Affective Factors in EFL Teaching" explores how learners' emotional and psychological

states influence their success in acquiring a second language, and it emphasizes teachers'
strategies to minimize barriers like the affective filter. Several key affective factors are
examined, including anxiety, self-esteem, inhibition, and risk-taking, all of which significantly
impact language learning.

**Anxiety** is a central concern, characterized by feelings of uneasiness, frustration, self-

doubt, and fear, which can hinder language acquisition. It manifests either as a trait (a stable
personality characteristic) or as a temporary state triggered by specific situations, such as
speaking in class. Language anxiety specifically includes communication apprehension, fear
of negative social evaluation, and test anxiety. Psychologists distinguish between facilitative
anxiety—helpful concern that motivates learners—and debilitating anxiety, which leads to
avoidance behaviors, poor concentration, and physiological symptoms like sweating and
palpitations. Anxiety contributes to the "affective filter," a concept proposed by Krashen,
which acts as a mental barrier preventing learners from effectively processing input
necessary for language acquisition.

**Self-esteem** involves individuals’ evaluations of their worthiness and confidence. High

self-esteem fosters a lower affective filter, making learners more open to taking risks and
engaging in language practice. Self-esteem varies across three levels: global (overall self-
worth), situational (self-assessment in specific contexts), and task-specific (confidence in
particular skills like speaking or writing). The relationship between self-esteem and language
success is bidirectional—success can boost self-esteem, and high self-esteem can facilitate
language learning.

**Inhibition** refers to feelings of embarrassment or worry that prevent learners from

speaking or participating actively. It is influenced by the development of the "language
ego"—the personal identity tied to language learning. Adults tend to experience higher
inhibition than children because of increased self-awareness and identity concerns, which
can hinder risk-taking and spontaneous communication. Reducing inhibition involves
creating supportive classroom environments where mistakes are viewed as natural parts of
learning, encouraging learners to experiment and learn from errors without fear of ego
threats.

**Risk-taking** is the willingness to attempt speaking or writing despite the possibility of

making mistakes. It is a vital component of language acquisition because it enables learners
to practice and internalize the language through trial and error. However, factors like fear of
embarrassment, poor past experiences, and external judgments can inhibit risk-taking.
Teachers can foster a safe environment that encourages students to take linguistic risks,
emphasizing that errors are valuable learning opportunities. While high risk-takers may
exhibit confidence, excessive impulsivity can sometimes lead to less effective learning; thus,
a balanced approach is necessary.

In summary, affective factors like anxiety, self-esteem, inhibition, and risk-taking play crucial
roles in second language learning. Teachers can implement strategies to reduce anxiety
(such as creating a supportive classroom atmosphere), bolster self-esteem, lower inhibition
(by encouraging risk-taking and accepting mistakes), and promote healthy risk-taking
behaviors. Addressing these emotional aspects enhances learners’ motivation, reduces
mental barriers, and ultimately fosters more effective language acquisition.

Reducing Affective Filter: Teacher techniques and strategies Reducing the affective
filter in a foreign language classroom involves using specific techniques and strategies to
create a positive and supportive learning environment. When teachers pay attention to
learners' emotions, they can help reduce negative feelings like anxiety and increase positive
ones such as confidence and motivation, making language learning more effective.

One important step is for teachers to understand the kind of anxiety their students
experience. By developing engaging lessons that match students’ learning styles, teachers
can make learners feel more comfortable and interested. It is also helpful not to correct
every mistake immediately, which can make learners feel self-conscious. Instead, teachers
should challenge students with tasks that are suitable for their development level and help
them feel successful.

Handling errors in a helpful and non-threatening way is crucial. Teachers can model correct
language use and encourage learners to experiment with speaking or writing without fear of
making mistakes. Making students aware that mistakes are a natural part of learning and
can be valuable learning experiences helps to foster a positive attitude toward errors.

Teachers should act as supportive partners or mentors rather than strict testers or judges.
Their attitude, tone of voice, and body language should be friendly and encouraging,
avoiding laughter or ridicule when students make mistakes. Creating a classroom policy that
prohibits teasing or making fun of peers helps maintain a respectful environment.

Other useful techniques include greeting students with a smile, praising their efforts, and
avoiding forcing them to speak in front of the class if they are uncomfortable. Teachers
should focus on activities that promote communication and ensure that language input is
understandable for learners’ level. Respecting the silent period—when learners need time to
absorb the language—is also important.

