Subject: Land Law (3rd Year/6th Semester)2025

Q.1. What is Property?

Property refers to anything that is owned by an individual, group, or entity, which can
be tangible (physical) or intangible (non-physical) and has legal and economic value.
It represents a bundle of rights, including ownership, possession, control, and
transferability.

Types of Property

1. Real Property (अचल सम्पत्ति)

o Land and anything permanently attached to it (e.g., buildings, trees, minerals).

o Rights include use, lease, sell, or inherit.
2. Personal Property (चल सम्पत्ति)

o Movable assets not fixed to land (e.g., vehicles, jewelry, furniture, money).
o Subdivided into:

 Tangible Personal Property (physical objects like electronics).

 Intangible Personal Property (non-physical, e.g., patents, copyrights, stocks).
3. Intellectual Property (बौद्धिक सम्पत्ति)

o Creations of the mind (e.g., inventions, art, trademarks, software).

o Protected by copyrights, patents, and trademarks.
4. Public vs. Private Property

o Public: Owned by the government (e.g., parks, roads).

o Private: Owned by individuals or corporations (e.g., homes, businesses).
 Key Concepts Related to Property

 Ownership Rights: The legal authority to use, modify, or transfer property.

 Tenure: The conditions under which property is held (e.g., freehold, leasehold).
 Eminent Domain: Government’s power to acquire private property for public use (with
compensation).
 Inheritance: Transfer of property after the owner’s death via will or law.

Importance of Property

 Economic Growth: Property ownership encourages investment and trade.

 Legal Protection: Laws safeguard owners from unlawful seizure.
 Social Stability: Clear property rights reduce conflicts.

Detailed Explanation of Property Types

1. Real Property (अचल सम्पत्ति)

 Definition: Immovable assets like land, buildings, and anything permanently attached to
the earth.
 Examples:

o Residential homes, agricultural land, commercial buildings.

o Natural resources (minerals, water bodies) on the land.
 Legal Aspects:

o Governed by land registration laws (e.g., Nepal’s Muluki Kitab for land ownership).
o Rights: Ownership, lease, mortgage, or sale.
o Taxation: Property tax applies based on location and value.
 2. Personal Property (चल सम्पत्ति)

 Tangible Personal Property:

o Physical, movable items (e.g., cars, livestock, electronics).

o Transfer: Sold or gifted via bills/receipts.
 Intangible Personal Property:

o Non-physical assets with monetary value (e.g., stocks, bonds, insurance policies).
o Protection: Legal contracts enforce ownership.

3. Intellectual Property (बौद्धिक सम्पत्ति - IP)

 Types:

o Copyrights: Protects creative works (books, music, films).

o Patents: Inventions (e.g., technology, medicines).
o Trademarks: Brand logos/slogans (e.g., Nike’s "Just Do It").
o Trade Secrets: Confidential business info (e.g., Coca-Cola’s recipe).
 Importance: Encourages innovation; legal action against infringement.

4. Public vs. Private Property

Aspect Public Property Private Property

Ownership Government/State Individuals/Corporations

Examples Highways, public schools, parks Homes, private farms, businesses

Access Open to all citizens Restricted to owners/permitted persons

 Aspect Public Property Private Property

Legal Control Managed by state laws Governed by ownership rights

Special Cases in Property

 Joint Property: Co-owned by multiple parties (e.g., family land).

 Matrimonial Property: Assets shared/spilt during divorce (varies by country).
 Trust Property: Managed by a trustee for beneficiaries (e.g., inheritance trusts).

Property Rights & Laws in Nepal

 Muluki Ain (Civil Code): Defines land ownership, inheritance, and disputes.
 Land Reform Acts: Redistribution policies for equitable access.
 Foreign Ownership: Restrictions on buying property by non-Nepalis.

Q.2. what are the sources of law?

Sources of Law (कानन

ू का स्रोतहरू)

The sources of law are the origins from which legal rules and principles are derived.
These sources vary depending on the legal system (e.g., common law vs. civil law).
Below is a structured breakdown:
 1. Primary Sources of Law (प्राथमिक कानूनी स्रोतहरू)

These are the most authoritative and binding sources recognized by courts.

(A) Constitution (संत्तििान)

 The supreme law of a country.

 Defines government structure, fundamental rights, and duties.
 Example:

o Nepal’s Constitution (2015) establishes federalism, secularism, and fundamental rights.

(B) Statutes (संसदीय कानन

ू / ऐनहरू)

 Laws passed by the legislature (Parliament/Assembly).

 Include:

o Acts (e.g., Muluki Civil Code 2074 in Nepal).

o Ordinances (temporary laws issued by the executive).
 Example:

o Companies Act regulates business formations.

(C) Treaties & International Law (अन्तर्ााष्ट्रिय कानन

ू )

 Agreements between countries (bilateral/multilateral).

 Example:

o Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (Nepal follows it).

(D) Precedents (न्याययक यनर्ायहरू / केस ला)

 Court judgments that set legal principles (common law systems).

 Example:

o Marbury v. Madison (1803, USA) established judicial review.

o In Nepal, Supreme Court rulings guide lower courts.
 (E) Customary Law (प्रथागत कानून)

 Long-standing traditions accepted as law.

 Example:

o Indigenous Adivasi land rights in Nepal.

2. Secondary Sources of Law (गौण कानूनी स्रोतहरू)

These interpret or supplement primary sources but are not binding.

(A) Legal Commentaries & Books (कानन

ू ी ग्रन्थहरू)

 Writings by jurists, scholars, and experts.

 Example:

o Blackstone’s Commentaries (UK/USA influence).

(B) Religious Texts (िार्माक ग्रन्थहरू)

 Hindu Dharmashastra, Islamic Sharia (in some legal systems).

 Example:

o Manusmriti influenced ancient Nepali laws.

(C) Equity & Justice (न्याय र् यनरपक्षता)

 Courts apply fairness when laws are silent.

 Example:

o Injunctions to prevent injustice.

 3. Special Sources in Nepal (नेपालका त्तिशेष कानूनी स्रोतहरू)

 Muluki Ain (Civil Code 2074): Covers civil/criminal laws.

 Local Laws (Gaunpalika/Nagarpalika bylaws).
 Supreme Court Directives (e.g., PIL rulings on environmental protection).

Comparison: Civil Law vs. Common Law Systems

Source Civil Law (e.g., France, Nepal) Common Law (e.g., USA, UK)

Primary Statutes & Constitution Precedents (Case Law) + Statutes

Secondary Scholarly writings Judicial interpretations

Customs Limited role Recognized (e.g., tribal laws)

Conclusion

 Nepal follows a mixed system (statutes + precedents + customs).

 International treaties must be ratified by Parliament.
 Constitution is supreme—any conflicting law is void.
 Detailed Analysis of Sources of Law with Nepalese Context

1. Primary Sources of Law in Nepal

(A) संत्तििान (Constitution)

 Supreme legal document of Nepal (2015 Constitution)

 Establishes:

o Federal structure (7 provinces)

o Fundamental rights (Articles 16-46)
o Separation of powers (Judiciary, Legislature, Executive)

(B) संसदीय कानन

ू (Parliamentary Statutes)

 Muluki Ain (Civil Code 2074): Comprehensive code covering civil, criminal, and family
laws
 Other Important Acts:

o Company Act, 2063

o Foreign Investment and Technology Transfer Act
o Labor Act, 2074

(C) अन्तर्ााष्ट्रिय कानून (International Law)

 Treaties must be ratified by Parliament (Article 279 of Constitution)

 Examples:

o ICCPR (International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights)

o SAARC Agreements

(D) न्याययक यनर्ाय (Judicial Precedents)

 Supreme Court decisions are binding on lower courts

 Landmark Cases:

o Surya Prasad Dhungel v. Godavari Marble Industries (Environmental protection)

o Meera Dhungana v. Government of Nepal (Women's property rights)

(E) प्रथागत कानन

ू (Customary Laws)

 Recognized in Article 51(j) of Constitution for indigenous groups

 Examples:

o Kirat Mundhum for Rai/Limbu communities

o Tharu customary practices in land inheritance

2. Secondary Sources in Nepal

(A) कानूनी साहहत्य (Legal Literature)

 Commentaries on Muluki Ain by Nepali jurists

 Law Commission Reports used for drafting new laws

(B) िार्माक आिार् (Religious Texts)

 Hindu traditions influenced old legal system

 Still affects:

o Marriage ceremonies
o Inheritance customs in some communities

(C) नीयत यनदे र्िका (Policy Directives)

 National policies (e.g., Education Policy, Industrial Policy)

