Intelligence

Tuesday, February 25, 2025 5:18 PM

Two Ways to Study Intelligence

Psychologists study intelligence in two main ways:
1. Idiographic (Individual-focused) Approach
○ Focuses on studying one person’s intelligence.
○ Uses reliable and advanced tests to measure an individual's mental abilities.
○ Helps understand how intelligence works in a single person.
2. Nomothetic (Comparison-focused) Approach
○ Compares intelligence levels between different people.
○ Finds common patterns and general principles about intelligence.
○ Helps explain and predict behavior based on intelligence levels.
This way, psychologists can both understand intelligence in individuals and create general theories
about how intelligence works in society.

Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence

The debate on whether intelligence is inherited (genetic) or shaped by the environment has been
ongoing. Most researchers now believe both factors interact to determine intelligence.
1. Role of Genetics (Heredity) in Intelligence
• Intelligence is partly influenced by genes, but scientists do not know exactly how many genes are
involved.
• Studying genetics in humans is difficult, so researchers compare IQ scores of people with different
genetic relationships.
Key Studies Supporting Genetic Influence:
• Twin Studies:
○ Identical twins (Mz) share 100% genes, and their IQs are more similar than fraternal twins (Dz),
who share only 50% genes.
○ Studies across many countries (Britain, USA, France, Germany, etc.) show a strong genetic
influence on IQ.
• Separated Twins Studies:
○ Even when identical twins were raised in different environments, their IQs still showed a high
correlation (0.67–0.78), proving the role of genetics.
• Adoption Studies:
○ Adopted children tend to have IQs closer to their biological parents than their adoptive
parents, proving genetics matter.
○ However, some studies show that if adoptive parents have high IQs, the adopted child’s IQ can
improve, supporting the role of environment.
2. Role of Environment (Nurture) in Intelligence
• The environment affects how much of genetic potential is achieved.
• Factors that improve IQ:
○ Good nutrition
○ Supportive family background
High-quality education
New Section 1 Page 1
 ○ High-quality education
○ Encouraging and stimulating upbringing
• Studies on Extreme Environments:
○ Children raised in poor conditions tend to have lower IQs.
○ Children raised in enriched environments with better education and care tend to have higher
IQs.
3. Conclusion: Intelligence is a Mix of Genetics & Environment
• Genetics sets the range of IQ a person can achieve.
• Environment determines how much of that potential is actually reached.
• Systematic learning and good social experiences can significantly improve intelligence .

Important Environmental Factors Affecting Intelligence

Intelligence is influenced not only by genetics but also by various environmental factors. Some of
the key environmental factors that affect intelligence are:
1. Gender Differences
• Early studies found no major IQ differences between boys and girls.
• Recent studies show:
○ Girls perform better in verbal skills, reasoning, word fluency, and comprehension.
○ Boys perform better in mathematical and spatial tasks (e.g., understanding how machines
work).
• Conclusion: Both genders have strengths in different areas, so there is no overall difference in
intelligence.
2. Health
• Good health supports intelligence, but it does not change IQ levels.
• Severe health issues can affect intelligence, for example:
○ Thyroid hormone deficiency (TSH) in babies can lead to low intelligence (cretinism).
○ Premature birth may slightly affect IQ due to emotional and developmental challenges.
• Conclusion: Proper nutrition and medical care help individuals reach their full intellectual
potential.
3. Family Structure and Size
• Smaller families provide better resources for children, improving IQ.
• Larger families, especially in low-income groups, may have fewer educational and financial
resources, affecting IQ development.
• Birth order effect:
○ Middle-born children tend to be more competitive, which can increase intelligence.
• Gender differences in upbringing can also influence intelligence development.
4. Effects of Training
• Special training can increase intelligence, especially in young children.
• Studies show that children who receive structured learning programs improve their language,
memory, and problem-solving skills.
• Conclusion: Education and training play a major role in intelligence development.
5. Cultural Factors
• Different cultures value different skills, which affects what is considered "intelligent behavior."
New Section 1 Page 2
• Different cultures value different skills, which affects what is considered "intelligent behavior."
○ Example: Farming skills may be valued in one culture, while legal or academic skills may be
valued in another.
• Past studies claimed racial IQ differences, but modern research proves that cultural and
environmental factors (not race) affect intelligence.
• Conclusion: Intelligence is shaped by education, social norms, and cultural values, not just
genetics.
Final Conclusion
• Intelligence is influenced by both genetics and the environment.
• Good health, a supportive family, education, and cultural values help individuals reach their full
intellectual potential.
• Training and learning opportunities can improve intelligence at any stage of life.