In summary, by fostering a positive emotional atmosphere through these strategies, teachers

can help lower the affective filter, making students more willing to communicate, take risks,
and ultimately learn a new language more successfully.
Strategies and Ways of Motivating Learners To Learn English against the background
of affective factors in the EFL classroom/ Strategies for motivating learners to learn
English, especially considering their emotional and psychological needs, are essential for
effective teaching. Mark Hancock highlights four main ways to motivate students: making
lessons useful, inspiring, friendly, and manageable. These four aspects are interconnected
and help create a positive learning environment.

Firstly, **making lessons useful** involves showing students how learning English helps
them achieve their goals. Whether they aim to pass exams, get a better job, or simply enjoy
the language and culture, teachers should clarify how each lesson contributes to these
aspirations. Short-term goals can help students see progress toward their long-term
ambitions, making learning feel meaningful.

Secondly, **inspiring students through the content** involves teaching topics that are
relevant and interesting. Teachers’ enthusiasm can motivate students, and activities that
allow personal expression keep learners engaged. Incorporating surprises or unpredictable
elements can also catch students’ attention and boost their motivation. The idea of "flow"—a
state where challenges match students’ skills—suggests that lessons should be designed to
keep learners neither bored nor overwhelmed, thus maintaining their focus and interest.

Thirdly, creating a **friendly classroom environment** is crucial. Learning a language

involves taking risks, and students may fear making mistakes or feeling foolish. Teachers
should foster a supportive atmosphere where errors are seen as part of learning, not as
failures. Respectful correction, avoiding ridicule, and encouraging cooperation among
students help build confidence and reduce fear of humiliation.

Lastly, **making learning achievable** is vital. Students are motivated when they experience
success. Teachers should set tasks that challenge students just enough—neither too easy
nor too difficult—and provide support when needed, following the concept of the Zone of
Proximal Development. Celebrating small successes and encouraging self-assessment help
students recognize their progress and build motivation. Emphasizing effort over innate ability
prevents a defeatist attitude and promotes a growth mindset.

In summary, effective motivation in the EFL classroom involves making lessons relevant and
inspiring, creating a positive and supportive social atmosphere, and ensuring tasks are
within students’ reach. When teachers incorporate these strategies, they help students feel
more confident, engaged, and motivated to learn English.

Principles for the development effective aims, objectives and learning outcomes
Defining Key Terms **Learning outcomes** are statements from the learners' perspective
that describe what students should know or be able to do after completing a course or
activity. They focus on the skills or knowledge learners will demonstrate and emphasize how
this knowledge can be applied in different contexts. Well-crafted learning outcomes are
student-centered, meaning they highlight what learners can achieve, not just what content is
covered. They guide assessment and evaluation, ensuring that learning is meaningful and
relevant. Effective outcomes should reflect the institution’s values and align across different
levels, from individual courses to the entire institution.
**Aims**, from the teacher’s perspective, are broad and general statements about the overall
purpose or goals of a course or lesson. They serve as mission statements that provide the
“big picture” of what the learning experience intends to achieve. Aims focus on the purpose
and scope rather than specific skills or tasks. For example, an aim might be to introduce
students to basic conversational skills or to develop an understanding of a particular subject
area. Some teachers also set personal aims related to their teaching performance, such as
improving clarity of instructions or managing time better. These are long-term goals that can
be revisited and refined over multiple lessons or terms.

**Objectives** are more specific and detailed from the teacher’s perspective. They describe
exactly how the teaching aims will be achieved and provide operational steps for instruction.
Objectives specify what learners should accomplish by the end of a lesson or activity,
including particular skills or knowledge they should master. They focus on the content and
the process, breaking down the broader aims into concrete, measurable steps. Clear
objectives help teachers plan their lessons effectively and give learners a clear
understanding of what they are expected to learn and do.

In summary, developing effective aims, objectives, and learning outcomes involves creating
a coherent structure that guides teaching and learning. Aims set the overall purpose,
objectives detail the specific steps to achieve these aims, and learning outcomes describe
what learners will be able to do after completing the course. All three should be aligned,
student-centered, and focused on meaningful learning and application.