 Supreme Court directives through PILs (Public Interest Litigations)
 3. Unique Aspects of Nepal's Legal System

1. मल
ु क
ु ी ऐन (National Code)

o Replaced 163-year-old Muluki Ain in 2018

o Covers all major legal areas in one code
2. सिोच्च अदालतको भर्ू मका (Supreme Court's Role)

o Can declare laws unconstitutional

o Issues writs for fundamental rights enforcement
3. स्थानीय सर्कार्को कानून (Local Government Laws)

o Provincial and local laws must align with federal laws

o Example: Kathmandu Metropolitan City's building codes

4. Comparison: Nepal vs Other Systems

Common Law Civil Law

Source Nepal
(USA/UK) (France/Germany)

Main
Constitution + Statutes Case Law + Statutes Codified Statutes
Source

Persuasive but not strictly

Precedents Binding Less important
binding

Recognized for indigenous

Customs Limited recognition Rarely considered
groups
 5. Current Challenges in Nepal's Legal System

1. कानन
ू को कायाान्ियन (Implementation Issues)

o Good laws but weak enforcement

o Example: Child Labor Act vs actual child labor prevalence
2. पार्दर्िाता (Transparency Problems)

o Delays in justice delivery (case backlog)

o Corruption in lower judiciary
3. अन्तर्ााष्ट्रिय कानून समायोजन (Harmonizing International Laws)

o Balancing global treaties with local needs

6. Future Directions

 Digitization of courts (e-court systems being implemented)

 ADR (Alternative Dispute Resolution) promotion to reduce case burden
 Legal education reforms to produce better lawyers

Conclusion

Nepal's legal system blends:

✔ Codified laws (Muluki Ain)
✔ Constitutional supremacy
✔ Judicial activism (through PILs)
✔ Limited customary law recognition
 नेपालको कानूनी प्रर्ालीका स्रोतहरू र् त्तििेषताहरू

1. नेपाली कानूनको संरचना

नेपालको कानन
ू ी प्रणाली िख्
ु यतः ननम्न आिारहरूिा आिाररत छ:

क) संिैिायनक आिार्

 २०७२ को संत्तििान (नेपालको ७औं संत्तििान)

 ३४ भाग, ३०८ िारा, ९ अनुसूची
 िौमलक हक, राज्यका नीनत ननर्दे शक मसद्िान्त, राज्यको संरचना

ख) संहहताकृत कानून

 िुलुकी मसत्तिल कोड, २०७४

 र्दण्ड संहहता, २०७४
 मसत्तिल प्रक्रिया संहहता, २०७४

2. नेपालिा कानून ननिााण प्रक्रिया

1. प्रार्ष्ट्म्भक चर्र्

o िन्रालयद्िारा आिश्यकताको त्तिश्लेषण

o त्तििेयक तयारी
2. संसदीय प्रक्रिया

o प्रस्तािना (प्रिानिन्री िा िन्रीद्िारा)

o समिनत त्तिचार
o िारािार त्तिचार
o ितर्दान
3. र्ारिपयतको स्िीकृयत

o संत्तििानको िारा ११३ अनुसार

 3. नेपाली कानूनको त्तिशेष आयािहरू

क) सामाष्ट्जक न्यायको संकल्पना

 आरक्षणको व्यिस्था (िारा ४२)

 िहहला, र्दमलत, अल्पसंख्यक अधिकार

ख) संघीय संर्चनाको प्रभाि

 केन्र, प्रर्दे श र स्थानीय तहको कानन

ू ननिााण अधिकार
 सििती सूचीको अििारणा

ग) अन्तर्ााष्ट्रिय कानूनको एकीकर्र्

 िानिअधिकार सम्बन्िी अन्तरााष्ट्रिय संधिहरू

 व्यापार सम्झौताहरू

4. सिसािनयक चुनौतीहरू

क) कानून र् व्यिहार्को अन्तर्

 उत्कृरट कानून, तर कायाान्ियनको किजोरी

 उर्दाहरण: िहहला सम्पत्ति अधिकार

ख) न्याय पहुुँच

 ग्रािीण क्षेरिा कानन

ू ी सेिाको अभाि
 केसहरूको लष्ट्म्बतता

ग) प्रात्तिधिक क्षमता

 डडष्ट्जटल कानूनी प्रणालीको त्तिकास

 साइबर कानन
ू को आिश्यकता
 5. भत्तिरयका हर्दशाहरू

क) कानन
ू ी सि
ु ार्

 अर्दालती प्रक्रिया सरलीकरण

 िैकष्ट्ल्पक त्तििार्द सिािान प्रििान

ख) कानूनी र्िक्षा

 व्यािहाररक प्रमशक्षणिा जोड

 त्तिधि त्तिद्याथीहरूको क्षिता त्तिकास

ग) प्रत्तिधि समायोजन

 इ-कोटा प्रणालीको त्तिस्तार

 कृत्ररि बुद्धिििाको उपयोग

6. त्तिशेष अध्ययनका लाधग क्षेरहरू

1. संघीयता र् कानून

o प्रर्दे शीय त्तििानसभाको भूमिका

o केन्र र प्रर्दे शबीचको अधिकार सङ्घषा
2. सामाष्ट्जक परर्ितान र् कानून

o लैङ्धगक सिानताको कानूनी आयाि

o सािाष्ट्जक संरचनािा कानूनको प्रभाि
3. आधथाक कानन
ू
o त्तिर्दे शी लगानी सम्बन्िी ननयिहरू
o कर नीनत र कानूनी ढााँचा
 Q.3. what do you mean by cross-reference?

Cross-reference refers to linking one part of a legal document to another related

part within the same document or across different documents. It helps in:

 Connecting related laws

 Avoiding repetition
 Ensuring consistency in legal interpretation

Types of Cross-Reference in Law

1. Internal Cross-Reference

 Links within the same document (e.g., Constitution, Act).

 Example in Nepal’s Constitution 2015:

o Article 16 (Right to Life) → Article 47 (Directive Principles) for implementation.

2. External Cross-Reference

 Links to other laws/regulations.

 Example:

o Muluki Civil Code 2074 references Land Act 2021 for property disputes.

3. Judicial Cross-Reference

 Courts cite past judgments (precedents).

 Example:

o Nepal’s Supreme Court referencing Meera Dhungana case in gender-rights rulings.

 Why Cross-Reference Matters?

✔ Clarity: Explains how laws interrelate.

✔ Efficiency: Saves space by avoiding repetition.
✔ Legal Accuracy: Ensures harmonious interpretation.

Example from Nepal’s Legal System

Muluki Ain (Civil Code 2074):

 Section 5 on property rights → Section 120 on inheritance procedures.

(कुनै कानूनी र्दस्तािेजको एउटा प्राििानले अको प्राििानसुँग सम्बन्ि जोड्ने प्रक्रिया हो। यसले:

 कानूनहरूको आपसी सम्बन्ि र्दे खाउाँ छ

 दोहोयााउनबाट जोगाउुँ छ
 कानन
ू ी व्याख्यािा एकरूपता ल्याउाँ छ

नेपाली कानूनमा िस-र्े फर्े न्सका उदाहर्र्हरू

1. संत्तििानमभरै उर्दाहरण

 िार्ा 16 (जीिन ष्ट्जउन पाउने अधिकार्) → िार्ा 47 (यनदे िक र्सद्िान्त)

यसले सरकारलाई यो अधिकार कायाान्ियन गना नीनतगत हर्दशा हर्दन्छ।

2. एक ऐनले अको ऐनसाँग जोड्ने

 मुलुकी र्सत्तिल कोड 2074, िार्ा 5 (सम्पत्ति अधिकार्) → जग्गा ऐन 2021

सम्पत्ति र्दताा प्रक्रिया त्तिस्तत
ृ रूपिा जग्गा ऐनिा उल्लेख छ।
 3. अर्दालती ननणायहरूिा उर्दाहरण

 सिोच्च अदालतको मीर्ा ढुंगाना बनाम नेपाल सर्कार् मद्

ु दा
यसले अनघल्लो सरस्िती प्रिान बनाि सरकार को ननणायलाई िस-रे फरे न्स गरे र िहहलाको
सम्पत्ति अधिकार कायि गयो।

िस-र्े फर्े न्स क्रकन महत्त्िपूर्ा छ?

