saddle-shaped
Detailed Summary of Skull Anatomy prominence housing and protecting the
pituitary gland.
Styloid Process and Foramina in the Temporal Bone
o Sphenoidal Sinuses: Located within the
 Styloid Process: body of the sphenoid.
o Location: Projects from the lower part o Optic Canals: Passages for the optic
of the petrous portion of the temporal nerves.
bone.
o Foramina:
o Function: Attachment site for three
muscles involved in the movement of  Foramen Rotundum
the tongue, hyoid bone, and pharynx.
 Foramen Ovale
 Stylomastoid Foramen:
 Foramen Spinosum
o Location: Between the styloid and
o Lateral Portions:
mastoid processes.
 Form the floor of the middle
o Function: Passageway for the facial
cranial fossa.
nerve controlling facial muscles.
 Part of the lateral skull wall and
 Additional Foramina:
posterior wall of the orbits.
o Jugular Foramina: Allow the jugular
o Pterygoid Processes: Attachment sites
veins to drain blood from the brain.
for mastication muscles.
o Carotid Canals: Main entry points for
Ethmoid Bone
blood delivery to the brain.
  Location: Central in the skull, contributing to the  Function: Supports speech and swallowing;
nasal septum, nasal cavity, and medial walls of provides attachment for tongue and neck
the orbits. muscles.
 Key Features: Key Points:
o Crista Galli: Prominent ridge for the  Styloid Process: Muscle attachment.
attachment of the brain’s meninges.
 Occipital Condyles: Articulate with cervical
o Cribriform Plates: Located on either vertebra for head nodding.
side of the crista galli, with olfactory
 Sphenoid Bone: Central role in cranial cavity
foramina for the sense of smell.
structure, pituitary gland protection, and facial
o Perpendicular Plate: Forms the superior nerve passage.
part of the nasal septum.
 Ethmoid Bone: Critical for nasal cavity structure
o Conchae: Scroll-shaped projections that and sense of smell.
increase the surface area in the nasal
 Facial Bones: Define facial structure and
cavity.
support sensory organs.
Facial Bones
 Hyoid Bone: Important for tongue and throat
 Overview: Comprise 14 bones, contributing to muscle attachment, unique in its lack of direct
the structure and function of the face. bony connections.

 Bones:
o Zygomatic Bones: Cheekbones; form
part of the orbits and zygomatic arch.
o Maxillae: Upper jawbones; form the
upper jaw, roof of the mouth, and
central face. Contain the palatine
process and incisive foramen.
o Palatine Bones: Form the posterior
portion of the hard palate.
o Lacrimal Bones: Smallest skull bones;
house the nasolacrimal duct.
o Nasal Bones: Form the bridge of the
nose.
Summary of the Vertebral Column
o Mandible: Lower jaw; only movable
skull bone. Features the mandibular Functions of the Vertebral Column
condyle (articulates with the temporal 1. Support: Bears the weight of the head and
bone) and the coronoid process (muscle trunk.
attachment site).
2. Protection: Shields the spinal cord.
o Vomer: Forms most of the posterior
part of the nasal septum. 3. Nerve Passage: Allows spinal nerves to exit the
spinal cord.
o Inferior Nasal Conchae: Increase nasal
cavity surface area. 4. Muscle Attachment: Provides sites for muscle
attachment.
Hyoid Bone
5. Movement: Facilitates movement of the head
 Location: Positioned in the neck; unique for not and trunk.
directly attaching to other bones.
Regions and Number of Vertebrae
 Cervical Vertebrae (C1–C7):
o Number: 7
o Location: Neck region.
 Thoracic Vertebrae (T1–T12):
o Number: 12
o Location: Mid-back region, each
attached to a rib.
 Lumbar Vertebrae (L1–L5):
o Number: 5
o Location: Lower back region.
 Sacral Bone (S):
o Number: 1 (formed by fusion of 5 sacral
vertebrae)
o Location: Pelvic region.
 Coccygeal Bone (CO):
o Number: 1 (formed by fusion of 4 or 5
coccygeal vertebrae)
o Location: Tailbone region.
Memorization Tip
 Mealtimes: Remember the number of vertebrae
in the non-fused regions by recalling common
meal times: 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, and 5 lumbar
vertebrae.
Note: The developing embryo has approximately 33 or
34 vertebrae, but in adulthood, the sacral and coccygeal
vertebrae fuse to form single bones.