Developing Learning aims, Objectives and Outcomes

Developing clear learning aims, objectives, and outcomes is essential for effective teaching.
To do this well, teachers should ask themselves key questions such as: What is the purpose
of this lesson? How does it fit into the broader course? What benefits will learners gain? And
what should the lesson achieve? The main aim should be derived from a course plan that
ensures a logical progression of learning goals throughout the course. Instead of focusing
solely on what content to teach, teachers should think about what students should be able to
do after the lesson, emphasizing practical skills and abilities.

When defining aims, it’s important to consider the broader purpose or goal of the lesson,
often linked to specific language points or skills like reading or speaking. A good aim is
student-centered, focusing on what learners will accomplish, not just what teachers will
teach. For example, instead of saying “to teach future tense forms,” a better aim is “to enable
students to discuss their future plans using will and going to.”

To measure whether students have achieved the aim, teachers should plan how to
recognize success, which helps in evaluating and improving lessons. A well-structured aim
typically includes three elements: the knowledge (language elements such as grammar or
vocabulary), the skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing), and the context (real-life
situations where the language is used). For instance, teaching holiday-related vocabulary
involves selecting relevant words, focusing on skills like speaking or writing, and relating the
lesson to practical situations like making travel plans or describing holidays.
When creating learning objectives, teachers should decide what students need to do to
demonstrate their learning. Objectives are specific and measurable actions students should
perform, such as “list,” “explain,” or “describe.” These should be clear, concise, and use
active verbs to avoid vague terms like “know” or “understand,” which are difficult to assess
objectively. For example, instead of “students will understand future tense,” a measurable
objective is “students will be able to use ‘will’ and ‘going to’ to describe future plans.”

Finally, effective learning outcomes should be SMART: Specific, Measurable, Attainable,

Relevant, and Time-framed. They guide both teaching and assessment, ensuring that the
goals are clear and achievable within a set timeframe. By carefully designing aims,
objectives, and outcomes, teachers can create lessons that are purposeful, focused, and
aligned with students’ needs, leading to more effective language learning.

SLA Internal factors

Internal factors in second language acquisition (SLA) are the personal qualities and
background of the learner that influence how effectively they learn a new language. These
factors are inherent to the individual and play a significant role in shaping the learning
process.

One key internal factor is **age**. Generally, learners who already have strong literacy skills
in their first language tend to acquire a second language more efficiently. Older learners can
also be successful, especially if motivated, but often find it more difficult to achieve
pronunciation and intonation similar to native speakers.

**Personality** also affects SLA. Introverted or anxious learners tend to progress more
slowly, especially in speaking skills, because they may hesitate to participate or practice
speaking. In contrast, outgoing students are more willing to take risks, make mistakes, and
practice speaking, which helps their language development.

**Motivation** is another crucial factor. Learners with strong **intrinsic motivation**, who
genuinely enjoy learning languages and take pride in their progress, usually achieve better
results. External motivators, such as needing English for university admission or social
reasons, can also boost effort and progress.

**Previous experiences** and exposure to different cultures and languages provide a solid
foundation for learning a new language. For example, students who have traveled or lived
abroad are often better equipped to acquire additional languages because of their broader
linguistic and cultural background.

**Cognitive abilities** also matter. Learners with higher intelligence or greater cognitive skills
tend to progress faster. Some linguists suggest that innate language learning abilities vary
among individuals, giving some an advantage in acquiring new languages more quickly.

Lastly, **the learner's first language** influences the ease of learning a second language.
When the new language belongs to the same language family as the first, learning is
generally easier. For example, a Dutch learner will often find it easier to learn English than a
Japanese learner, due to similarities in vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation.

In summary, internal factors such as age, personality, motivation, prior experience, cognitive
skills, and the relationship between first and second languages all significantly impact how a
person learns a new language. Recognizing these factors can help tailor more effective
language learning strategies.

External factors
External factors in second language acquisition (SLA) refer to the elements related to the
learning environment and situation that influence how effectively a person learns a new
language. These factors shape the opportunities and support available to learners outside of
their personal characteristics.

One important external factor is the **curriculum**. For ESL students, it is vital that their
overall educational experience aligns with their language learning needs. Being fully
immersed in mainstream classes without extra support can be challenging for less proficient
students, while allowing them to participate in the mainstream only after reaching a certain
level can be more effective.