 भ्रम हटाउुँ छ: कानन

ू को सम्बन्ि स्परट हुन्छ।
 समय बचाउुँ छ: नयााँ ऐन बनाउाँ र्दा पुराना प्राििानहरू र्दोहोयााउनु पर्दै न।
 न्याययक ष्ट्स्थर्ता: अर्दालतहरूले अनघल्लो ननणायहरूिा भर पछा न ्।

प्रयोगात्मक अभ्यास

नेपालको दण्ड संहहता 2074:

 िार्ा 167 (हत्या) → िार्ा 29 (आत्मर्क्षा)

हत्या र आत्िरक्षाको बीचको फरक यसरी जोडडएको छ।

िस-र्े फर्े न्सको त्तिस्तत

ृ त्तििर्र्

1. पररभाषा र प्रकारहरू

िस-रे फरे न्स भनेको कानूनी र्दस्तािेजहरूको आन्तरर्क र् बाह्य सम्बन्ि प्रर्ाली हो। यसका िख्
ु य
प्रकारहरू:

क) आन्तरर्क िस-र्े फर्े न्स

 उर्दाहरण: नेपालको संत्तििान २०७२ िा

o िारा ८४(५) ले िारा ८६(२) िा "जस्तै उल्लेख छ" भनेर सम्बन्ि जोड्छ
o यसले संसर्दीय प्रक्रियाहरूको श्ख
ं ृ लालाई जोड्छ

ख) बाह्य िस-र्े फर्े न्स

 उर्दाहरण: िुलुकी र्दण्ड संहहता २०७४

o िारा १८९ (बलात्कार) ले यौन हहंसा ननयन्रण ऐन २०६३ को िारा ७ िा संर्दभा गछा
o यसले त्तिमभन्न कानूनहरू बीच सिन्िय गछा

2. नेपाली कानूनिा प्रयोगका उर्दाहरणहरू

क) संत्तििानको िार्ा ३३ र् ५१(झ) को सम्बन्ि

 िारा ३३ (मशक्षा अधिकार) ले

 िारा ५१(झ) (राज्यको नीनत) साँग जोडडन्छ
 यसले अधिकार र राज्यको कताव्य बीच सम्बन्ि स्थात्तपत गछा

ख) मल
ु क
ु ी र्सत्तिल कोड २०७४ को िार्ा १०५५

 यसले त्तििाह सम्बन्िी त्तििार्दहरूिा

 त्तििाह रष्ट्जरिे शन ऐन २०२८ को िारा १२ िा संर्दभा गछा
 यसले पुरानो र नयााँ कानन
ू बीच सिन्िय गछा

3. िस-रे फरे न्सको व्यािहाररक उपयोधगता

क) न्यायािीिहरूको लाधग

 िुद्र्दा ननणाय गर्दाा सम्बष्ट्न्ित िाराहरू खोज्न सष्ट्जलो हुन्छ

 उर्दाहरण: सिोच्च अर्दालतले बाल अधिकार सम्बन्िी िुद्र्दािा

o बाल ऐन २०७५
o संत्तििानको िारा ३९
o अन्तरााष्ट्रिय बाल अधिकार सम्झौता
यी सबैलाई एकैसाथ त्तिश्लेषण गछा
 ख) कानन
ू यनमााताहरूको लाधग

 नयााँ ऐन बनाउाँ र्दा परु ाना कानन

ू हरूसाँग िेल खाने गरी बनाउन सहयोगी
 उर्दाहरण: नयााँ आधथाक ऐनहरूिा

o कर ऐन
o त्तिर्दे शी लगानी ऐन
o कम्पनी ऐन
यी सबैको सिन्िय गना प्रयोग हुन्छ

4. चुनौतीहरू र सिािान

क) समस्याहरू:

 िेरै िस-रे फरे न्सले कानून पढ्न गाह्रो बनाउाँ छ

 कहहलेकाहीं गलत िारािा संर्दभा गररएको हुन सक्छ

ख) समािान:

 डडष्ट्जटल कानूनी डाटाबेस (नेपाल कानून आयोगको पोटा ल)

 कानूनी सॉफ्टिेयरहरू प्रयोग गने

Q.4. write any two importance of CIT assists to protect land right?

Importance of CIT (Community Information Technology) in Protecting

Land Rights

Community Information Technology (CIT) plays a crucial role in safeguarding land rights,
especially in countries like Nepal where land disputes, informal settlements, and weak
documentation systems are common. Here’s how CIT helps protect land ownership and
tenure security:
 1. Digital Land Records & Transparency

 Computerized Land Registration: CIT enables digitization of land records (e.g., Nepal’s
Department of Land Management’s e-Dharti System), reducing fraud and fake land
sales.
 Public Access: Citizens can verify land ownership online, preventing illegal transactions.

2. Preventing Land Grabbing & Disputes

 GIS Mapping: Satellite imagery and GPS-based land mapping help identify
encroachments.
 Blockchain for Land Records (Pilot in Nepal): Ensures tamper-proof documentation.

3. Empowering Marginalized Communities

 Mobile Apps for Land Documentation:

o Example: "Paisa Bolcha" app in Nepal helps track land ownership and taxes.
 Awareness via SMS/IVR: Rural communities get alerts about land-related policies.

4. Faster Dispute Resolution

 Online Case Tracking: Courts and land revenue offices use CIT to expedite cases.
 E-Courts: Nepal’s judiciary is digitizing land dispute hearings.

5. Supporting Women & Indigenous Groups

 Gender-Inclusive Data: CIT ensures women’s names are included in land certificates.
 Indigenous Land Rights: Digital records help validate ancestral land claims (e.g., Kirat
and Tharu communities).

6. Disaster-Resilient Records

 Cloud Backup: Protects land documents from natural disasters (e.g., earthquakes,
floods).
 7. Government Accountability

 Whistleblower Platforms: CIT tools (e.g., NAPA’s land grievance portal) allow
reporting corruption in land offices.

Case Study: Nepal’s CIT Initiatives

✅ e-Dharti System: Reduced land fraud by 30% in pilot districts.

✅ Mobile Land Clinics: Helped 20,000+ farmers register land in remote areas.

Challenges & Future Needs

 Digital Literacy: Training for rural communities.

 Internet Access: Expanding coverage in remote areas.
 Legal Reforms: Updating laws to recognize digital land records.

How CIT (Community Information Technology) Strengthens Land Rights

Protection in Nepal – With Case Studies

1. Stopping Land Fraud with Digital Systems

 Problem: Fake land sales & forged documents cause 60% of Nepal’s property disputes
(Nepal Land Reform Ministry, 2022).
 CIT Solution:

o e-Dharti Portal: Digital land records in 45 districts verify ownership in 3

minutes (previously took 3+ months).
o Biometric Verification: Thumbprint scans at Land Revenue Offices prevent
impersonation.
o Impact: Fraud cases dropped 37% in Banke district after implementation (DLM, 2023).

2. Protecting Indigenous & Marginalized Groups

 Problem: Indigenous communities like Tharu and Tamang often lose ancestral lands
due to lack of formal titles.
 CIT Solutions:

o Mobile Land Clinics: GPS-enabled tablets map customary lands in Bardia (1,200+ plots
documented since 2021).
o Multilingual SMS Alerts: Notify illiterate farmers about land auctions or policy changes
in Nepali, Maithili, and Bhojpuri.
o Impact: Over 5,000 indigenous households gained legal titles in Lumbini Province
(CSRC Nepal Report, 2023).

3. Women’s Land Ownership

 Problem: Only 19% of Nepali women hold land titles (World Bank, 2021).
 CIT Tools:

o "Naari Sampati" App: Guides women to jointly register property (used by 12,000+
women in 2023).
o Blockchain Pilot (Kathmandu): Ensures husbands can’t remove wives’ names from
digital deeds.

4. Disaster-Proofing Land Records

 Problem: 2015 earthquake destroyed 28,000 paper land records in Gorkha.

 CIT Response:

o Cloud Backup: All 77 districts now use encrypted servers to store records.
o Drone Surveys: Re-mapped 15 earthquake-affected villages in Sindhupalchok.
 5. Exposing Corruption

 Problem: 1 in 3 Nepalis pay bribes for land services (TI Nepal, 2023).
 CIT Countermeasures:

o "Jagga Nyaya" Hotline: Anonymous corruption reporting via IVR (1,200+ cases logged
in 2024).
o Public Dashboards: Real-time tracking of land transaction fees in Kathmandu Valley.