Summary of Vertebral Column Curvatures

Major Curvatures o Function: Encloses and protects the
spinal cord.
1. Cervical Curvature:
3. Processes:
o Direction: Anteriorly curved.
o Description: Various projections
o Development: Secondary curve that
extending from the vertebra.
forms as an infant begins to lift its head.
o Function: Serve as attachment points
2. Thoracic Curvature:
for muscles and ligaments, and provide
o Direction: Posteriorly curved. structural support.

o Development: Primary curve present These features collectively support body weight and
from fetal development. safeguard the spinal cord while providing attachment
sites for muscles and ligaments
3. Lumbar Curvature:
o Direction: Anteriorly curved.
o Development: Secondary curve that
forms as the infant learns to sit and
walk.
4. Sacral and Coccygeal Curvature:
o Direction: Posteriorly curved.
o Development: Primary curve present
from fetal development.
Development and Function
 Embryonic Development: The vertebral column
is initially C-shaped in the embryo. General Features of the Vertebrae

 Postnatal Development: Secondary curvatures 1. Vertebral Arch:

(cervical and lumbar) develop to support
o Description: Projects posteriorly from
upright posture and align body weight with the
the vertebral body and, along with the
pelvis and lower limbs.
body, forms a complete bony circle
These curvatures are crucial for maintaining balance and enclosing the vertebral foramen.
proper alignment of the body in an upright position.
o Function: Protects the spinal cord,
which occupies the vertebral foramen.
The combined vertebral foramina of
General Features of the Vertebrae adjacent vertebrae create the vertebral
Each vertebra has several key components: canal housing the spinal cord and cauda
equina.
1. Vertebral Body:
o Components:
o Description: The solid, bony disk of the
vertebra.  Pedicle: The "foot" of the
vertebral arch, attached to the
o Function: Supports the body's weight. body.
2. Vertebral Arch:  Lamina: The thin plate forming
the posterior part of the
o Description: The bony structure that
vertebral foramen.
forms the posterior portion of the
vertebra. 2. Processes:
 o Transverse Processes: Extend laterally
from each side of the arch, located
between the lamina and pedicle.
o Spinous Process: Projects posteriorly at
the junction between the two laminae;
can be felt as a series of rounded
projections down the midline of the
back.
3. Intervertebral Foramina:
o Description: Formed by intervertebral
notches in the pedicles of adjacent
vertebrae.
o Function: Serve as exit points for spinal
nerves from the spinal cord.
4. Articular Processes:
o Superior and Inferior Articular
Processes: Each vertebra has two
superior and two inferior articular
processes. These processes articulate
with each other, increasing the rigidity
and stability of the vertebral column.
o Articular Facets: Smooth surfaces on
the articular processes where adjacent
vertebrae articulate.  Sacrum:

5. Intervertebral Disks: o Median Sacral Crest: Formed by

partially fused spinous processes,
o Function: Separate vertebrae, providing creating a ridge along the sacrum.
cushioning and support between them.
o Sacral Hiatus: An opening at the inferior
Regional Differences in Vertebrae surface of the sacrum; marks the
Each of the five regions of the vertebral column has termination of the vertebral canal and is
uniquely shaped vertebrae suited to their specific commonly used for anesthesia
functions: injections.