Wechsler does hold global view of intelligence. He defines intelligence in the following terms.

Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of an individual to act purposefully, to think rationally,
and to deal effectively with his environment.

Nature and Meaning of Intelligence

Meaning of Intelligence
• Intelligence is a commonly used term in daily life to describe people's ability to think, learn, and
solve problems.
• We often classify people as intelligent or dull based on their ability to perform different tasks.
• An intelligent person is expected to:
○ Learn difficult tasks quickly.
○ Adjust to new situations easily.
○ Solve complex problems effectively.
○ Observe differences and similarities between things.
○ Think abstractly.
• However, intelligence is more than just these activities; they are only signs of intelligence, not its
full definition.
Nature of Intelligence
1. A Key Human Ability
○ Intelligence is a mental faculty that distinguishes humans from animals.
○ It helps people adapt, learn from experiences, and solve problems.
○ However, individuals differ in their level of intelligence.
2. General and Universal
○ Intelligence is not limited to a specific activity or subject.
○ It is used in schoolwork, decision-making, problem-solving, social interactions, and daily tasks.
3. Multidimensional
○ Earlier, intelligence was seen as only cognitive (thinking-based).
Modern research shows intelligence has many dimensions, including:
New Section 1 Page 3
 ○ Modern research shows intelligence has many dimensions, including:
▪ Cognitive (thinking and reasoning).
▪ Affective (emotional intelligence).
▪ Social (interpersonal skills).
○ Different cultures emphasize different aspects of intelligence.
4. A Central Topic in Psychology
○ Intelligence is a major area of research, especially in child psychology and educational
psychology.
○ Psychologists study how intelligence develops and varies among individuals.
Conclusion
Intelligence is a global capacity that helps people understand, learn, adapt, and solve problems in
different areas of life. It is not just one ability but a combination of many skills, making it a complex
and essential trait of human beings.

Two-Factor Theory of Intelligence (Charles Spearman)

Overview:
• Proposed in 1927, Spearman’s theory explains intelligence using two key components: the general
factor (g) and the specific factor (s).

1. General Factor (g):

• Definition:
○ Represents a common mental ability or "mental energy" shared by all cognitive tasks.
• Key Idea:
○ A high score in one area (like memory or reasoning) is often linked to high scores in other areas
because all tests tap into this general ability.

2. Specific Factor (s):

• Definition:
○ Refers to the unique abilities required for particular tasks or tests (e.g., musical talent,
arithmetic skills, spatial ability).
• Key Idea:
○ Even if everyone has a similar level of general intelligence, differences in specific skills cause
variations in performance across different types of tasks.

3. How g and s Work Together:

• Test Scores:
○ An individual’s performance on any intelligence test reflects both the general factor (g) and the
specific factor (s) for that test.
• Individual Differences:
○ Spearman believed that while most people have similar levels of general intelligence (g), the
differences in intelligence between individuals are largely due to variations in the specific
abilities (s).
New Section 1 Page 4
 abilities (s).

4. Criticisms and Contributions:

• Criticisms:
○ Some researchers argue that:
▪ The correlations between different tests are not perfect.
▪ The general factor (g) may not capture every aspect of intelligence.
▪ Intelligence might involve more than just two factors (multifactorial approach).
• Contributions:
○ Spearman’s use of factor analysis to identify and measure g and s has been a major and lasting
contribution to the field of psychological testing.

Exam Tip:
• Remember that g is the overall mental ability affecting all tasks, while s represents the unique
skills for specific tasks. Together, they explain why a person might excel in some areas but not in
others.