**Instruction** also plays a crucial role. The quality of teaching can greatly affect progress;
teachers who are skilled at creating suitable and engaging learning experiences tend to help
students learn faster. For example, a science teacher who recognizes their role in students’
language development and makes necessary adjustments can support their linguistic
progress.

**Culture and social status** impact learning as well. Students whose native culture is
viewed as lower status compared to the culture where they are learning the language often
experience slower progress. Feelings of cultural marginalization or lack of acceptance can
hinder motivation and confidence.

**Extrinsic motivation**, meaning encouragement and support from teachers and parents, is
another key factor. Students who receive ongoing, positive reinforcement are more likely to
stay motivated and improve. Conversely, students from families that do not prioritize
language learning may progress more slowly.

Lastly, **access to native speakers** significantly influences language development. Regular

interaction with native speakers provides models of authentic pronunciation, grammar, and
usage, along with valuable feedback. Students without these opportunities often struggle
more, especially with speaking and listening skills.

In summary, external factors such as curriculum design, quality of instruction, cultural

environment, motivation from outside sources, and opportunities to interact with native
speakers greatly affect how quickly and effectively learners acquire a new language. These
environmental elements can either facilitate or hinder progress depending on how well they
are organized and supported.
Affective factors
Affective factors in second language acquisition (SLA) refer to emotional and psychological
variables that influence how well a person learns a new language. The affective filter
hypothesis explains how these factors can either help or hinder language learning by
affecting the learner’s ability to receive and process input.

Key affective factors include **motivation**, **self-confidence**, and **anxiety**. Motivation

motivates learners to engage and persist in learning, while self-confidence helps them to
take risks and practice speaking or listening without fear. On the other hand, anxiety and
fear can create mental barriers that block the learner’s ability to absorb new information.

According to the affective filter hypothesis, negative emotions like nervousness, boredom, or
insecurity increase the “filter,” making it harder for comprehensible input—language that
learners can understand and learn from—to reach the brain’s language areas. When the
affective filter is high, learning slows down or stalls because the learner is not fully open to
receiving new language input. Conversely, positive emotions lower this filter, making it easier
for learners to absorb new language skills.

In summary, affective factors play a crucial role in SLA because they influence the learner’s
emotional state, which can either facilitate or prevent effective language learning. A positive
emotional attitude tends to promote better progress, while negative feelings can create
barriers to acquiring a new language.

Learner Autonomy: Conditions and Strategies for Development

Learner autonomy is an important concept in language teaching, emphasizing the
development of learners' independence in managing their own learning process. It
recognizes that learning a language is a lifelong journey, requiring learners to work both
inside and outside the classroom. Autonomy means that learners can set their own goals
and choose strategies to achieve them, often without immediate teacher intervention. By
taking responsibility for their learning, learners become more efficient and motivated, leading
to deeper understanding and progress.

Full autonomy involves learners making all decisions about their learning without relying on
teachers or prepared materials. It requires skills such as critical reflection, decision-making,
and independent action. Autonomous learners have learned how to learn; they possess
strategies, knowledge, and attitudes that allow them to learn confidently and flexibly. They
are willing to act independently and also cooperate with others, showing social responsibility.

Developing learner autonomy is challenging because it involves changing students’

traditional, teacher-centered attitudes and behaviors. A supportive social environment is
essential, where students feel free to experiment with new learning behaviors, attitudes, and
ideas. For autonomy to be meaningful, it must extend beyond the classroom to real-life
situations.
Teachers play a crucial role in fostering autonomy by designing courses that raise students’
awareness of their learning process, goals, and strategies. Motivation is also vital, as
students need to see the value in adapting and creating their own learning plans based on
their individual needs, cultures, and backgrounds. Collaboration among learners encourages
shared learning and decision-making, creating a space where learners can choose content,
methods, and activities.

In an autonomous learning environment, students are given opportunities to choose their

learning content, reflect on their progress, modify materials, and share their experiences with
others. Flexibility and adaptability allow learners to change activities or approaches when
needed. Reflection helps students evaluate their learning and plan future steps. Overall,
fostering learner autonomy requires creating a classroom environment that encourages
choice, responsibility, and cooperation, helping students become independent, self-
motivated, and socially responsible learners.

Aut/in the Classr.Gr.-oriented Approaches to Developing Autonomy.

