West Africa Built Environment Research (WABER) Conference
10th Anniversary Conference, 5-7 August 2019, Accra, Ghana
Proceedings Edited by Laryea, S. and Essah, E.
ISBN: 978 – 9988 – 2– 6010 – 1
DOI: [Link]
INNOVATIVE ARCHITECTURE FOR FLOOD RESILIENCE: A
RESPONSE TO SUBMERGED NIGERIAN CITIES
Adegboyega T. Durowoju
1
G D Architects Ltd., Croydon, UK
Prolonged rainfall and overflowing river banks have made flooding a common
problem in Nigeria. Recent flood events in 2018 have been described as the worst
in 40years. Available records show that more than 825,000 people have been
affected across the country while properties worth billions of Naira have been
destroyed. Climate change has induced significant impacts on Nigeria such as
aggravating urban flooding exacerbated by human activities. In addressing this
challenge, a strategic approach is required to enable communities to adapt to the
consequences of flooding, create sustainable environments whilst developing
technological and innovative solutions. This study utilizes secondary data from the
National Emergency Management Agency [NEMA], research papers and newspaper
articles to unravel the anthropogenic factors that contribute to the incessant floods.
Key lessons were synthesized and the evidence suggests that there is recognition
of the need to take action on the impacts of climate change. Going forward,
innovative adaptation solutions should be incorporated into development
management plans with all efforts geared towards sustaining livelihoods and assets
of people. The research takes into account some examples as a tool for the
development of innovative knowledge and concludes by recommending
sustainable practical suggestions that could reduce the impact of flooding in the
Nigerian built environment.
Keywords: climate change, flood, innovative architecture, resilience, sustainability
INTRODUCTION
Flooding is a general condition of dry land being submerged in water [Ward, 1978]
which occurs from overflowing tidal waters, heavy rainfall and extreme climatic
events. Odufuwa et al, [2012] noted that floods are the most widespread and
frequent of natural hazards of the world resulting in fatalities in the region of
20,000 persons annually [UN-Water, 2011] thereby confirming that only very few
countries are immune from floods. The growing flood scenarios worldwide have
resulted in the loss of human lives, the displacement of persons, loss of property
and destruction of the environment. Asides from spells of prolonged heavy rainfall,
flooding is attributable to changes in built-up areas. Rapid population growth and
migration have led to increased urbanization with 70million people exposed to
flooding globally [Peduzzi et al, 2009; Raaijmakers et al, 2008]. In 2016, the UN
Habitiat in its World Cities Report projected that by 2030, the urban population of
developing countries will double, while the area covered by cities could triple. This
1
gdurowoju@[Link]; [Link]@[Link]
Adegboyega T. Durowoju (2019) Innovative architecture for flood resilience: a response
to submerged Nigerian cities In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment
Research (WABER) Conference, 5-7 August 2019, Accra, Ghana, 722-735
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has generated slums and squatter settlements with limited or no access to potable
water, electricity, sanitation and waste disposal [Dimuna and Omatsone, 2010].
Urbanization creates a varied set of challenges in communities and these include
large areas of ground covering with buildings, roofs, roads and pavements thus
creating obstructions to natural water channels [Douglas et al, 2008]. Incidences of
destructive flooding in Nigeria is not a recent phenomenon with records dating as
far back as 1951 [Agbola et al, 2012]. The National Emergency Management Agency
[NEMA] in Nigeria reported that as at October 9, 2018, a total of 103 Local
Government Areas [LGAs] across 10 states in the country, were impacted by severe
flooding with an estimated 1.9 million people affected. 561,442 people have been
internally displaced while 351,236 are in need of immediate humanitarian
assistance [Sumaina, 2018; AFP, 2018].
Disasters reveal the links between building design and urban layouts thereby
confirming that communities are vulnerable to the impacts of extreme natural
events [Geis, 2000; Adeyeye, 2016]. This paper focuses on the aspects of resilience
and hazard planning that need to be considered as part of the solutions for resilient
innovative architecture based on documented contemporary examples. The
integrated approach to flood resilient architecture confirms that there are benefits
to be derived from integrating a suite of practical measures that will minimize flood
water ingress and destruction into buildings.