Louis Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities (PMA) Theory

Louis Thurstone (1935) disagreed with Spearman’s idea of a single ‘g-factor’ and proposed that
intelligence is made up of multiple independent abilities instead of just one general ability.
Thurstone’s 9 Primary Mental Abilities
He identified 9 key mental abilities, which he called Primary Mental Abilities (PMA):
1. Spatial Relations (S) – Understanding shapes and space.
2. Perceptual Speed (P) – Quickly noticing small details and differences.
3. Numerical Ability (N) – Solving math problems easily.
4. Verbal Comprehension (V) – Understanding words and language.
5. Memory (M) – Remembering information.
6. Word Fluency (W) – Quickly finding and using the right words.
7. Inductive Reasoning (I) – Finding patterns and making general rules.
8. Deductive Reasoning (D) – Applying rules to solve problems.
9. General Reasoning (R) – Logical thinking and problem-solving.
Revision of the Theory (1943)
• Thurstone removed two abilities: Inductive Reasoning (I) and Deductive Reasoning (D).
• His final theory included 7 key abilities: S, P, N, V, M, W, and R.
Measurement of Intelligence
• Thurstone created a Test of Primary Mental Abilities (PMA) to measure these factors.
• This test is still used today.
Criticism of Thurstone’s Theory
1. Abilities are not truly independent
○ Some abilities are highly related to each other.
○ This means there may still be a general intelligence factor (g), as Spearman suggested.
2. Less Predictive Power
Thurstone’s test is not better at predicting success than traditional intelligence tests (like
New Section 1 Page 5
 ○ Thurstone’s test is not better at predicting success than traditional intelligence tests (like
Wechsler’s IQ test).
3. Different Studies Found More Factors
○ Other psychologists, like Guilford (1967), found up to 120 different mental abilities.
○ This suggests that intelligence might be even more complex than Thurstone believed.
4. Garrett’s View on the ‘g’ Factor
○ Garrett (1946) found that the g-factor is stronger in young children but decreases with age.
○ This raised doubts about how important ‘g’ really is.
Conclusion
• Thurstone challenged Spearman by showing that intelligence has multiple abilities, not just one
general factor.
• However, some of his abilities are still related, which partly supports Spearman’s g-factor.
• His theory helped develop modern intelligence tests that measure multiple skills separately.
This is an important theory because it shaped modern views on intelligence and influenced later
theories like Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences and Guilford’s Structure of Intellect Mode

J.P. Guilford’s Structure of Intellect (SOI) Theory

J.P. Guilford (1961) proposed a three-dimensional model of intelligence called the Structure of
Intellect (SOI) Model. Unlike Spearman’s g-factor and Thurstone’s Primary Abilities, Guilford
believed that intelligence is made up of multiple abilities classified into three dimensions:
1. Content – The type of information used.
2. Operation – The mental process applied.
3. Product – The outcome of the thinking process.
When combined, these dimensions produce 120 different intellectual abilities (4 × 5 × 6 = 120).

1. Content (What We Think About)

Content refers to the type of information being processed. Guilford identified 4 types of content:
• (a) Figural – Thinking about physical objects.
• (b) Symbolic – Understanding numbers, letters, or symbols (e.g., math equations).
• (c) Semantic – Understanding words and their meanings.
• (d) Behavioral – Understanding people and social situations.

2. Operations (How We Process Information)

Operations refer to the mental activities we perform to process information. There are 5
operations:
• (a) Cognition – Understanding and recognizing information.
• (b) Memory – Remembering past information.
• (c) Convergent Thinking – Finding the single best solution to a problem.
• (d) Divergent Thinking – Thinking of multiple possible solutions (creativity).
• (e) Evaluation – Making judgments and deciding what is right or wrong.

New Section 1 Page 6

3. Products (The Result of Thinking)
Products are the different forms in which information can be processed. There are 6 types:
• (a) Units – Single pieces of information (e.g., a word, a number).
• (b) Classes – Grouping information based on similarities.
• (c) Relations – Understanding the relationship between things.
• (d) Systems – Understanding complex structures with many parts.
• (e) Transformation – Changing one type of information into another.
• (f) Implication – Predicting future possibilities based on existing knowledge.

Example to Understand SOI Model

1. Memory Test Example
○ A person is asked to memorize 100 words and recall them later.
○ Content → Semantic (words have meaning).
○ Operation → Memory (remembering past information).
○ Product → Units (each word recalled is a unit).
2. Anagram Test Example
○ Rearranging letters to form words (e.g., ANELR → LEARN).
○ Content → Symbolic (letters are symbols).
○ Operation → Cognition (understanding the pattern).
○ Product → Units (final words formed).

Criticism of Guilford’s Theory

1. Too Many Factors
○ Guilford’s model includes 120 abilities, making intelligence testing too complex and
impractical.
2. Divergent Thinking vs. IQ
○ Research shows that highly creative people often have high IQs, but not all high-IQ people are
creative.
3. Factor Analysis Limitations
○ The number of abilities found depends on the test items used. Some argue fewer factors (like
Thurstone’s model) are enough to measure intelligence.
4. General Intelligence (‘g’) Still Matters
○ Research supports Spearman’s g-factor, showing that a general intelligence factor does exist,
making Guilford’s large number of abilities unnecessary.