Autonomy in the classroom can be fostered through group-oriented approaches, such as

group work and pair work, which promote collaboration and social interaction among
students. These techniques transform the traditional, teacher-centered classroom into a
more student-centered environment, where learners actively participate and take
responsibility for their own learning.
In traditional settings, teachers typically control the class with authority, and students have a
passive role during lessons. However, group work shifts this dynamic, making students more
autonomous as they work together to achieve common goals. In this setup, teachers act
more as facilitators, guiding and monitoring students rather than directly instructing. This
allows teachers to observe students’ language use more closely and provide support when
needed.
Group work encourages students to interact with different classmates, helping them learn
how to lead, cooperate, and communicate effectively. It also gives students more speaking
practice and makes lessons more dynamic and engaging. When students work together,
they experience a sense of achievement by reaching shared objectives, which enhances
their motivation and confidence.
Overall, group-oriented approaches help students develop independence and practical
language skills by creating a learning environment where they can collaborate, reflect, and
learn from each other. This method not only supports language development but also fosters
a sense of responsibility and teamwork, making the learning process more meaningful and
effective.

Project work in the ELT classroom.

Project work is increasingly used in the English Language Teaching (ELT) classroom as an
effective way to enhance learning. It involves students working together to complete a task
or create a product, such as class magazines, displays about their countries, or city designs
for the future. In this approach, students actively decide what they want to do, while the
teacher provides support and guidance rather than direct instruction.

There are several key benefits to using project work in language learning. First, it boosts
motivation because students feel personally involved and invested in their projects. Second,
it encourages the use of all four language skills—reading, writing, listening, and speaking—
integrating them into meaningful activities. Third, it promotes autonomous learning, as
students take responsibility for planning and completing their tasks.

Another advantage is that project work leads to tangible learning outcomes, such as a
finished product or presentation. It also offers authentic language use, making the input
more realistic and relevant. Working in groups helps develop interpersonal skills and
cooperation among students. Additionally, content and methodology are often decided
collaboratively, making the learning process more learner-centered.

Project work can also involve parents, especially if students receive help at home or display
their projects at events, fostering greater parental involvement in the child's education. It
provides a refreshing change from routine lessons and creates a context that balances the
need for both fluency and accuracy in language use.

Overall, project work is a versatile and engaging approach that not only improves language
skills but also encourages independence, collaboration, and real-world application of
language.

Autonomy beyond the Classroom

Beyond the classroom, the concept of autonomy in language learning extends to the use of
self-access materials and resources. Self-access refers to learning materials that are
thoughtfully designed and organized so that students can choose and work on tasks
independently. These materials often include tools such as answer keys or feedback options
that help learners evaluate their progress. However, it is important to note that using self-
access resources does not automatically make a learner autonomous. Similarly, learners
who attend lessons with a teacher are not necessarily less autonomous than those who use
self-access materials.
There is a clear connection between self-access and learner autonomy. Autonomy involves
giving learners the opportunity to make choices and take control of their own learning
process. Self-access materials provide a variety of ways for learners to explore, practice,
and improve their language skills independently. Therefore, self-access can serve as a
context in which learners develop greater autonomy.
In language institutions, self-access centers are spaces where learning resources are
organized and made available for students to study on their own. These centers support
learners in becoming more responsible and independent in their language learning journey,
fostering the development of autonomy outside formal classroom settings.
CALL Computer-Assisted Language Learning
With the rise of the Internet, computer technology has become a central part of both formal
and informal language learning. This development has created many opportunities for
learners to become more autonomous, especially through the use of Computer-Assisted
Language Learning (CALL). CALL involves using computers and digital tools to support
language teaching and learning, ranging from simple drill-and-practice programs in the past
to more advanced online platforms and virtual environments today.
Modern CALL emphasizes student-centered approaches, offering materials that allow
learners to work independently. These materials often include interactive and personalized
features, helping learners to practice and reinforce their skills at their own pace. CALL
serves as a tool for teachers to support, supplement, or remediate classroom instruction.
When combined with face-to-face teaching, it creates a blended learning environment, which
is becoming more common and aims to maximize learning potential.
Distance learning is another form of autonomous learning that overlaps with CALL. It allows
learners to study independently without strict classroom constraints, often through online
courses or asynchronous networks. Tandem learning, where two learners help each other
practice their target languages, has also been linked to autonomy. Although it was less
popular before the Internet, now many universities promote tandem learning as a useful
method.
Additionally, studying abroad provides learners with opportunities to immerse themselves in
real-life language environments, mainly through interaction with native speakers,
encouraging independent learning outside traditional classroom settings. Self-instruction
refers to using self-study materials, whether printed or broadcast, and can extend to
situations where learners study largely or entirely without teacher support.
Overall, CALL and related autonomous learning methods have expanded the possibilities for
learners to take control of their language learning, making it more flexible, interactive, and
tailored to individual needs.