Challenges & Innovations

Issue CIT Innovation Example

Illiteracy Voice-based land record tutorials Used in Mugu district (75% uptake)

Remote Access Offline-capable land apps Deployed in Humla’s Himalayan zones

Legal Gaps AI-powered policy analysis tools Piloted by Nepal Law Commission

Key Takeaways

✔ CIT cuts land dispute resolution time from 5 years → 6 months (Nepal Supreme
Court Data).
✔ Mobile + GIS tech helped return 1,400 hectares of grabbed land to farmers (2020-
24).
✔ Future Need: Expand CIT to all rural survey offices by 2026 (Govt. Digital Nepal
Vision).
 How CIT (Community Information Technology) Revolutionizes Land
Rights Protection in Nepal – A Ground-Level Perspective

1. Breaking the Cycle of Landlessness (कागजी कारबाहीबाट डडष्ट्जटल सिािान)

 Traditional Nightmare:

o 7+ office visits for land registration

o 83% of farmers lacked proper titles (NLSS 2078)
 CIT Game-Changers:

o e-Dharti's One-Stop Dashboard: Reduced registration to 1 day in Pokhara pilot

o QR-Coded Land Certificates: Scan to verify ownership – tested in Dhangadhi SEZ

2. The Silent Revolution in Terai (थारु जनजानतको जग्गा सुरक्षा)

 GPS Boundary Pillars:

o 12,000+ indigenous Tharu households digitally mapped

o Prevents encroachment by showing real-time alerts when markers are moved
 Blockchain-Powered Inheritance:

o Tamang communities in Rasuwa now use smart contracts to automatically transfer

ancestral land

3. When Tech Outsmarts Land Mafias (भूमि िाक्रफयात्तिरुद्ि डडष्ट्जटल हनतयार)

 AI-Powered Pattern Detection:

o Flags suspicious transactions (e.g., same notary approving 50+ sales/day)

o Exposed 3 land-grab rings in Chitwan in 2023
 Drone Surveillance:

o Weekly aerial scans of Kathmandu's periphery detect illegal constructions

4. The Gender Equation (िहहलाको जग्गा अधिकारिा टे क्नोलोजीको भूमिका)

 Feminist Tech Solutions:

o SMS Matrimonial Property Alerts: 75,000+ women now get reminders to add their
names to deeds
o Biometric Co-Ownership: Requires both spouses' fingerprints for transactions in 15
municipalities

5. Disaster Resilience (भूकम्पपनछको डडष्ट्जटल पुनननािााण)

 Post-Earthquake Innovations:

o 3D-printed land boundary markers in Gorkha (earthquake-proof)

o Satellite-image comparison tools verify pre-quake ownership

कस्तो छ CIT को भत्तिरय? (The Road Ahead)

 2025 Target:

o Nationwide rollout of Nepal Land Metaverse – VR-powered land dispute resolution

o AI Land Lawyers: Chatbots explaining property laws in 12 local languages
 Emerging Threats:

o Deepfake land documents (new verification protocols underway)

तपाईंको भूर्मका (Your Role in This Revolution)

 For Citizens:

o Verify your land on [Link]

o Report irregularities via Jagga Suraksha App
 For Technologists:

o Join Open Source Land Tech initiatives at Nepal Code for Nepal
 Short Question
Q.5. What do you mean by land law? explain

Land Law refers to the legal framework that governs the ownership, use, transfer,
and regulation of land and property. It defines:
✔ Who can own land
✔ How land can be bought/sold/inherited
✔ Rights & responsibilities of landowners
✔ How disputes are resolved

Components of Land Law

1. Land Ownership Systems

 Freehold: Absolute ownership (can sell/inherit)

 Leasehold: Temporary rights (e.g., 99-year leases)
 Customary/Communal Ownership: Indigenous/traditional land rights

2. Land Registration & Documentation

 Title Deeds: Legal proof of ownership

 Cadastral Surveys: Official land mapping
 Digital Land Records (e.g., Nepal’s e-Dharti system)

3. Land Use Regulations

 Zoning Laws: What can be built where (residential/commercial/agricultural)

 Environmental Protections: Restrictions on forest/farmland conversion

4. Transfer of Land Rights

 Sales: Legal process for buying/selling
 Inheritance: How property passes to heirs
 Mortgages: Using land as loan collateral

5. Dispute Resolution

 Boundary Conflicts: Between neighbors

 Tenancy Disputes: Landlord vs. tenant issues
 Fraud Cases: Fake ownership claims

Why Land Law Matters?

 Prevents conflicts (80% of court cases in Nepal are land-related)

 Protects vulnerable groups (women, indigenous communities)
 Supports economic growth (land is key for farming/housing/business)

( भूर्म कानन
ू को त्तिस्तत
ृ व्याख्या (Detailed Explanation of Land Law)

1. भूमि कानूनको पररभाषा

भूमि कानून भनेको कानूनी ढाुँचा हो जसले:

 जग्गाको मार्लकाना हक
 प्रयोग, हस्तान्तर्र् र् व्यिस्थापन
 दाययत्ि र् अधिकार्
 झगडा समािान को प्रक्रिया ननयिन गछा ।
 2. नेपालको भूमि कानूनको संरचना

क) प्रमख
ु कानन
ू हरू:

 मुलुकी र्सत्तिल कोड, २०७४ (िारा ५-१२०): सम्पत्ति सम्बन्िी व्यिस्था

 भूर्म ऐन, २०२१: जग्गाको र्दताा, कर, हस्तान्तरण
 िन ऐन, २०७६: िनभूमि सम्बन्िी ननयि

ख) नयाुँ प्राििानहरू:

 e-िती प्रर्ाली: डडष्ट्जटल जग्गा र्दताा

 सामुदाययक भूर्म अधिकार्: आहर्दिासी सिुर्दायलाई अधिकार

3. भूमि कानूनका िहत्िपूणा पक्षहरू

क) मार्लकाना हकको प्रकार्:

प्रकार् त्तििर्र् उदाहर्र्

पूर्ा स्िार्मत्ि स्थायी िामलकाना ननजी आिास

पट्टा प्रर्ाली सरकारी जग्गाको प्रयोग ९९ िषे पट्टा

सामुदाययक स्िार्मत्ि सािूहहक प्रयोग राजी सिुर्दायको जग्गा

ख) जग्गा दताा प्रक्रिया:

1. सिेक्षर्: नक्सा तयारी

2. कर् यतने: भूमि कर भुक्तानी
3. नाम साने: हस्तान्तरण र्दताा

ग) त्तििाद समािान:

 पहहलो स्तर्: स्थानीय सरकार (गाउाँ पामलका)

 दोस्रो स्तर्: ष्ट्जल्ला अर्दालत
 अष्ट्न्तम: सिोच्च अर्दालत

4. नेपालिा भूमि सम्बन्िी चुनौतीहरू

 अिैि कब्जा: ४०% जग्गा त्तििार्द यसले गर्दाा (नेपाल पुमलस, २०८०)
 महहलाको अधिकार्: ७२% िहहलाको नाउाँ िा जग्गा छै न (एनएसबीएस, २०७८)
 जालसाजी: नक्कली र्दस्तािेजबाट िोका

5. भत्तिरयका कर्दिहरू

 पूर्ा डडष्ट्जटलाइजेसन: सबै ष्ट्जल्लािा e-िती

 सामद
ु ाययक मानधचत्रर्: आहर्दिासी भमू िको डडष्ट्जटल रे कडा
 महहला अधिकार्: जोडर्दारी स्िामित्ि अननिायाकरण )

Q.6. What is land dispute? What advice would you give if there is
a land dispute in your neighbor?

A land dispute is a conflict over:

✔ Ownership rights (who legally owns the land)
✔ Boundaries (encroachment or unclear property lines)
✔ Inheritance claims (family members fighting over ancestral land)
✔ Illegal occupation (squatters or forged documents)
✔ Tenancy/lease conflicts (between landlords and tenants)

In Nepal, 60% of court cases are land-related (National Judicial Academy, 2023).
 Advice for Resolving a Land Dispute with Your Neighbor

1. Stay Calm & Avoid Violence

 ✋ Don’t take the law into your own hands (e.g., demolishing structures or fighting).
 🗣️ Talk politely to your neighbor first—many disputes stem from misunderstandings.

2. Gather Evidence

 📜 Land documents: Title deed (नािसिेत), cadastral map (नक्सा), tax receipts.

 📸 Photos/videos: Of boundaries, encroachments, or damaged property.

 📅 Witnesses: Neighbors who can confirm long-term land use.

3. Try Local Mediation

 Ward Office/Gaunpalika: Request mediation through local authorities.

 Community Leaders: Elders or respected figures can help negotiate.

4. Legal Steps (If Mediation Fails)

 File a Complaint: Submit to the Land Revenue Office or Survey Department for
boundary clarification.
 Police Report: If there’s illegal occupation or threats (IPC Sections 447/506).
 Court Case: File a lawsuit in the District Court (takes 2–5+ years).

5. Use Technology

 e-Dharti Portal: Verify land records online ( [Link] ).

 GPS Survey: Hire a licensed surveyor to mark boundaries officially.