Conclusion
• Guilford’s SOI Model expanded the definition of intelligence beyond general IQ, highlighting
creativity, memory, reasoning, and social intelligence.
• However, its complexity and impracticality led to criticism, and many psychologists still support
Spearman’s g-factor.
• Despite its flaws, Guilford’s theory influenced modern intelligence research, especially in
creativity and problem-solving studies.
New Section 1 Page 7
 creativity and problem-solving studies.

Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences (1983)

Gardner proposed that intelligence is not a single ability but consists of multiple types of
intelligence, each working independently.
Key Principles of the Theory:
1. Multiple intelligences exist – People have different kinds of intelligence, not just one.
2. Intelligences are independent – Being strong in one area does not mean you will be strong in
others.
3. Intelligences can interact – Different types of intelligence work together to solve problems.
Gardner's 8 Types of Intelligence:
1. Linguistic Intelligence – Good with words, reading, writing, and speaking. (e.g., poets, writers)
2. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence – Strong in reasoning, numbers, and problem-solving. (e.g.,
scientists, mathematicians)
3. Spatial Intelligence – Good at visualizing and navigating spaces. (e.g., pilots, artists, architects)
4. Musical Intelligence – Sensitive to sound, pitch, rhythm, and melody. (e.g., musicians, composers)
5. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence – Excellent body control, movement, and coordination. (e.g.,
athletes, dancers, surgeons)
6. Interpersonal Intelligence – Strong ability to understand and interact with others. (e.g., teachers,
politicians, salespeople)
7. Intrapersonal Intelligence – Good self-awareness, understanding emotions and identity. (e.g.,
philosophers, self-motivated individuals)
8. Naturalistic Intelligence – Ability to recognize and categorize nature (plants, animals,
environment). (e.g., biologists, farmers, nature lovers)
Why is This Important?
• Every person has a mix of these intelligences.
• The environment plays a role in developing a particular intelligence.
• Brain injuries may affect only certain types of intelligence, showing that they work separately.
Criticism of the Theory:
• Some psychologists doubt interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic intelligence, arguing they
are personality traits rather than intelligence.
• The theory is more practical than traditional IQ tests, but it lacks strong scientific proof.
Conclusion:
Gardner’s theory helps us understand that intelligence is not just about IQ but about how we use
our abilities in real life. It highlights both cognitive intelligence (thinking skills) and functional
intelligence (practical use of abilities).

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (1985)

Robert J. Sternberg proposed the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence, which focuses on how people
process information to solve problems. The theory has three parts:
1. Componential Intelligence (Analytical Intelligence) – "Book Smart"
New Section 1 Page 8
1. Componential Intelligence (Analytical Intelligence) – "Book Smart"
○ This refers to mental processes used in solving problems.
○ It includes three components:
▪ Meta-components – Planning and decision-making (e.g., making strategies for exams).
▪ Performance components – Actually solving problems (e.g., answering a math question).
▪ Knowledge acquisition components – Learning new information (e.g., understanding a new
language).
○ Example: A student who scores well in exams by studying and analyzing information.
2. Experiential Intelligence (Creative Intelligence) – "Think Outside the Box"
○ This refers to how well a person uses past experiences to deal with new situations.
○ Two key aspects:
▪ Creativity – Ability to think in new and unique ways (e.g., an artist creating a new painting
style).
▪ Automation – Doing things without much thought due to practice (e.g., driving a car
smoothly after years of practice).
○ Example: A musician who improvises new tunes while playing an instrument.
3. Contextual Intelligence (Practical Intelligence) – "Street Smart"
○ This is the ability to adapt, shape, and select the environment for success.
○ It involves real-world problem-solving and common sense.
○ Example: A businessperson who makes smart investments and grows a successful company.
Why Is This Theory Important?
• It shows that intelligence is not just about IQ but also about creativity and practical skills.
• Schools focus mostly on Componential intelligence, but real life requires all three types.
• Example: A great scientist (Componential) may not be socially smart (Contextual), and a creative
artist (Experiential) may not be good at exams.
Conclusion:
Sternberg’s theory helps us understand that intelligence is more than just academic performance.
Success in life depends on analyzing problems (Componential), thinking creatively (Experiential),
and making smart life choices (Contextual).