METHOD AND DATA
The search process employed in this study was to identify the body of literature
relevant to flooding and habitation in Nigeria with a view to addressing the threats
and consequences of flood impacts. Mitigation impacts and opportunities that are
missed in designing out social, building deficiencies and infrastructural
vulnerabilities are also reviewed. Published academic papers and articles provided
most of the information used to establish the study. The data that provided the
flood updates, affected population and weather forecasts was sourced mainly from
the administrative records of NEMA and ACAPS [Assessment Capacities Project –
an independent humanitarian information provider]. Flood events recorded in
newspaper articles such as This Day, Vanguard, Punch, Tribune, The New York
Times, The UK Guardian and the Nigerian Guardian were also utilized.
The study area
Nigeria is a West African country situated in sub-Saharan West Africa. It is north of
the equator and covers a land area of 923,768km². It is bordered by the republics
of Benin, Niger, Chad and Cameroon. The coastline along the Atlantic Ocean ids
853km long with hydrological features that include the rivers Niger and Benue
which meet at a confluence in a city called Lokoja. The two rivers then flow
southwards past the Niger Delta and empty into the Atlantic Ocean [Nkwunonwo
et al, 2015]. Nigeria’s population is presently estimated to be more than 170 million
people [Obeta, 2014; NPC, 2007].
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Figure 1: Map of Nigeria [Inset is Africa showing Nigeria’s location]
Source: ACAPS [Link]
Flooding in urban areas
Flooding since late August 2018 in Nigeria has affected some 826,000 people in 12
states as reported by NEMA in September 2018. The numbers displaced are as
articulated in the NEMA data shown in Table 2. The deluge has displaced thousands
of people and claimed 199 lives. Pathetic stories captured by some local and
international newspaper articles on flooding in Nigeria are as stated in Table 1
below.
Table 1: Newspaper and article headlines on flooding in 2018
Date Author Article Headline
Punch 11.05.2018 Nnodim 35 states to experience flooding this year - NIHSA
Tribune 15.07.2018 Olukoya Many feared dead, scores missing as flood wreaks
havoc in Ogun
The New York 17.09.2018 Searcey Floods in Nigeria Kill More Than 100, Wiping Out
Times Homes and Farms
Vanguard 18.09.2018 Adekola 100 die in severe flooding in Nigeria
The Guardian [Nig] 27.09.2018 AFP Death toll climbs in Nigeria flooding
More than 150,000 hectares of farmland have been inundated and 321 roads and
bridges destroyed. A state of national disaster has been declared in four states
severely affected by flooding. [UN-OCHA, 2018].
Table 2: Flood situation reports by NEMA for 2018
Affected Internally Displaced States National
Date Population Displaced Persons living Affected Disaster
Persons with friends States
and family
Report No. 1 21.09.2018 327,052 77,460 19,155 12 4
Report No. 2 24.09.2018 441,251 141,369 80,642 12 4
Report No. 3 27.09.2018 176,299 176,299 109,820 12 4
Flooding has impacted urban areas of Nigeria. The perception and impacts have
been comprehensively studied and reported in academic journals [Ayoade and
Akintola, 1980; French et al, 1994; Muoghalu and Okonkwo, 1998; Ologunorisa,
1999]. Land use changes, rainfall characteristics, removal of vegetation have all
contributed to the increased frequency, magnitude and duration of flooding in
urban areas. This occurrence is commonplace amongst the urban poor and it has
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severe consequences [Douglas et al, 2008]. Governments consider the areas
inhabited by the urban poor as informal settlements therefore they are regarded
as being outside the accepted urban and town planning management systems,
thereby neglected and ultimately vulnerable. Case studies of urban flooding have
been carried out in numerous Nigerian cities such as Lagos, Port Harcourt and
Ibadan. Parts of Lagos are two metres below sea level coupled with the fact that
many slum dwellings are built on stilts over wetlands and swamp areas thereby
exposing the vulnerability of these poor communities. These low-lying wetlands in
Lagos settlements are supposedly natural flood basins. Lokoja was virtually
submerged due to rising waters during prolonged rainfall with levels reaching 11m
[Adekunle, 2018]. It, therefore, becomes inevitable that increases in rainfall will
affect certain dwellings more frequently. These instances require interventions
from the relevant agencies.