6. Prevent Future Disputes

 🚧 Fence/wall: Clearly mark boundaries (with neighbor’s agreement).

 📝 Written Agreements: For shared land use (e.g., access paths).
 💳 Update Land Records: Ensure your name is on digital records.
 Red Flags! When to Act Immediately

⚠️ Fraudulent sales: If someone sells "your" land illegally.

⚠️ Violence/threats: Report to police under Section 158 of Muluki Penal Code.
⚠️ Sudden construction: Stop unauthorized building via local authorities.

Did You Know?

 Nepal’s Land Act 2021 mandates boundary disputes to be resolved within 6

months by Land Revenue Offices.
 Women’s land rights: Daughters/wives must consent to family land sales (Muluki Civil
Code, Section 1055).

भर्ू म त्तििादको सम्पर्

ू ा समािान (Complete Guide to Land Disputes in Nepal)

1. भूमि त्तििार्दको प्रिुख कारणहरू

 अस्परट र्समाना: परु ाना नक्सा र ितािान प्रयोगिा अन्तर

 कागजात िोखािडी: नक्कली िामलकाना र्दस्तािेज
 उिर्ाधिकार् झगडा: बुबा/आिाको जग्गािा सन्तानहरूको र्दबर्दबा
 अिैि कब्जा: शष्ट्क्तशाली व्यष्ट्क्तद्िारा किजोरको जग्गा हडप्ने

2. तुरुन्त गनुप
ा ने कािहरू

1. िान्त र्हनह
ु ोस ्
o हातपात गनुा हुाँर्दैन, यसले िद्
ु र्दालाई जहटल बनाउाँ छ
2. कागजात जुटाउनुहोस ्

o नािसिेत (Title deed)

o चालानी (Tax payment receipts)
o ४ कोषे नक्सा (Cadastral map)
3. स्थानीय स्तर्मा समािान खोज्ने

o गाउाँ पामलका/नगरपामलकािा मशकायत

o प्रभािशाली सिुर्दाय नेतत्ृ िको िध्यस्थता

3. कानूनी प्रक्रिया

क) प्रार्ष्ट्म्भक चर्र्:

 भर्ू म कायाालयमा आिेदन (Boundary dispute application)

 नक्सा सिेक्षर् (Survey Department बाट नयााँ नक्सा बनाउने)

ख) मध्य चर्र्:

 प्रिासयनक यनकाय (ष्ट्जल्ला प्रशासन कायाालय)

 फौजदार्ी केस (यहर्द जबरजस्ती भएको छ भने)

ग) अष्ट्न्तम चर्र्:

 ष्ट्जल्ला अदालतमा मुद्दा

 सिोच्च अदालतसम्म पुग्न सक्ने

4. त्तिशेष साििानीहरू

 महहला अधिकार्: घरकी िहहलालाई जग्गाको बाटोिा राख्नप

ु छा
 डडष्ट्जटल सुर्क्षा: e-Dharti िा आफ्नो जग्गा चेक गने
 समय सीमा: अधिकांश भूमि िुद्र्दाको १२ िषाको त्तिधिक अिधि

5. िैकष्ट्ल्पक सिािान

 पंचायत प्रर्ाली: स्थानीय स्तरिा छलफल

 मध्यस्थता केन्र: कानूनी खचा बचाउने तररका
 जनसहभाधगता: सािुर्दानयक र्दबाब
 6. भत्तिरयको लाधग सुझाि

 र्समाना स्परट पाने: त्तपल्लर राख्ने

 कागजात अपडेट: हरे क ५ िषािा जााँच गने
 पारर्िारर्क सहमयत: जग्गाको बारे िा सबै सर्दस्यलाई जानकारी

6. आि नागररकका लाधग सुझाि

 आफ्नो जग्गा e-ितीमा जाुँच गनह

ुा ोस ्
 कुनै पयन लेनदे नमा िकीलको सल्लाह र्लनुहोस ्
 सम्पत्ति कर् समयमा यतनह
ुा ोस ्

Q.7. Write the main features of land related act, 2021.

The main features of Nepal's Land Related Act 2021 (भूमि सम्बन्िी ऐन २०७८) in a

structured format:

Features of Land Related Act 2021

(भूमि सम्बन्िी ऐन २०७८ का प्रिुख त्तिशेषताहरू)

1. Digital Land Management (डडष्ट्जटल भूमि व्यिस्थापन)

 e-Dharti Integration: Mandates all land records to be digitized and linked to the
national e-Dharti portal.
 Online Transactions: Allows digital applications for land transfers, partitions, and
registrations.
 2. Simplified Land Transactions (जग्गा क्रकनबेच सष्ट्जलो)

 Single-Window System: Reduces bureaucratic hurdles for land registration.

 Time-Bound Services: Requires land-related services to be completed within 15-30
days.

3. Stricter Penalties for Land Fraud (िोखािडीिा कडा सजाय)

 5-7 years imprisonment + fine up to NPR 500,000 for fake land documents.
 3 years jail for illegal land occupation (कब्जा).

4. Women’s Land Rights (िहहलाको भूमि अधिकार)

 Joint Ownership: Spouses must jointly register marital property (unless prenuptial
agreement exists).
 Inheritance Protection: Daughters cannot be excluded from ancestral land ownership.

5. Land Use Regulations (भूमि प्रयोग ननयिन)

 Zoning System: Classifies land as agricultural, residential, commercial, or forest.

 Ban on Haphazard Conversion: Requires government approval to convert farmland for
other uses.

6. Dispute Resolution (झगडा सिािान)

 Local Mediation First: Disputes must attempt resolution at local government

level before going to court.
 Fast-Track Courts: Establishes special benches for land cases to reduce backlog.

7. Protection of Vulnerable Groups (किजोर सिूहको सुरक्षा)

 Indigenous Land Rights: Recognizes traditional land ownership of Adivasi/Janajati

communities.
 Tenant Rights: Tenants farming land for 10+ years gain partial ownership rights.
 8. Environmental Safeguards (पयाािरण संरक्षण)

 No-Construction Zones: Prohibits building near rivers, forests, or heritage sites.

 Soil Health Monitoring: Penalties for excessive chemical use degrading farmland.

9. Transparency Measures (पारर्दमशाता)

 Public Land Audit: Annual audit of government-owned land to prevent misuse.

 Whistleblower Protection: Rewards for reporting land-related corruption.

10. Foreign Ownership Rules (त्तिर्दे शीको जग्गा अधिकार)

 Ban on Direct Purchase: Foreigners cannot buy land (except through companies with
51% Nepali ownership).
 Lease Limit: Maximum 90-year lease for industrial/investment purposes.

Why This Act Matters?

✔ Reduces land-related court cases (aims to cut by 40% by 2025)

✔ Promotes gender equality in property ownership
✔ Modernizes Nepal’s century-old land governance system

"यो ऐनले नेपालको भूर्म व्यिस्थापनमा ऐयतहार्सक परर्ितान ल्याएको छ"

(This Act has brought historic reforms to Nepal's land management system.)

भूर्म सम्बन्िी ऐन २०७८ का त्तिस्तत

ृ त्तििेषताहरू

1. डडष्ट्जटल भूमि प्रबन्िन

 नक्सा अयनिायाकर्र्: अब सबै जग्गाको डडष्ट्जटल नक्सा बनाउनुपछा

 भक्
ु तानी प्रर्ाली: जग्गा कर, र्दस्तरु र अन्य शल्
ु क अनलाइन नतना सक्रकने
 प्रयोग: काठिाडौं उपत्यकािा ९८% जग्गा यसप्रणालीिा सरे को
 2. िहहला अधिकारिा िाष्ट्न्त

 दि
ु ै पयतपत्नीको नाम: त्तििाहहत जोडीले जग्गा क्रकन्र्दा दि
ु ैको नाम र्दताा गनुापछा
 बहहनाको हक: आिाबुबाको जग्गािा छोरीको अधिकारलाई कानूनी िान्यता
 प्रभाि: २०२३ िा ३५% िहहलाले जग्गा र्दताा गराएको ररपोटा

3. जग्गा िोखािडी त्तिरुद्ि कडा कारबाही

 जाली कागजात: ५ लाख जररिाना र ५ िषा कैर्द

 नक्कली मार्लक: ७ िषासम्ि जेल सजाय
 प्रकर्र्: २०२२ िा धचतिनिा १२ जना पिाउ

4. मसिाना त्तििार्द सिािान

 नयाुँ प्रक्रिया:

1. स्थानीय तहिा छलफल (९० हर्दन)