Cattell's Theory of Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence

Raymond Cattell (1963) proposed that intelligence has two main types:
1. Fluid Intelligence (Gf)
• Definition: The ability to think and reason quickly, solve new problems, and process information
efficiently.
• Characteristics:
○ Inherited brain capacity (like a computer's processing speed).
○ Used for logical reasoning, pattern recognition, and problem-solving.
○ Example: Solving a puzzle, analyzing new data, or understanding abstract concepts.
• Age Effect: Declines with age because brain processing slows down.
2. Crystallized Intelligence (Gc)
• Definition: Knowledge gained from experience, education, and cultural exposure over a lifetime.
New Section 1 Page 9
• Definition: Knowledge gained from experience, education, and cultural exposure over a lifetime.
• Characteristics:
○ Based on learning and memory.
○ Used for applying past knowledge to solve familiar problems.
○ Example: Vocabulary, historical facts, and practical skills like cooking or playing chess.
• Age Effect: Increases or stays the same with age because experience keeps adding to it.
Key Takeaway
• Young people rely more on fluid intelligence to solve new problems.
• Older adults may have slower thinking (lower fluid intelligence) but compensate with experience
and knowledge (higher crystallized intelligence).
• This is why older experts (like scientists or chess players) can still perform well despite aging.

PASS Theory of Intelligence

Das, Naglieri, and Kirby (1994) proposed the PASS Theory, which challenges the idea of a single
general intelligence. Instead, it suggests that intelligence is based on four interrelated cognitive
processes:
1. Planning
• Helps in decision-making, problem-solving, and organizing tasks.
• Involves goal-setting and monitoring progress.
• Example: Creating a study plan for an exam.
2. Attention-Arousal
• Helps in focusing on important information while ignoring distractions.
• Maintains alertness and concentration.
• Example: Listening to a lecture without getting distracted.
3. Simultaneous Processing
• Helps in understanding how different pieces of information fit together.
• Used for recognizing patterns and solving visual-spatial problems.
• Example: Reading a map or solving a puzzle.
4. Successive Processing
• Helps in understanding and organizing information in a specific order.
• Essential for language comprehension and remembering sequences.
• Example: Understanding a sentence's grammar or memorizing a phone number.
Brain Areas Involved
• Planning → Frontal Lobe (for reasoning and decision-making).
• Attention-Arousal → Brainstem, Thalamus, and Frontal Lobe (for focus and alertness).
• Simultaneous Processing → Occipital and Parietal Lobes (for pattern recognition).
• Successive Processing → Frontal and Temporal Lobes (for sequencing and language).
Applications of PASS Theory
• Cognitive Assessment System (CAS) → Measures cognitive abilities.
• PASS Reading Enhancement Program (PREP) → Helps children with reading difficulties.
• Math Remediation Programs → Improves planning skills to solve arithmetic problems.
Key Takeaway
• Intelligence is not just one general ability but a combination of four cognitive processes.
New Section 1 Page 10
• Intelligence is not just one general ability but a combination of four cognitive processes.
• Each process plays a different role in learning, problem-solving, and decision-making.
• The PASS model is useful for diagnosing learning difficulties and creating educational
interventions.

Emotional Intelligence (EQ): The Feeling Side of Intelligence

Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to recognize, understand, manage, and influence
emotions—both in oneself and in others. Unlike IQ, which measures cognitive abilities, EQ focuses
on emotional and social skills, which are crucial for personal and professional success.
Major Components of Emotional Intelligence (Goleman, 1995)
Goleman identified five key components of emotional intelligence:
1. Knowing Our Own Emotions (Self-Awareness)
○ Recognizing and understanding one's own feelings.
○ Essential for making informed decisions and expressing emotions appropriately.
○ Example: Understanding that you are feeling anxious before a presentation and preparing
accordingly.
2. Managing Our Emotions (Self-Regulation)
○ Controlling emotional reactions and expressing them appropriately.
○ Helps maintain mental well-being and effective social interactions.
○ Example: Staying calm and professional during an argument instead of reacting impulsively.
3. Motivating Ourselves
○ Using emotions to achieve goals, stay persistent, and delay gratification.
○ Helps in overcoming obstacles and maintaining enthusiasm.
○ Example: A student studying late at night despite feeling tired, focusing on long-term success.
4. Recognizing and Influencing Others' Emotions (Empathy)
○ Understanding what others are feeling and responding appropriately.
○ Important for building strong relationships and social harmony.
○ Example: Noticing that a friend is upset and offering support.
5. Handling Relationships (Social Skills)
○ Managing interactions, resolving conflicts, and maintaining positive relationships.
○ Important for teamwork, leadership, and social success.
○ Example: A manager motivating employees by understanding their concerns and encouraging
them.

Artificial intelligenc e

New Section 1 Page 11