‘The 2003 World Development Report notes the pronounced difficulties the poor
face when disaster strikes. Developing countries are particularly vulnerable because
they have limited capacity to prevent and absorb the effects [of natural disasters].
People in low-income countries are four times as likely as people in high-income
countries to die in a natural disaster…. Poor people and poor communities are
frequently the primary victims of natural disasters; in part because they are priced
out of the more disaster-proof areas and live in crowded, makeshift houses… poor
families are hit particularly hard because injury, disability and loss of life directly
affect their main asset, their labour. Disasters also destroy poor households’
natural, physical and social assets, and disrupt social assistance programmes.’
[World Bank Independent Evaluation Group, 2006: p48].
The perceived causes of flooding
The flooding events in Nigeria are attributable to anthropogenic factors classified
under four main themes:
x Hydrological factors;
x Waste management factors;
x Institutional factors; and
x Awareness factors.
Hydrological factors: Water is the key element that underpins the impacts of
climate change in human environments albeit the challenges vary from one
location to the other [IPCC, 2014]. Prolonged heavy rainfall and overflowing
riverbanks are natural phenomena but the damage and associated losses are
attributable to the consequences of human activity or the lack of it [Douglas et al,
2009]. Urbanization and rapid growth in Nigeria compelled the urban poor to live
on floodplains. Fluvial floods account for the majority of the flood threats
experienced in locations along the plains adjoining major rivers in Nigeria,
including rivers Niger, Benue and Hadejia. Historically, Lagos state appears to have
experienced most of the flooding in the country but the states in Nigeria mostly
affected by such floods are Adamawa, Kano, Niger, Jigawa, Kaduna, Cross River and
Kebbi [Iloje, 2004]. Lagos flooding has been attributed to its exposure to coastal
influence and rapid population growth. Streets become rivers and drainage
systems become submerged [Searcey, 2018].
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Pluvial floods occur during the rainy season which falls between the months of July
and October with the effects seen largely in urban areas of Nigeria. The volume of
rainfall in recent times is unprecedented and as a result the drainage systems
coupled with the infiltration capacity of the soil are insufficient [Houston et al,
2011]. The infiltration capacity of the soil is largely impeded by attributable to
urbanization given that there is an increased presence of impervious surfaces
[Kalnay & Cai, 2003]. Strategies required to support urbanization and
anthropogenic activities appear to be lacking and the approach to tackling flood
rests largely on general knowledge [Nkwunonwo et al, 2015].
Waste management factors: Poor solid waste disposal is a factor in impeding the
free flow of water. Dumping of refuse in drainage and river channels is
commonplace in urban areas [Onibokun and Kumuyi 1999; Olaseha and Sridhar
2004]. There are no provisions for waste bins and communities either lack the
resources to hire private refuse collectors or through lack of cohesion. Waste left
in water and drainage channels is made up of leftover food, degradable leaves,
clothing items, plastic bottles and cellophane bags with the anticipation that the
rains will wash them from the gutters into the streams and rivers. These items
eventually accumulate and impede the free flow of water and they in turn act as
catalysts for flooding as the drainage channels eventually get blocked with heaps
of debris. Douglas et al [2008] reported in their study on urban areas that the
residents of the study area in Lagos were reluctant to accept waste dumping as a
cause of flooding thereby refusing to recognize personal responsibility for flooding
problems.
Institutional factors: These are attributable to government ministries who have
the responsibility and role of assessing flooding potentials including mitigation
and flood reduction measures for the country. The Federal Ministry of Works and
Housing and the Federal Ministry of the Environment are responsible for the two
agencies under their supervision who are directly responsible for disaster
management, these agencies being the Federal Emergency Management Agency
[FEMA] and National Emergency Management Agency [NEMA]. NEMA co-ordinates
disaster management in Nigeria at the federal level, ensure relief materials are
readily available for distribution to flood disaster victims in the respective states
and the general education of the public.