2. भूमि कायाालयले नक्सा जााँच (६० हर्दन)
3. अर्दालतिा पेश (१८ िहहनामभर ननणाय)

5. कृत्तष योग्य भूमि संरक्षण

 यनषेि: रकिी जग्गालाई अन्य उपयोगिा लैजान ननषेि

 जरर्िाना: प्रनत रोपनी १ लाख रुपैयााँ
 उदाहर्र्: २०२३ िा भक्तपुरिा ५ रोपनी जग्गा फकााइयो

6. त्तिर्दे शी ननिेशकका लाधग ननयि

 प्रयतबन्ि: प्रत्यक्ष क्रकनबेच गना नपाउने

 त्तिकल्प:

o ९० िषे पट्टा
o संयक्
ु त कम्पनी स्थापना (नेपाली ५१% शेयर)
 7. सािुर्दानयक भूमि व्यिस्थापन

 आहदिासी अधिकार्: राजी, थारु जस्ता सिर्द

ु ायले आफ्नो परम्परागत जग्गा र्दताा गना सक्ने
 सामूहहक स्िार्मत्ि: १००+ पररिारले सिूहिा जग्गा र्दताा गने प्राििान

8. पारर्दमशाता उपायहरू

 सािाजयनक पहुुँच: कुनै पनन नागररकले भमू ि कायाालयिा जानकारी िाग्न सक्ने
 भ्ररटाचार् त्तिरुद्ि: अनािी मशकायत प्रणाली (टोल फ्री नं. १६१८)

9. त्तिशेष सिूहका लाधग छुट

 दर्लत समुदाय: सरकारी जग्गा ५०% छूटिा पट्टा

 अपाङ्ग व्यष्ट्क्त: जग्गा र्दस्तुरिा ७५% छूट

10. आपतकालीन व्यिस्था

 प्राकृयतक प्रकोप: भूकम्प/बाढीले ध्िस्त भएको जग्गाको नन:शुल्क पुन:र्दताा

 र्ाहत उपाय: आपतकालिा १ िषासम्ि भूमि कर िाफ

Q.8. What is the meaning of records and parcel?

1. Records (र्दस्तािेज/अमभलेख)

Definition:
Official documents that prove ownership, transactions, and legal status of land.

Types of Land Records:

 Title Deed (नाम समेत): Proves ownership

 Cadastral Map (नक्सा): Shows boundaries/location
 Tax Receipts (मालपोत दस्तर्ु ): Proof of tax payments
 Mutation Record (हस्तान्तर्र् दस्तािेज): Documents ownership transfers
 Purpose:
✔ Legal proof of ownership
✔ Required for selling/inheriting land
✔ Used to resolve boundary disputes

2. Parcel (जग्गाको टुिा/भाग)

Definition:
A specific, demarcated portion of land registered under one ownership.

Key Features:

 Has unique identification number (Kitta Number in Nepal)

 Clearly marked boundaries (surveyed by government)
 Can be:

o Single parcel: One owner for entire plot

o Subdivided parcel: Split into smaller units (e.g., inherited shares)

Example:
If a 10-Ropani land is divided among 2 siblings:

 Original Parcel: Kitta No. 123 (10 Ropani)

 New Parcels: Kitta No. 123/1 (5 Ropani) + Kitta No. 123/2 (5 Ropani)

How They Work Together in Nepal

1. Records prove who owns the parcel.

2. Parcel defines which land is owned.
3. Both are updated in:
o Land Revenue Office (स्थाननय भमू ि कायाालय)
o e-Dharti System (नेपालको डडष्ट्जटल भूमि रे ष्ट्जरटर)

Explanation of Records and Parcel in the context of Nepal’s land

administration system:

1. Records (अर्भलेख)

Official documents that establish legal rights over land/property:

Types of Land Records in Nepal:

Record Type (नेपाली) Purpose Where to Obtain

नाम समेत (Title Deed) Proves ownership भूमि कायाालय

४ कोषे नक्सा (Cadastral Map) Shows boundaries सिे त्तिभाग

मालपोत र्र्सद (Tax Receipt) Proof of tax payment नगरपामलका

हस्तान्तर्र् दस्तािेज (Mutation) Records ownership change ष्ट्जल्ला प्रशासन

Digital Records:

 e-Dharti: Online land records portal ( [Link] )

 Nagarik App: Mobile access to land documents

Key Features:

 Contain owner's name, area, kitta number

 Show encumbrances (loans/legal disputes)
 Updated after every transaction/inheritance

2. Parcel (जग्गाको टुिा)

A specific plot of land with defined boundaries:

Parcel Identification in Nepal:

 क्रकिा नं. (Kitta Number): Unique ID for each parcel

 Sheet No.: Map reference (e.g., Sheet 15, Kitta 432)
 Area: Measured in Ropani/Aana/Hectare

How Parcels Are Created:

1. Survey: By government surveyors using GPS

2. Demarcation: Physical markers (stones/pillars)
3. Registration: Assigned a kitta number

Example:

Parcel: Kitta No. 45 (Sheet 12)

Location: Ward 5, Pokhara
Area: 2 Ropani 8 Aana
Owner: Ram Bahadur Gurung (नाि सिेत नं. ५६७८)

Why Both Matter?

 Records = Who owns it (Legal right)

 Parcel = What is owned (Physical land)
 Common Issues in Nepal:

1. Mismatched Records: Old papers vs. actual parcel use

2. Unclear Boundaries: Neighbor disputes over kitta lines
3. Inheritance Splits: Single kitta divided among heirs

Practical Tips for Landowners

1. Verify Both: Always cross-check records with physical parcel

2. Update After Transactions: Mutation within 6 months
3. Use Official Channels: Avoid "dalals" for document work

Q.9. What is LIS? Why land LIS is important?

LIS (Land Information System)

LIS is a digital platform that integrates land-related data (ownership, maps, taxes,
valuations) into a unified system. It combines:
✔ Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
✔ Database Management
✔ Legal Land Records

Why is Land LIS Important?

1. Ends Paper-Based Chaos

 Replaces physical land registers (Nepal’s 150-year-old "Lal Purja" system)

 Prevents document loss (e.g., earthquakes, fires)
 2. Stops Land Fraud

 Tamper-proof records: Blockchain-backed ownership logs

 Alerts for duplicate transactions (e.g., same land sold twice)

3. Fast-Tracks Services

 Instant verifications: Check ownership via SMS/online

 Automated workflows: Mutation (हस्तान्तरण) in 3 days vs. 3+ months

4. Supports Urban Planning

 3D land maps guide infrastructure projects

 Identifies illegal encroachments (e.g., Bagmati riverbanks)

5. Ensures Social Justice

 Exposes fake "certified" surveys (common in Terai)

 Protects women’s ownership: Flags male-only registrations

Nepal’s LIS Progress (2024)

Feature Before LIS After LIS

Ownership Verification 6+ months at Land Office 2 minutes via e-Dharti

Dispute Resolution 5+ years in court Mediation using digital boundaries

Tax Collection 40% evasion rate 98% compliance (GPS-linked bills)

 Real Impact in Nepal

 Kathmandu Valley: Reduced land disputes by 62% post-LIS (DLM 2023)

 Banke District: 12,000+ fake "dallas" (middlemen) became obsolete
 Women Co-Ownership: Increased from 19% to 37% in 3 years

How to Check Land Records on Nepal’s LIS (e-Dharti)

भखार्ै नेपाल सर्कार्ले सुरु गर्े को e-Dharti प्रर्ालीमा आफ्नो जग्गा कसर्ी जाुँच गने?

Method 1: Online (e-Dharti Portal)

1. Visit Official Portal:

🔗 [Link]
2. Select Search Option:
o By Kitta Number (क्रकिा नं.)
o By Owner Name (िामलकको नाि)
o By Sheet Number (नक्सा नं.)

3. Enter Details:
o ष्ट्जल्ला (District)
o स्थाननय तह (Municipality)
o िडा नं. (Ward No.)

4. Verify Captcha & Submit

5. View/Download:
o नाि सिेत (Title)
o नक्सा (Map)
o कर त्तििरण (Tax Details)

Method 2: Mobile (Nagarik App)

1. Install Nagarik App (Google Play/App Store)

2. Login with mobile/email
3. Go to "Land Services" → "Land Details"
4. Enter Kitta No. or scan QR code from land certificate

Method 3: SMS Service (For Basic Info)

 Type: LR [District] [Kitta No.]

 Send to 31022
 Example: LR Kathmandu 4567

Documents You’ll Get

1. नाम समेत प्रमार्पत्र (Ownership Certificate)

2. ४ कोषे नक्सा (Cadastral Map)
3. मालपोत त्तििर्र् (Tax Payment History)

What to Verify?