Out-of-class learning.
Out-of-class learning involves activities and resources outside the traditional classroom
setting, offering students more flexibility and opportunities to learn independently. To
promote this, teachers and schools can integrate extracurricular activities with formal
curricula, making learning more engaging and effective. For example, schools might develop
specialized online platforms or websites accessible only to students, containing various
English exercises aligned with their textbooks and majors. These activities encourage self-
directed learning, as students can choose exercises, earn scores, and seek online help
when facing difficulties, which enhances their vocabulary and reading skills.
Adding extracurricular courses and projects further diversifies learning methods, moving
away from rigid homework and exams. These activities allow students to explore topics
freely, develop autonomous skills, and take responsibility for their learning. Teachers
transition from being the central figures to roles like advisors and facilitators, guiding
students through their self-led activities. This shift helps students realize the importance of
managing their own learning and makes them more willing to participate in out-of-class
opportunities.
Other methods to support autonomous learning include creating dedicated spaces, such as
rooms for practicing spoken English, where students can practice without fear of criticism.
These spaces can be booked online, and teachers can assist as needed. Additionally,
linking out-of-class activities to future employment opportunities can motivate students; for
example, participating in job fairs or preparing for English certification exams through self-
study and support centers. Schools might also establish centers for academic writing to help
students improve their writing skills.
Connecting classroom learning to everyday life is another effective strategy. Teachers can
incorporate topics like English songs into lessons, encouraging students to imitate lyrics to
improve pronunciation and oral skills. Overall, out-of-class learning enriches students'
language development by fostering independence, responsibility, and real-world relevance,
making learning more dynamic and tailored to individual needs.

Principles of Communicative Language Teaching

The main features of CLT

Since the 1990s, the communicative approach to language teaching has become widely
adopted. This approach focuses on developing communicative competence, which means
being able to use the language effectively in real-life situations. It is based on a set of broad
principles that can be adapted to different teaching contexts, depending on factors such as
the learners’ age, level, and learning goals. As our understanding of second language
learning has grown, so has the evolution of communicative language teaching.
There are several key principles that underpin current practices in this approach. First,
language learning is most effective when students are engaged in meaningful
communication and interaction. Classroom activities should offer opportunities for learners to
negotiate meaning, expand their language skills, observe how language is used naturally,
and participate in genuine interpersonal exchanges. Second, content that is relevant,
interesting, and purposeful makes communication more meaningful and engaging for
students.
Another important feature is that communication involves multiple skills and modalities,
making it a holistic process. Effective language learning combines activities that promote
discovery and understanding of language rules with those that involve analysis and
reflection. Learning is seen as a gradual process that involves creativity, experimentation,
and accepting errors as part of the journey toward fluency and accuracy.
Learners have different routes, progress at various paces, and possess diverse needs and
motivations. Therefore, successful language learning requires the use of effective strategies
for both learning and communication. The role of the teacher shifts from being a traditional
instructor to a facilitator who creates a supportive environment, encourages practice, and
promotes reflection on language use.
Finally, the classroom is viewed as a community where learners collaborate and share their
experiences. This collaborative environment enhances motivation and helps learners
develop their language skills in a social context. Overall, communicative language teaching
emphasizes real-world communication, learner autonomy, and a supportive classroom
community to foster effective language acquisition.
The main principles of CLT
The principles of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) have brought about significant
changes in how languages are taught, as outlined by Jacobs and Farrell. These changes
reflect a shift towards more student-centered, interactive, and meaningful learning
experiences.
One major principle is **learner autonomy**, which encourages students to take more
control over their own learning. This can be achieved by allowing choices in learning content
and methods, such as working in small groups or engaging in self-assessment activities.
Another key aspect is the **social nature of learning**, emphasizing that language
acquisition is a social process that depends on interaction with others. Cooperative learning
methods exemplify this idea, promoting collaboration among students.
**Curricular integration** is also important; it involves connecting English with other subjects
to make learning more relevant and practical. For example, project work and text-based
activities help students develop skills that can be applied across different areas, encouraging
a broader understanding of language use in real contexts. The **focus on meaning** further
supports this approach, prioritizing understanding and communication over rote
memorization. Content-based activities help learners explore meaningful topics, making
language learning more engaging.
Recognizing **diversity** in learners is crucial, as students learn in different ways and have
varying strengths. Teaching strategies now aim to cater to these differences by developing
students’ learning and metacognitive strategies. Additionally, **thinking skills** are
emphasized, encouraging students to use language to develop higher-order thinking, such
as critical and creative thinking, beyond simple language practice.
**Alternative assessment** methods are another important principle. Instead of traditional
tests that assess basic skills, diverse evaluation tools like portfolios, interviews, journals, and
observations are used to gain a fuller picture of students’ abilities. Lastly, **teachers as co-
learners** highlights the role of teachers as facilitators who actively experiment with different
teaching methods, often engaging in classroom research to improve their practice.
Overall, these principles foster a more interactive, meaningful, and student-centered
approach to language teaching, focusing on developing practical communication skills,
fostering independence, and encouraging active participation.