Weak institutional frameworks: The existing frameworks are culpable in the
management of the urban environment. Agbola et al [2012] in their study reported
that the severe floods that occurred in Ibadan in 2011 were attributable in part to
buildings erected on floodplains, indiscriminate refuse disposal and illegal parking
of vehicles in unauthorised locations throughout the city. These illegally erected
structures obstruct the free flow of water and they are also vulnerable to flooding.
Some residents with the illegally built dwellings claimed to have approved building
plans but it was evident that most of the properties investigated in the study had
violated statutory setback regulations. Efficient policy and environmental
management are required to eliminate the ignorance exhibited by property owners
who claimed ignorance of the effects of building close to river banks. A lack of
official attention to maintaining drainage networks for rapidly growing megacities
such as Lagos is a major factor to the causes of flooding [Douglas et al, 2008].
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In order to manage the devastating effects of flooding on the built environment, it
is imperative that urban development is structured and integrated into a
masterplan and development agenda for urban areas in particular or the cities
concerned. This requires concerted efforts from all relevant institutions and more
importantly built environment professionals to affect policy and its implementation
at all levels. From the foregoing, the origins of flooding that results from climate
change and urbanization and its resultant effect on buildings, dwellings in
particular, require solutions that will assist the locality affected to adapt to the
impact. This paper seeks to offer suggestions for urban and architectural resilience
that will maximise the ability of built assets to withstand and recover from the
impacts of extreme natural occurrences.
Innovative architecture for flood resilience
Adeyeye et al [2016] posit that living with water requires innovative architectural
solutions which should incorporate a culture shift by professionals and the larger
public. Built environment professionals will need to work with the government and
the public to deliver solutions that are sensitive to nature i.e. living with nature, and
not against it. Architects should be the catalysts for change on the understanding
that architectural solutions presented to a community should be adaptable rather
than being generic [Morgan, 2015]. In the same vein, to be innovative, architects
must become more responsive to their users and environments [Rahim, 2006].
Aravena, the Chilean starchitect, posits that architects like to build things that are
unique, but if something is unique it cannot be repeated, so in terms of it serving
many people in many places, the value is close to zero [Chatel, 2018].
Housing design and construction technology have been developed to cope with
the challenges of flooding. Designs for resilience are processes and strategies that
engage solutions to adapt nature as confirmed by Walker et al [2004:p1],
‘Resilience is the capacity of a system to absorb disturbance and reorganize while
undergoing change so as to still retain essentially the same function, structure,
identity, and feedbacks.’ Being resilient in the development sense goes beyond
preparing for the inevitable – ‘floods’. There are a degree and expectation that
requires a certain level of preparation that takes into consideration the gradually
changing conditions, albeit localized, from singular or combined coastal, pluvial or
fluvial sources. The way we design and build is the first and foremost method of
minimizing human and property losses [Gees, 2000] and in the same vein, the
building forms the ‘last line of defence’ of resilience strategies. Building projects
should integrate a series of many small measures that are informed by the natural
systems support resilient design [Watson and Adams, 2010; Adeyeye and Emmitt,
2017]. Hurricane Katrina devastated large parts of New Orleans in 2005. Significant
redevelopment has occurred since then using the same parcels of land but with
more resilient innovative architecture. ‘The same type of single, free-standing
houses as the residents had before was built but had features such as stilts or
floating foundations incorporated into the design. This meant that the effects of
future flooding were mitigated without changing significant community functions’
[Morgan, 2015: p41]. Examples of these house types are shown in plates 1 and 2.
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Floating communities
K. Olthuis in the Netherlands has developed amphibious structures which rest on
floating concrete foundations to floating houses and houseboats - some of them
are even islands [plate 3]. These developments are also known as ‘going with the
flow’ where the body of water remains intact and the building is made to fit into
the existing environment.
Plate 3: Floating Cities and Communities – A floating apartment complex near Naaldwijk,
Netherlands by Koen Olthuis, 2015. [Link] [accessed
15 April 2019]
Bangladesh experiences annual flooding of varying severity for up to three months
annually, from the outflow of the Himalayas. One solution adapted is as shown [in
plate 4] where an elevated plinth is used to protect the dwelling.