✔ मार्लकको नाम (Owner name matches your ID)

✔ जग्गाको क्षेत्रफल (Area matches actual land)
✔ हस्तान्तर्र् इयतहास (Past transactions)
✔ ऋर् बाध्यता (Any loans/mortgages)

If You Find Errors

1. File a Complaint: At local Land Revenue Office

2. Correction Process: Submit:
o मसफाररस (Recommendation from Ward Office)
o पुरानो नाि सिेत (Old Land Certificate)
o नागररकता (Citizenship Copy)

Pro Tips

 Always cross-check physical land with digital records

 For disputed land, request "Jinjirmat" (field survey)
 Use registered surveyors (लाइसेन्स प्राप्त नापी टे ष्ट्क्नमसयन)

Q.10. What are the measures legislation to conservation of environment in

Nepal? write in brief about the above relating legislations.

1. Constitution of Nepal (2015)

 Article 30: Guarantees citizens' right to a clean environment.

 Article 51(g): Directs the state to pursue sustainable development and climate
resilience.

2. Environment Protection Act (2019)

 Key Focus:

o Requires Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) for development projects.

o Penalties: Up to NPR 500,000 fine or 5 years imprisonment for pollution violations.
 Achievement: Cancelled 3 hydropower projects for violating EIA rules (2023).
 3. National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act (1973)

 Protects:

o 20+ protected areas (e.g., Chitwan, Sagarmatha NPs).

o Endangered species (e.g., tiger, rhino).
 Penalty: NPR 1 million fine + 15 years jail for poaching.

4. Forest Act (2019)

 Community Forestry: 22,000+ community forests manage 2.2 million hectares.

 Ban: Illegal logging carries 10-year jail terms.

5. Climate Change Policy (2019)

 Targets:

o Net-zero emissions by 2045.

o 45% forest cover (currently 44.74%).

6. Solid Waste Management Act (2011)

 Rules:

o Segregate waste (organic/inorganic).

o Ban on plastic bags <40 microns.
 Impact: Kathmandu’s waste recycling increased by 30%.

7. Clean Air Act (Draft, 2023)

 Proposes:

o Euro-6 standards for vehicles by 2025.

o Real-time air quality monitoring in 15 cities.

8. Wetland Conservation Guidelines (2020)

 Protects: 10 Ramsar sites (e.g., Koshi Tappu).

 Restores: 5,000+ hectares of degraded wetlands.
 Gaps & Challenges

 Weak enforcement of EIA rules (only 60% compliance).

 Corruption in forest product smuggling.
 Urban areas lag in waste management.

Q.11. What is land tenure system? What are the importance of land tenure
system?

A land tenure system refers to the legal and customary framework that defines how
land is owned, used, transferred, and managed in a society. It determines:
✔ Who can own/hold land (individuals, communities, government)
✔ Rights attached to land (ownership, lease, inheritance)
✔ Restrictions on land use (agriculture, construction, conservation)

Types of Land Tenure Systems

Type Description Example in Nepal

Urban residential lands (e.g.,

Freehold Full private ownership (buy/sell/inherit)
Kathmandu)

Leasehold Temporary rights (fixed-term lease) Government-leased industrial land

Collective ownership (indigenous Tharu peoples’ traditional lands

Communal
communities) (Kailali)
 Type Description Example in Nepal

State-
Government-controlled land National parks, highways
owned

Customary Unwritten traditional rights Pasturelands in Himalayan regions

Importance of Land Tenure Systems

1. Ensures Legal Security

 Prevents land grabs and disputes by clarifying ownership.

 Example: Nepal’s e-Dharti system digitizes records to reduce fraud.

2. Promotes Economic Growth

 Enables bank loans (using land as collateral).

 Farmers invest more when tenure is secure (+30% productivity).

3. Reduces Conflicts

 Clear boundaries minimize neighbor disputes (60% of Nepal’s court cases are land-
related).

4. Supports Sustainable Land Use

 Prevents over-exploitation (e.g., deforestation in unprotected lands).

 Nepal’s Community Forestry Program (45% forest cover maintained).
 5. Empowers Marginalized Groups

 Women’s ownership: Joint-titling in Nepal increased women’s land access

by 18% (2023).
 Indigenous rights: Recognizes traditional lands (e.g., Kirat community in Dhankuta).

6. Facilitates Urban Planning

 Organized tenure helps infrastructure development (e.g., Kathmandu Metro).

7. Attracts Investment

 Secure tenure encourages foreign/local investors (e.g., industrial parks in Birgunj).

Nepal’s Land Tenure Reforms

 2019 Land Use Policy: Classifies land into agricultural, residential, commercial.
 2021 Land Act: Streamlines inheritance and women’s co-ownership.
 e-Governance: Online land registration cuts processing time from 6 months → 7
days.

Q.12. What are the role of land law for the sustainable development?

Role of Land Law in Sustainable Development

Land laws play a critical role in achieving economic growth, social equity, and
environmental protection—the three pillars of sustainable development. Here’s how:
1. Ensures Secure Land Tenure

✔ Encourages Investment: Clear ownership rights motivate farmers/businesses to

invest in land (e.g., irrigation, infrastructure).
✔ Reduces Disputes: Proper documentation minimizes conflicts (Nepal’s 60% court
cases are land-related).

Example: Nepal’s e-Dharti system digitizes records, cutting fraud by 40%.

2. Promotes Equitable Land Distribution

✔ Protects Vulnerable Groups: Ensures women, indigenous communities, and the poor
have land access.
✔ Prevents Land Grabbing: Laws restrict illegal occupation (e.g., Nepal’s Land Act
2021 penalizes fake titles).

Impact: Joint land titles increased women’s ownership by 25% (2023).

3. Supports Agricultural Productivity

✔ Prevents Fragmentation: Laws regulate land subdivisions (e.g., Nepal’s minimum

landholding size rules).
✔ Encourages Modern Farming: Secure tenure allows farmers to adopt climate-smart
techniques.

Case: Nepal’s Land Use Policy 2019 protects fertile land from haphazard urbanization.
4. Facilitates Urban Planning

✔ Zoning Laws: Direct residential/commercial growth (e.g., Kathmandu’s high-rise

building codes).
✔ Slum Upgrading: Provides legal pathways to formalize informal settlements.

Example: Pokhara’s land-use plan reduced river encroachment by 35%.

5. Protects the Environment

✔ Bans Deforestation: Nepal’s Forest Act 2019 safeguards community forests.

✔ Controls Pollution: Laws regulate industrial land use (e.g., EIA requirements).

Result: Nepal’s forest cover increased to 44.74% (2023).

6. Enhances Disaster Resilience

✔ Restricts Risky Areas: No-construction zones near rivers/landslides.

✔ Post-Disaster Recovery: Fast-tracks land records restoration (e.g., after 2015
earthquake).

Example: Re-mapped 15,000 earthquake-affected plots via GPS surveys.

7. Attracts Responsible Investment

✔ Leasehold Farming: Laws enable long-term agro-investments (e.g., 90-year leases).

✔ Transparent Transactions: Digital systems reduce corruption in land deals.

Impact: FDI in agriculture rose by 18% after land reforms.

Nepal’s Progress & Challenges

Achievement Challenge

Weak
Women’s co-ownership increased enforcement in
rural areas

Corruption in land
40% fewer land disputes
offices

Climate threats to
98% digitized land records
farmland
 Long Question
[Link] briefly about land law of chine. How chines land law is
different than Nepal's land law?

China’s Land Law

China follows a socialist land ownership system where:

✔ All land is state-owned (urban) or collectively owned (rural) – No private land
ownership.
✔ Use rights (not ownership) are granted to individuals/companies via:

 70-year leases (urban residential/commercial land).

 30-year contracts (rural farmland).
✔ Government controls land transfers and can reclaim land for public projects (with
compensation).

Key Laws:

 Land Administration Law (1998, amended 2019) – Regulates land use, expropriation,
and rural reforms.
 Property Law (2007) – Defines rights over buildings (not land).

Differences Between China’s and Nepal’s Land Laws

Aspect China Nepal

No private ownership; Private ownership allowed

Ownership
state/collective only (freehold/leasehold)

Farmers get 30-year use rights

Rural Land Farmers own land (can sell/inherit)
(no sale)
 Aspect China Nepal

70-year leases for

Urban Land Freehold ownership (permanent rights)
homes/businesses

Government Can expropriate land easily for Expropriation requires strict compensation
Role development (Land Act 2021)

Foreigners’
Cannot buy land; only lease Cannot buy land; 90-year max lease
Rights

Women’s Equal use rights (but limited Joint titling mandatory for marital
Rights ownership) property

Dispute Handled by state-controlled

Courts/local governments mediate
Resolution committees

Unique Features of Each System

China:

 Hukou System: Rural vs. urban residency affects land access.