 Cervical Vertebrae: Small, with a distinctive o Sacral Promontory: The anterior bulge
transverse foramen for the vertebral arteries. of the first sacral vertebra, used as a
clinical landmark for separating the
 Thoracic Vertebrae: Larger, with facets for rib abdominal and pelvic cavities.
articulation.
 Coccyx (Tailbone):
 Lumbar Vertebrae: Largest, with robust bodies
to support the weight of the torso. o Structure: Terminal portion of the
vertebral column, formed from three to
 Sacral Vertebrae: Fused into one sacral bone, five semi-fused vertebrae.
forming the posterior part of the pelvis.
o Features: Much smaller vertebrae
 Coccygeal Vertebrae: Usually fused into a single without vertebral foramina or well-
coccyx, the tailbone. developed processes.
These regional differences reflect the varied functional
demands placed on different parts of the
 o Projection: In males, it may project  Rib Attachments:
anteriorly; in females, it often projects
o 1st rib and clavicle: Attach to the
more inferiorly.
manubrium.
o Vulnerability: Prone to fractures from
o 2nd rib: Attaches at the sternal angle.
hard falls.
 Thoracic Cage (Rib Cage): o 3rd through 7th ribs: Attach to the body
of the sternum
 Protects the heart and lungs within the thorax.
 Forms a semirigid chamber that can increase
and decrease in volume during respiration.
 Consists of:
o Thoracic vertebrae
o Ribs and associated costal cartilages
o Sternum
 Ribs and Costal Cartilages:
 12 pairs of ribs classified as:  Appendicular Skeleton:
o True Ribs (1-7): Attach directly to the o Allows movement of appendages.
sternum through costal cartilage.
o Supports weight in an upright position.
o False Ribs (8-12): Do not attach directly
to the sternum.  Learning Outcomes:
 Ribs 8-10: Joined by a common o Identify:
cartilage to the costal cartilage
 Bones of the pectoral girdle.
of rib 7, which attaches to the
sternum.  Major bones of the upper limb.
 Floating Ribs (11-12): Do not  Bones of the pelvic girdle.
attach to the sternum at all.
 Bones making up the hip bone.
 Costal Cartilages: Flexible, allowing the thoracic
cage to expand during respiration.  Bones of the lower limb.

 Sternum (Breastbone): o Relate: Structure and arrangement of

pectoral girdle bones to their function.
 Described as sword-shaped with three parts:
o Describe:
o Manubrium: The "sword handle";
articulates with the first rib and clavicle.  Major bones of the upper and
lower limbs.
o Body (Gladiolus): The "sword blade."
 Bones of the pelvic girdle.
o Xiphoid Process: The "sword tip"; no
ribs attach to it. o Explain: Why the pelvic girdle is more
stable than the pectoral girdle.
 Jugular (Suprasternal) Notch: A palpable notch
at the superior margin of the manubrium. o Distinguish: Differences between male
and female pelvises.
 Sternal Angle: The prominence where the
manubrium joins the body of the sternum; the  Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb:
second rib attaches here.
 o Mobility: Allows a wide range of
movements (throwing, lifting, grasping,
pulling, touching).
o Attachment: Upper limb and its girdle
are loosely attached to the body,
enhancing mobility.

 Scapula (Shoulder Blade):

o Acromion Process (Shoulder Tip): Large
structure at the tip of the shoulder.
o Scapular Spine: Extends from the
acromion process across the posterior
surface of the scapula.
o Coracoid Process (Crow’s Beak):
Smaller process providing attachment
for shoulder and arm muscles.
 Pectoral Girdle:
o Glenoid Cavity: Located in the superior
o Composed of:
lateral portion; articulates with the
 Scapula (Shoulder Blade): head of the humerus.

 Flat, triangular bone.  Clavicle (Collarbone):

 Easily seen and felt in a o Structure: Long bone with a slight S-

living person. shaped (sigmoid) curve; easily seen and
felt.
 Clavicle (Collarbone):
o Articulations:
 Connects the scapula to
the sternum.  Lateral End: Articulates with the
acromion process of the
 Provides support and scapula.
attachment for the
upper limb.  Medial End: Articulates with
the manubrium of the sternum.
o Function: Attaches each upper limb to
the body. o Function: The only bony connections
between the pectoral girdle and the
axial skeleton; holds the upper limb
away from the body, facilitating limb
mobility
 o Olecranon Fossa: Large posterior fossa
accommodating a portion of the ulna;
felt as the point of the elbow.
 Forearm (Ulna and Radius):
 Ulna: Medial bone (same side as the little
finger).
 Radius: Lateral bone (same side as the thumb).
 Articulation with Humerus: Both ulna and
radius articulate with the humerus at the elbow
joint.