The role of teachers and learners

In Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), both teachers and learners have new roles
that promote active participation and cooperation in the classroom. Learners are encouraged
to work in pairs or groups, which fosters a more collaborative approach to learning. Instead
of depending solely on the teacher for models of correct language, students are expected to
listen to and learn from their peers. They take on more responsibility for their own learning,
becoming active participants in their language development.
Teachers, on the other hand, shift from being the primary source of correct language models
to facilitators of communication. Their role involves creating situations that encourage
interaction, observing student performance, and providing constructive feedback. Teachers
also use authentic materials to make language learning more real and relevant, focusing on
language functions rather than just grammatical forms. During activities aimed at fluency,
teachers are more tolerant of errors, recognizing that making mistakes is part of learning.
For learners, their role is that of negotiators, balancing their own understanding, the learning
process, and the language they aim to acquire. They should contribute actively, learning
independently and engaging mostly with their peers rather than only with the teacher. This
interaction helps students exchange information, develop their skills, and gain confidence in
using the language in real-life situations.
Overall, CLT emphasizes a shared responsibility, where teachers guide and support, and
learners take an active, communicative role in their language journey.

Communicative language competences

Communicative language competence encompasses several interconnected skills essential
for effective communication. At its core is **linguistic competence**, which refers to a
person's knowledge of the language’s structure and meaning, including spelling,
pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and sentence construction. This competence is
fundamental, as it forms the basis for all other communicative abilities. However, a key
challenge in language teaching is balancing **form-focused activities**, aimed at correctness
and accuracy, with **meaning-focused activities**, which promote fluency and the
negotiation of meaning. Integrating these two approaches effectively in lessons remains a
central concern.
Beyond linguistic knowledge, **pragmatic competence** involves understanding how to use
language appropriately to achieve specific goals. It is divided into **illocutionary
competence**, which is the ability to perform speech acts like making requests or offering
suggestions, and **sociolinguistic competence**, which is knowing how to adapt language
according to social contexts, roles, and relationships. For example, knowing when to speak
or remain silent, and what to say in different social situations.
**Discourse competence** relates to managing conversations effectively. It includes skills
like initiating, maintaining, and developing a conversation or written text. Learners need to
master discourse markers such as “By the way” or “That’s all very well, but,” which help
structure and guide conversations or texts.
**Textual competence** involves creating and understanding coherent written and spoken
texts. It includes skills for organizing ideas clearly and interpreting messages accurately,
whether in conversation or writing.
Finally, **strategic competence** covers the ability to handle real-life communication
challenges. It involves using strategies to cope when learners cannot find the right words or
express themselves fully. These strategies might include changing their message, seeking
alternative expressions, or using gestures and other cues to keep the conversation going.
In summary, developing effective communicative competence in language learning involves
not only mastering the language’s form but also understanding how to use it appropriately in
various social and functional contexts. Balancing accuracy with fluency and employing
strategic skills are essential for successful communication.