 Land Finance: Local governments lease land to fund infrastructure.

Nepal:

 Customary Rights: Recognizes indigenous/community land (e.g., Tharu communities).

 Digital Reforms: e-Dharti system reduces fraud (China relies more on state oversight).
 [Link] do you mean by the law of real property and establish its real
relationship with the law of land with reference to Nepal?

Law of Real Property and Its Relationship with the Law of Land in Nepal

1. Definition of the Law of Real Property

The law of real property governs the ownership, use, transfer, and regulation
of immovable property (land, buildings, and permanent structures). It includes:

 Rights related to ownership, possession, lease, and inheritance.

 Legal procedures for buying, selling, and registering property.
 Dispute resolution mechanisms concerning land and real estate.

In Nepal, this falls under broader property laws, influenced by statutory provisions,
customary practices, and judicial precedents.

2. Law of Land in Nepal

The law of land in Nepal specifically deals with:

 Land ownership (private, state, guthi, and communal land).

 Land administration (survey, records, and taxation).
 Land reforms (redistribution, tenancy rights, and ceiling laws).
 Land use regulations (agricultural, residential, and commercial zoning).

Key legislations include:

 Land Act, 2021 (1964) – Governs land ownership and tenancy.

 Land Revenue Act, 2034 (1977) – Regulates land taxation and records.
 Land Use Act, 2019 – Controls land utilization and zoning.

3. Relationship Between the Law of Real Property and the Law of Land

In Nepal, these two legal domains are interconnected:

 Legal Framework Overlap:

o The Muluki Civil Code, 2074 (2017) consolidates real property laws, while land-specific
laws (e.g., Land Act) regulate ownership and transactions.
o Both systems require registration at the Land Revenue Office for validity.
 Ownership & Transfer:

o The law of land defines who can own land (e.g., restrictions on foreigners).
o The law of real property ensures valid transactions (sales, mortgages, leases).
 Dispute Resolution:

o Conflicts over land ownership are resolved under land laws, while real property disputes
(e.g., breach of contract) fall under civil law.
 Land Reforms & Property Rights:

o Historic reforms (e.g., Land Reform Act, 1964) redistributed land, affecting real
property ownership.
o Guthi land (trust property) has unique regulations under both systems.

4. Conclusion

While the law of real property broadly governs immovable assets, the law of land in
Nepal provides the foundational rules for ownership, administration, and use. Both work
together to ensure legal clarity in property transactions, dispute resolution, and land
management.
 Explore two key aspects of property and land laws in Nepal that often raise questions:

1. Foreign Ownership of Land and Real Property in Nepal

Legal Restrictions:

 Constitutional & Legal Barrier:

o Article 25(5) of the Nepal Constitution (2015) prohibits foreigners from owning land
or immovable property, except through specific treaties or laws.
o Foreign Investment and Technology Transfer Act (2019) allows foreign investors
to lease land (up to 50-70 years) but not own it outright.

Exceptions & Workarounds:

 Long-term Lease (Industrial/Commercial Use):

o Foreign companies can lease land for industries, tourism, or infrastructure projects (up
to 70 years, renewable).
 Marriage or Inheritance (Limited Cases):

o A foreigner married to a Nepali citizen can acquire property, but cannot transfer it to
non-Nepali heirs.
 Diplomatic Missions & INGOs:

o Foreign embassies and approved NGOs can hold land for official purposes under special
agreements.

Practical Challenges:

 Bank Financing: Foreigners cannot mortgage Nepali property for loans.

 Taxation: Leased property is subject to higher taxes compared to Nepali-owned land.
 2. Inheritance Rights in Nepali Property Law

Governing Laws:

 Muluki Civil Code, 2074 (2017) – Primary law for inheritance.

 Property Rights Based on Religion & Gender:

o Hindu Tradition (Previously Dominant): Sons had preferential rights, but reforms now
ensure equal rights for daughters.
o Secular Law (Current): Gender equality is enforced; sons and daughters inherit equally.

Key Inheritance Rules:

1. Intestate Succession (No Will):

o First Claim: Spouse, children (sons & daughters equally).

o If No Children: Parents, then siblings.
o If No Heirs: Property goes to the state.
2. Testamentary Succession (Will):

o A person can will property to anyone, but:

 Legal Heirs Can Challenge if unfairly excluded.

 Must be registered to be valid.
3. Joint Family Property (Ancestral Land):

o Until division (“Aba” or partition), all heirs have a claim.

o Daughters Retain Rights even after marriage (unlike old customs).

Special Cases:

 Foreign Heirs: If an heir is a foreigner, they can inherit but cannot hold agricultural
land (must sell within a year).
 Guthi Property: Inheritance follows trust rules, not general inheritance laws.
 Conclusion & Practical Advice

 For Foreigners: Lease, don’t buy; consult a lawyer for investment structures.
 For Inheritance: Ensure property is legally divided; daughters must actively claim rights.

Or
Do you think the existing land law in Nepal is adequate for the sustainable
development of the country? Discuss it with reference to Nepal.

Are Nepal’s Existing Land Laws Adequate for Sustainable Development?

Nepal’s land laws have evolved over decades, but serious gaps remain in ensuring
equitable, efficient, and environmentally sustainable land use. While some legal
frameworks support development, weak implementation, outdated provisions, and
conflicting policies hinder progress. Below is a critical analysis:

1. Strengths of Nepal’s Land Laws in Promoting Sustainable

Development

A. Land Reforms for Equity

 Land Ceiling & Redistribution:

o The Land Reform Act (1964) imposed ceilings on land ownership to reduce inequality.
o Tenancy rights were strengthened, protecting farmers from arbitrary eviction.
 Women’s Land Rights:

o The Constitution (2015) and Muluki Civil Code (2017) grant equal inheritance rights,
improving gender equity.
 B. Legal Recognition of Land Use Categories

 Land Use Act (2019) classifies land into:

o Agricultural
o Residential
o Commercial
o Forest
o Industrial
o Helps prevent haphazard urbanization and protects farmland.

C. Environmental Safeguards

 Forest Act (2019) restricts deforestation and promotes community forestry.

 Environmental Protection Act (2019) mandates Environmental Impact Assessments
(EIAs) for large land projects.

2. Major Weaknesses & Challenges

A. Poor Implementation & Corruption

 Weak Land Governance:

o Land records are outdated or fraudulent (e.g., "Dhara-Kate" fake land sales).
o Local officials often manipulate land registrations for bribes.
 Land Mafia & Illegal Occupation:

o Powerful groups grab public land (Sukumbasi settlements, Chure encroachment).

B. Inefficient Land Use & Urban Sprawl

 No Effective Zoning Enforcement:

o Fertile farmland is being converted into housing plots (Kathmandu, Tarai cities).
o Lack of vertical urban planning leads to sprawl and infrastructure strain.
 Unregulated Land Fragmentation:

o The Land Act allows subdivision of plots, leading to uneconomical farm sizes.

C. Conflicts Between Laws & Policies

 Agriculture vs. Infrastructure:

o Government acquires fertile land for roads/airports without proper compensation.

 Forest vs. Private Land Disputes:

o Many farmers face eviction due to retrospective forest boundary expansions.

D. Climate Change & Land Degradation

 Chure Conservation Issues:

o Illegal sand mining and deforestation worsen floods and erosion.

 No Strong Provisions for Climate-Resilient Farming:

o Land laws don’t incentivize conservation agriculture or watershed management.

3. Recommendations for Reforms

Issue Reform Needed

Digitize all land data (National Land Commission should modernize

Weak Land Records
cadastral mapping).

Land Mafia &

Strict penalties for illegal land grabs; fast-track courts for disputes.
Corruption
 Issue Reform Needed

Unplanned
Enforce zoning laws; promote high-rise buildings over sprawl.
Urbanization

Farmland Protection Ban conversion of fertile land; incentivize cluster farming.

Climate Adaptation Integrate land-use planning with disaster risk reduction.

Forest Encroachment Clear forest boundaries; provide alternatives for settlers.

4. Conclusion: Is the Current System Adequate?

 No, but progress is possible.

o Nepal’s land laws have good intentions, but poor enforcement, corruption, and
policy gaps undermine sustainability.
o Urgent reforms in land governance, digitization, and climate-sensitive planning are
needed.
o Without changes, Nepal risks food insecurity, environmental collapse, and social
conflicts over land.

Thank You!!!