Plate 4: A house in Bangladesh situated on an elevated ‘compacted earth’ plinth S.B. Linkon, [2017].
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Contemporary flood resilient architecture
A common form of construction is building on stilts that relies principally on being
able to predict the highest flood level with the structure creating a natural elevation
to avoid the property being submerged. The stilts can be constructed from steel
framing or concrete columns [Lisa, 2012].
Plate 5: Sol Duc Cabin – Lisa [2012] [Link]
architects-rests-lightly-on-four-stilts/ [accessed 15 April 2019]
Property Flood Resilience [PFR]: an innovative suite of measures for property
flood resilience exist in the UK. They are aimed at minimizing the ingress of water
into traditional domestic masonry construction buildings. Beddoes et al [2018] in
their study on flood risk reduction recognize the need to demonstrate that
properties can be protected externally. These measures include the following:
x door and aperture guards;
x flood doors and external wall treatment;
Figure 2: Door guards
Source: Beddoes et al [2018]
ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
i. The impact of flooding in Nigeria continues to raise concerns for
environmental and solid waste management, urban development and the
vulnerability of the general public. The paper highlighted that coastal areas
such as Lagos appear to have experienced the most flooding due to urban
growth and proximity to wetlands whilst other inland areas in close
proximity to rivers such as Niger, Benue and Ogun account for the
remainder of areas that experience frequent floods [Figure 3: BBC, 2018].
Certain communities demonstrate an overwhelming level of irresponsibility
when faced with the challenges of flooding and these include non-
compliance with planning laws, non-adherence to flood alerts and advance
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warnings including a lack of perception of flooding issues [Aderogba, 2012].
Efforts need to be concentrated on education and compliance.
ii. The prevailing trend by NEMA and institutions saddled with the
responsibility of addressing the threats of flooding appears to be
evacuation. ‘Best practice’ flood risk reduction procedures must be
developed to prevent and respond to issues of flooding. Research and
development together with the development of appropriate flood reduction
measures is required. Flood risk policies that are underpinned by
preventative, sustainable and flood-proof measures similar to those that
exist in developed countries such as the UK and the Netherlands must be
developed [Driessen, 2018; Adedeji, 2012].
Figure 3: Map of Nigeria showing states most affected by flooding.
Source: BBC News [2018]
Enforcement of environmental laws is required to curtail the effects of climate
change and by extension flooding. Indiscriminate car parking, construction along
riverbeds, indiscriminate waste disposal and other illegal anthropogenic factors
must be made punishable offences.
Capacity building of the population is required to enhance the peoples’ abilities to
prepare and cope with the hazards of flooding. The paper also proposed the
adoption of innovative architectural solutions and technologies that can cope with
the challenges of flooding whilst also being sensitive to nature, in order to lower
the risk of flooding in urban and low-lying areas. These include building on stilts,
raised floor plinths and the use of flood doors.
CONCLUSIONS
The devastations caused by flooding in Nigeria has had severe impacts on people,
infrastructure and economic life. This has been linked to climate change and the
efforts employed to tackle the impact of flooding appear to be reactive. Flooding
is widespread in the country but the awareness and knowledge of the wider
population are lacking. The paper presented improvised and practical suggestions
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of building designs and building types as solutions in anticipation of flood
resilience from examples that have been ‘tried and tested’. However, architecture
for flood resilience cannot be executed in isolation of urban scale strategies as both
are integrated. The scope of this paper was limited to the issues surrounding
mitigating damage to individuals lives and properties alongside design solutions
that can be adapted on future developments in floodplains. Looking at the scale of
the devastations created by climate change in recent months, the government
appears ill-prepared and limited in dealing with the consequences of flooding. In
view of the fact that the country has one of the fastest growing urban areas and
population density in the world, the perceived lack of preparedness and obvious
negation of the anthropogenic factors that are associated with flooding leaves a
large sector of the urban poor exposed. Help is required at all levels to improve
drainage, regulate developments and to provide security of tenure for properties.
Weak institutions and regulatory bodies need to take responsibility for ensuring
compliance with planning and urban development regulations. Lastly, individuals
must be made aware of the consequences of their actions and accept responsibility
for inaction or making bad decisions.
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