 Arm (Humerus):
 Structure: Single bone extending from the
shoulder to the elbow.
 Articulation:
o Humeral Head: Articulates with the
glenoid cavity of the scapula.
 Necks:
o Anatomical Neck: Almost nonexistent;
directly below the head.
o Surgical Neck: Common fracture site;
often requires surgical repair.
 Proximal End:
o Greater Tubercle: Lateral site of muscle
attachment.
o Lesser Tubercle: Anterior site of muscle
attachment.
 Diaphysis:
Ulna:
o Deltoid Tuberosity: Lateral landmark;
 Trochlear Notch: C-shaped notch at the
site of attachment for the deltoid
proximal end; articulates with the trochlea of
muscle.
the humerus; rotates when bending the elbow.
 Distal End:
 Coronoid Process: Anterior surface of the
o Capitulum: Lateral articulation with the proximal end; inserts into a fossa of the
radius; head-shaped. humerus when the elbow is bent.

o Trochlea: Medial articulation with the  Olecranon Process: Larger process on the
ulna; spool-shaped. posterior surface of the proximal end; inserts
into the olecranon fossa of the humerus when
o Epicondyles: Medial and lateral the elbow is straightened.
epicondyles are attachment sites for
forearm muscles.  Distal End:
 o Head of the Ulna: Medial side;  Pisiform: Pea-shaped; located
articulates with the radius and wrist on the palmar surface of the
bones. triquetrum.
o Styloid Process: Lateral side; small o Distal Row (Medial to Lateral):
process where wrist ligaments attach.
 Hamate: Hooked process on its
palmar side (hook of the
hamate).
 Capitate: Head-shaped.
 Trapezoid: Resembles a four-
sided geometric form with two
parallel sides.
 Trapezium: Four-sided
geometric form with no two
sides parallel.
 Mnemonic: "Straight Line To Pinky, Here Comes
The Thumb" (Scaphoid, Lunate, Triquetrum,
Pisiform, Hamate, Capitate, Trapezoid,
Trapezium).
 Hand (Metacarpals and Phalanges):
 Metacarpals: Five bones forming the central
portion of the hand; numbered one to five
starting with the thumb; form a curve making
the palm concave; distal ends form the
knuckles.
 Phalanges: Small long bones in each digit.
 Radius:
o Thumb (Pollex): Two phalanges
 Head: Portion of the radius that articulates with (proximal and distal).
the humerus; rotates over the capitulum of the
humerus when bending the elbow. o Fingers: Three phalanges each
(proximal, middle, distal).
 Radial Tuberosity: Located just inferior to the
radial head on the medial side; site of  Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb:
attachment for the biceps brachii muscle. o Function: Supports the body;
essential for standing, walking, and
 Styloid Process: Distal end of the radius; lateral
process serving as an attachment location for running.
wrist ligaments. o Comparison to Upper Limb:
 Attachment: Pelvic girdle is
 Wrist (Carpals): more firmly attached to the
 Composition: Eight carpal bones arranged in body compared to the
two rows of four each. pectoral girdle.
 Bone Characteristics: Bones
o Proximal Row (Lateral to Medial):
in the lower limb are thicker,
 Scaphoid: Boat-shaped. heavier, and longer than
those in the upper limb.
 Lunate: Moon-shaped.
 Triquetrum: Three-cornered.
 o Reflection of Function: Structures  Pelvic Girdle:
are adapted for supporting and
moving the body.  Components:
o Hip Bones (Coxal Bones): Two bones
that form the pelvic girdle.
o Sacrum: Connects posteriorly with
the hip bones.
 Formation: Hip bones join anteriorly and
connect with the sacrum posteriorly,
forming a complete circle of bone.
 Pelvis: Includes the pelvic girdle and the
coccyx; also referred to as the basin.

Hip Bones (Coxal Bones):

 Formation: Each hip bone is a large bony

plate formed from the fusion of three
separate bones:
o Ilium (IL-ee-um; groin)
o Ischium (IS-kee-um; hip)
o Pubis (PYOO-bis; genital hair)
 Acetabulum (as-eh-TAB-you-lum; vinegar
cup): The central socket where the three
bones converge; the lower limbs articulate
with the pelvic girdle at the acetabulum.
 Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb:

 Function: Supports the body; essential for

standing, walking, and running.
 Comparison to Upper Limb:
o Attachment: Pelvic girdle is more
firmly attached to the body than the
pectoral girdle.
o Bone Characteristics: Thicker,
heavier, and longer bones compared
to the upper limb.
 Adaptation: Designed to support and move
the body.
 Hip Bone Formation:  Location: Forms the anterior portion of the
pelvic girdle.
 Fusion: Each hip bone is formed by the  Pubic Symphysis: Joins the two pubic bones
fusion of the ilium, ischium, and pubis. with a thick pad of fibrocartilage.
 Acetabulum: The three bones join near the  Obturator Foramen: Surrounded by the
center of the acetabulum, separated by pubis and ischium; closed by a ligament in
lines of cartilage. living persons with only a few nerves and
 Articular Surface: Crescent-shaped, blood vessels passing through.
occupying the superior and lateral aspects
of the fossa.  Pelvis Subdivisions:

 Pelvic Girdle Functions:  True Pelvis: Opening is the pelvic inlet;

inferior opening is the pelvic outlet.
 Support: Provides attachment for the lower
limbs, supports body weight, and protects
internal organs.
 Stability vs. Mobility: Complete bony ring
offers more stable support but less mobility
compared to the pectoral girdle.
 Female Pelvis: Protects the developing
fetus and forms a passageway for childbirth.

 Ilium:

 Largest Hip Bone: Forms the largest of the

three hip bones.
 Iliac Crest: Superior border; ends anteriorly
as the anterior superior iliac spine and
posteriorly as the posterior superior iliac
spine.
 Greater Sciatic Notch: Located on the  Male Pelvis:
posterior side, inferior to the posterior
inferior iliac spine; sciatic nerve passes  Pelvic Inlet and Outlet: Smaller in size.
through.  Subpubic Angle: Less than 90 degrees.
 Auricular Surface: Joins with the sacrum to  Pelvis Structure: Usually more massive due
form the sacroiliac joint. to greater weight and size of the male body.
 Iliac Fossa: Large depression on the medial
side.  Female Pelvis:

 Ischium:  Pelvic Inlet and Outlet: Larger in size.

 Subpubic Angle: 90 degrees or greater.
 Position: More posterior than the pubis.  Pelvis Structure: Broader with a larger,
 Ischial Tuberosity: Thick structure where more rounded pelvic inlet and outlet,
posterior thigh muscles attach; also the facilitating childbirth.
sitting area.  Pelvic Inlet and Outlet: Wide, circular pelvic
 Ischial Spine: Posterior spine, a site of inlet and a pelvic outlet with widely spaced
ligament attachment. ischial spines aid in the delivery of the
newborn.
 Pubis:
 Comparison:

 Male vs. Female Pelvis: Female pelvis is

adapted for childbirth with larger openings
and broader structure compared to the
male pelvis.

 Knee Joint:
o Femur and Tibia: The femur articulates
with the tibia to form the knee.
Thigh: Femur o Projections: Two smooth, rounded
projections on the femur rotate on the
 Single Bone: The femur is the sole bone in superior surface of the tibia when the
the thigh. knee bends.
 Head and Neck: The femur has a
 Patella:
prominent, rounded head that articulates
with the acetabulum and a well-defined o Description: Large sesamoid bone
neck; both are angled obliquely to the shaft. located within the tendon of the
 Proximal Shaft Projections: quadriceps femoris muscle group.
o Greater Trochanter: Lateral to the
o Articulation: The patella articulates with
neck, visible as the widest part of the patellar groove of the femur,
the hips; serves as an attachment creating a smooth articular surface over
site for muscles. the anterior distal end of the femur.
o Lesser Trochanter: Inferior and
o Function: Holds the tendon away from
posterior to the neck; also serves as
the distal end of the femur.
an attachment site for muscles.
 Function of Trochanters: Both the greater  Leg (Between Knee and Ankle):
and lesser trochanters are key sites for
o Bones:
muscle attachment, connecting the hip to
the thigh.  Tibia: The medial bone, also
known as the shinbone, is the
larger and major weight-bearing
bone of the leg.
 Fibula: The lateral, smaller
bone.
 Tibia and Femur Articulation:
 Condyles: The rounded condyles of the femur
rest on the flat condyles of the proximal end of
the tibia.
 Tibial Tuberosity: Located just distal to the
condyles on the anterior surface of the tibia. It
is the point of attachment for the quadriceps
femoris muscle group.
 Fibula: Does not articulate with the femur but
its head articulates with the proximal end of the  Foot Arches:
tibia.
 Medial Longitudinal Arch: Formed by the
 Ankle: calcaneus, talus, navicular, medial cuneiform,
 Structure: Consists of the distal ends of the tibia intermediate cuneiform, lateral cuneiform, and
and fibula forming a partial socket that three medial metatarsal bones.
articulates with the talus bone of the foot.  Lateral Longitudinal Arch: Formed by the
 Prominences: calcaneus, cuboid, and two lateral metatarsal
bones.
o Medial Malleolus: Prominence on the
distal end of the tibia.  Transverse Arch: Formed by the cuboid and the
three cuneiforms.
o Lateral Malleolus: Prominence on the
distal end of the fibula  Tarsal Bones:
 Talus: Ankle bone that articulates with the tibia
and fibula.
 Calcaneus: Heel bone, the largest of the tarsals.
 Navicular: Located in front of the talus.
  Cuneiforms: Medial, intermediate, and lateral, o Amphiarthroses: Slightly movable
positioned between the navicular and the joints.
metatarsals.
o Diarthroses: Freely movable joints.
 Cuboid: Positioned on the lateral side of the
foot.  Fibrous Joints:

 Mnemonic: "Tiger Cub Needs MILC" for Talus,  Structure: Articulating surfaces of bones united
Calcaneus, Navicular, Medial cuneiform, by fibrous connective tissue, no joint cavity,
Intermediate cuneiform, Lateral cuneiform, and minimal movement.
Cuboid.  Types:
 Metatarsals and Phalanges: o Sutures:
 Metatarsals: Five bones that form the central  Found between skull bones.
part of the foot, numbered 1 to 5 from the
medial side.  In newborns, some sutures are
wider, known as fontanels (soft
 Phalanges: Small long bones in the toes; the spots), which allow skull
great toe (hallux) has two phalanges (proximal flexibility during birth and
and distal), while each of the other toes has growth after birth.
three (proximal, middle, and distal).
o Syndesmoses:
 Function of Arches:
 Bones connected by a ligament
 Support: Maintains stability of the body in an or interosseous membrane.
upright position and during forward movement
in walking.  Example: The distal tibiofibular
joint.
 Shock Absorption: Helps in pushing the body
forward and absorbs impact when the foot o Gomphoses:
contacts the ground.
 Peg-and-socket joints where
 Mechanism: Arches act like springs, allowing teeth are anchored in their
the foot to compress and then rebound. sockets.
 Example: The joint between a
tooth and its socket in the jaw.
 Classification Systems:
 Cartilaginous Joints:
 Structural Classification: Based on the
connective tissue type binding the bones and  Structure: Bones connected by cartilage, no
the presence of a fluid-filled joint capsule. joint cavity, limited movement.

o Fibrous Joints: Connected by fibrous  Types:

connective tissue, no joint cavity,
o Synchondroses:
minimal movement.
 Connected by hyaline cartilage.
o Cartilaginous Joints: Connected by
cartilage, no joint cavity, limited  Example: The epiphyseal plates
movement. in growing bones.
o Synovial Joints: Contain a fluid-filled o Symphyses:
joint capsule, allow significant
movement.  Connected by fibrocartilage.

 Functional Classification: Based on the degree  Example: The pubic symphysis

of movement. and intervertebral discs.

o Synarthroses: Immovable joints.  Synovial Joints:

  Structure:  Inversion and Eversion: Movements of the foot;
inversion turns the sole inward, eversion turns
o Articular Cartilage: Covers bone the sole outward.
surfaces to reduce friction.
o Joint Capsule: Encloses the joint, lined
by synovial membrane.
o Synovial Fluid: Lubricates the joint.
o Ligaments: Reinforce and stabilize the
joint.
 Types Based on Bone Shape:
o Hinge Joints: Allow movement in one
plane (e.g., elbow).
o Ball-and-Socket Joints: Allow
movement in multiple planes (e.g.,
shoulder, hip).
o Pivot Joints: Allow rotational movement
(e.g., atlantoaxial joint).
o Saddle Joints: Allow movement in two
planes (e.g., thumb).
o Condyloid Joints: Allow movement in
two planes but not rotation (e.g., wrist).
o Plane Joints: Allow sliding or gliding
movements (e.g., intercarpal joints).
 Movements:
 Flexion and Extension: Decrease or increase the
angle between body parts.
 Plantar Flexion and Dorsiflexion: Movements of
the foot; plantar flexion points toes down,
dorsiflexion points toes up.
 Abduction and Adduction: Movement away
from or toward the body’s midline.
Joints Overview:
 Supination and Pronation: Rotation of the
 Fibrous Joints:
forearm; supination turns the palm up,
pronation turns the palm down. o Syndesmoses:
 Elevation and Depression: Raising or lowering  Bones are separated by some
body parts. distance and held together by
ligaments.
 Protraction and Retraction: Moving body parts
forward or backward.  Example: The fibrous
membrane connecting the
 Opposition and Reposition: Thumb movement;
distal parts of the radius and
opposition brings the thumb to touch fingers,
ulna.
reposition returns it to the anatomical position.
o Gomphoses:
  Pegs fitted into sockets and held  Synovial Membrane: Inner layer lining the joint cavity,
in place by ligaments. producing synovial fluid, a viscous lubricating substance.
 Example: The joint between a  Bursae: Fluid-filled sacs extending from the synovial
tooth and its socket. membrane; cushion structures like tendons. Bursitis is
 Cartilaginous Joints: inflammation of a bursa, causing pain and restricting
o Structure: movement.
 Two bones held together by  Nourishment: Articular cartilage receives nutrients
cartilage, with little or no through diffusion from surrounding blood vessels, not
movement. directly from blood vessels within the cartilage.
o Types:  Types of Synovial Joints:
 Synchondroses: o Plane Joints:
 Contain hyaline  Allow gliding or sliding
cartilage. movements.
 Example: The  Example: Intercarpal joints.
epiphyseal plates in o Saddle Joints:
growing bones.  Allow movement in two planes.
 Symphyses:  Example: Thumb joint.
 Contain fibrocartilage. o Hinge Joints:
 Example: The pubic  Allow movement in one plane
symphysis and (uniaxial).
intervertebral discs.  Example: Elbow joint.
 Synovial Joints: o Pivot Joints:
 Allow rotational movement
o Structure:
(uniaxial).
 Contain synovial fluid and allow  Example: Atlantoaxial joint.
considerable movement. o Ball-and-Socket Joints:
 Allow movement in multiple
 More complex than fibrous and planes (multiaxial).
cartilaginous joints.  Example: Shoulder and hip
 Most joints in the appendicular joints.
skeleton are synovial, offering o Ellipsoid Joints:
greater mobility.  Allow movement in two planes
but no rotation.
o Components:  Example: Wrist joint.
 Movements at Synovial Joints:
 Articular Cartilage: Covers bone
o Uniaxial: Movement around one axis.
surfaces with a smooth layer of
o Biaxial: Movement around two axes at
hyaline cartilage to reduce
right angles.
friction.
o Multiaxial: Movement around multiple
 Meniscus: A flat pad of axes.
fibrocartilage in some joints
(e.g., knee, wrist) that improves
stability and reduces wear.
 Joint Cavity: The space around
the bones, filled with synovial
fluid, surrounded by a joint
capsule.
 Joint Capsule:
 Fibrous Capsule: Outer layer made of dense irregular
connective tissue, continuous with periosteum; may
thicken into ligaments.
Synovial Joints and Movements:  Structure: Articular surfaces are
 Types of Synovial Joints: ellipsoid rather than spherical.
o Plane Joints (Gliding Joints):  Movement: Biaxial, allowing
 Structure: Two flat bone movement in two axes but
surfaces of approximately equal restricting rotation.
size, allowing slight gliding  Example: Atlantooccipital joint
movements. of the neck.
 Movement: Uniaxial with some  Types of Movement:
rotation possible but restricted o Flexion and Extension:
by ligaments and adjacent  Flexion: Bending movement
bone. that decreases the angle of a
 Example: Articular processes joint.
between vertebrae.  Extension: Straightening
o Saddle Joints: movement that increases the
 Structure: Two saddle-shaped angle of a joint.
articulating surfaces oriented at  Hyperextension: Extension
right angles to each other, beyond 180 degrees; can be
fitting together. normal (e.g., looking up) or
 Movement: Biaxial, allowing cause injury (e.g., wrist sprain).
movement in two planes. o Plantar Flexion and Dorsiflexion:
 Example: Carpometacarpal joint  Plantar Flexion: Movement of
of the thumb. the foot towards the plantar
o Hinge Joints: surface (standing on toes).
 Structure: A convex cylinder in  Dorsiflexion: Movement of the
one bone fits into a foot towards the shin (walking
corresponding concavity in the on heels).
other bone. o Abduction and Adduction:
 Movement: Uniaxial, permitting  Abduction: Movement away
movement primarily in one from the median plane.
plane.  Adduction: Movement toward
 Examples: Elbow and knee the median plane.
joints.  Example: Moving legs apart in
o Pivot Joints: "jumping jacks" (abduction) and
 Structure: A cylindrical bony bringing them together
process rotates within a ring of (adduction).
bone and ligament. o Pronation and Supination:
 Movement: Uniaxial, allowing  Pronation: Rotation of the
rotation around a single axis. forearm so the palm faces
 Examples: Articulation between down.
the head of the radius and the  Supination: Rotation of the
proximal end of the ulna; forearm so the palm faces up.
articulation between the dens o Inversion and Eversion:
of the axis and the atlas.  Inversion: Turning the foot so
o Ball-and-Socket Joints: the plantar surface faces
 Structure: A ball (head) at the medially.
end of one bone fits into a  Eversion: Turning the foot so
socket in an adjacent bone. the plantar surface faces
 Movement: Multiaxial, allowing laterally.
movement in almost any o Rotation:
direction.  Structure: Turning around the
 Examples: Shoulder and hip long axis.
joints.
o Ellipsoid Joints (Condyloid Joints):
  Example: Shaking the head
“no” or rotating the arm with
the elbow flexed.
 Medial Rotation: Brings the
forearm against the abdomen.
 Lateral Rotation: Moves the
forearm away from the body.
o Circumduction:
 Movement: Tracing a cone with
the shoulder joint at the apex.
 Example: Arm movement in a
circular pattern.
o Protraction and Retraction:
 Protraction: Anterior
movement of a structure (e.g.,
mandible).
 Retraction: Posterior movement
of a structure.
o Elevation and Depression:
 Elevation: Superior movement
of a structure (e.g., closing the
mouth).
 Depression: Inferior movement
of a structure (e.g., opening the
mouth).
o Excursion: Age-Related Changes in the Skeletal System:

 Movement: Lateral movement  Bone Matrix Changes:

of a structure (e.g., side-to-side
o Brittleness: As people age, the bone
movement of the mandible).
matrix becomes more brittle due to
o Opposition and Reposition: decreased collagen production. This
results in relatively more mineral
 Opposition: Bringing the tips of content and fewer collagen fibers.
the thumb and little finger
together. o Matrix Decrease: The overall amount of
bone matrix decreases because
 Reposition: Returning the digits osteoblast activity (matrix formation)
to the anatomical position. slows down while osteoclast activity
 Joint Injuries: (matrix breakdown) continues at a
higher rate.
o Sprain: Stretching or tearing of
ligaments.  Bone Loss and Fracture Risk:

o Separation: Bones remain apart after o Increased Fracture Risk: Significant loss
injury. of bone mass increases the likelihood of
fractures. For example, loss of
o Dislocation: End of a bone pulled out of trabecular bone can greatly increase the
its socket; often involves stretching of risk of vertebral fractures.
the joint capsule and may predispose to
future dislocations. o Consequences: Bone loss and fractures
can lead to deformity, reduced height,
pain, and stiffness. Additionally, loss of
bone in the jaws can result in tooth loss.
 Joint Changes:
o Cartilage Wear: The cartilage covering
articular surfaces can wear down with
use, and the rate of cartilage
replacement decreases with age.
o Arthritis: Many elderly individuals
experience arthritis, which is an
inflammatory degeneration of the
joints.
o Ligament and Tendon Changes:
Ligaments and tendons around the
joints may shorten and become less
flexible, impacting joint function and
mobility.
Muscular system
Functions of the Muscular System:

1. Movement of the Body:

o Skeletal muscle contractions enable
overall body movements such as
walking, running, and manipulating
objects.
2. Maintenance of Posture:
o Skeletal muscles continuously
maintain tone to keep the body
upright, whether sitting or standing.
3. Respiration:
o Skeletal muscles of the thoracic cage
and the diaphragm assist in
breathing.
4. Production of Body Heat:
o Muscle contractions generate heat as
a byproduct, which is essential for
maintaining body temperature.
5. Communication:
o Skeletal muscles are involved in
communication activities, including
speaking, writing, typing, gesturing,
and facial expressions.
6. Constriction of Organs and Vessels:
o Smooth muscle contractions in
internal organs and blood vessels
help in propelling and mixing food in
the digestive tract, moving
secretions, and regulating blood
flow.
7. Contraction of the Heart:
o Cardiac muscle contractions drive
the heart to pump blood throughout
the body.