CHAPTER 2 - SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

FLOWER
It is the fascinating sexual reproductive organ of angiosperms. It consists of calyx, corolla, androecium
and gynoecium

The whole process of sexual reproduction in flowering plants can be divided in to three steps.
1. Pre fertilization 2. Double fertilization 3. Post fertilization

PRE- FERTILISATION – STRUCTURES AND EVENTS

Hormonal and structural changes are initiated leading to differentiation and development of floral
primordium. Inflorescences are formed which bear floral buds and then flowers.
Flowers are morphological and embryological structures and the sites of sexual reproduction too. In flowers
Calyx, Corolla (Non Essential Whorls), androecium (male reproductive part) and Gynoecium (female
reproductive part) develop. Androecium and Gynoecium are the essential whorls.

1. Androecium: consists of whorl of stamens.

Stamen consists of the Filament (long slender stalk. Proximal end of the filament is attached to the
thalamus or petal) and Anther (terminal bilobed structure)

STRUCTURE OF ANTHER
Anther has two lobes (bilobed). Each lobe consists of two theca (Dithecous). Anther is a tetragonal
structure which consist of four microsporangia located two in each lobe. Microsporangium develops into
pollen sacs. Pollen sacs run longitudinally and contain pollen grains.

STRUCTURE OF MICROSPOANGIUM
A typical microsporangium appears circular in outline and is surrounded by 4 wall layers.
Epidermis, Endothecium, Middle layers and Tapetum. The outer three layers are protective and help in

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dehiscence of anther to release the pollen grains. Cells of tapetum possess dense cytoplasm and generally have
more than one nucleus. Tapetum nourishes the developing young pollen grain.
In the young anther , the sporogenous tissue( a group of compactly arranged homogenous diploid cells)
form the centre of each microsporangium.

MICROSPOROGENESIS
Process of formation of microspores from pollen mother cell (PMC) through meiosis. The cells of the
sporogenous tissue/microspore mother cell (2n) meiotically divide to form microspores which are arranged in a
cluster of 4 cells called microspore tetrad. When the anther matures and dehydrates, the microspores
dissociate from each other and develop into pollen grains Thousands of pollen grains formed inside a
microsporangium are released with dehiscence of anther.

POLLEN GRAINS
Pollen grains are the male gametophytes and are normally spherical in shape. The cytoplasm is surrounded
by a plasma membrane and a double layered (intine and exine) wall.

1. Exine (outer layer):- Hard layer made of Sporopollenin, which is extremely resistant and can
withstand high temperature, acid and alkaline conditions, and also enzymes. Exine has apertures called
germ pore, where Sporopollenin is absent pollen grains are well preserved as fossils because of the
presence of Sporopollenin in the exine. Exine has got attractive patterns and designs on it.
2. Intine (inner layer):- Thin and continuous layer made of cellulose and pectin. Forms the pollen tube at
the time of pollen germination through germ pores.

MATURE POLLEN:

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 A mature pollen consist of 2 cells with nucleus (Vegetative and Generative)

Vegetative Cell (VC) is Bigger with abundant food reserve, large irregular nucleus and responsible for the
development of pollen grain.
Generative Cell (GC) is small in size and floats in the cytoplasm of the vegetative cell, spindle shaped with
dense cytoplasm and nucleus. It involves in syngamy (fuse with an egg)
In majority of angiosperms pollen grains are shed in two celled stage (GC and VC) while in others the GC
undergoes mitosis to form two male gametes (3 celled stage). Once they are shed; they will have to reach the
stigma before they lose the viability if they have to bring about fertilization. Period of viability depends on
temperature and humidity. It ranges from 30 minutes (rice, wheat etc.) to few months as in the members of
rosaceae, leguminoseae, solanaceae etc.

EFFECT OF POLLEN ON HUMAN:

Pollen grains cause allergy and bronchial afflictions (eg. Parthenium or carrot grass) leading to chronic
respiratory disorders like asthma and bronchitis. Pollen grains stored by Cryopreservation (under low
temperature of liquid N2 i.e. -196oC) and Used as pollen banks in crop breeding programmes.
POLLEN PRODUCTS:
pollen grains are rich in nutrient. Pollen tablets and syrup are used as food supplements and claims to
increase performance of athletes and race horses.

PISTIL, MEGASPORANGIUM AND EMBRYO SAC:

GYNAECIUM - female reproductive part of flower. Gynoecium with 1 pistil – Monocarpellary, Gynoecium
with more than 1 pistil – Multicarpellay .If all the carpels are fused together the condition is called
Syncarpous and if all the carpels are free from one another the condition is called Apocarpous.
A Pistil consists of a terminal sticky receptive part called Stigma an elongated Style and a basal Ovary. Ovary
has ovarian cavity and placenta. Ovules arise from placenta. Single ovule is seen in plants like wheat and paddy
and many ovules present in papaya, water melons, etc.

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MEGASPORANGIUM (OVULE)
Ovule is a small structure attached to placenta inside the ovary. Funicle is the stalk by which ovule is
attached to placenta. Hilum is the junction between ovule and funicle. Integuments are protective envelops of
ovule. Micropyle is a small opening at the tip of ovule into where pollen tube enters. Chalaza is the basal part
of ovule. Nucellus (2n or diploid) is the mass of cells enclosed in integuments. Has abundant food reserve.

MEGASPOROGENESIS
Process of formation of megaspores from megaspore mother cells is called megasporogenesis.
Megaspore Mother Cell (MMC) divides meiotically to form 4 megaspores (n or haploid). Out of the four
megaspores 4, only 1 megaspore is functional and forms gametophyte and the rest degenerate.
FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE (EMBRYO SAC)
The embryo sac develops from the functional megaspore (n). Formation of embryo sac from a single
megaspore is normally called monosporic development
FORMATION OF EMRYO SAC
Nucleus of functional megaspore divides mitotically to form 2 nuclei which move to opposite poles
forming 2-nucleate embryo sac. Two more mitotic nuclear division results in 4-nucleate and later 8- nucleate
stages of embryo sac. Then cell wall is laid down leading to organization of female embryo sac.
STRUCTURE OF EMBRYO SAC
Embryo sac consists of an egg apparatus present at the micropyle end. Egg apparatus consist of 2
synergids and 1 egg cell( female gamete).Synergids have cellular thickenings at micropyle tip called filiform
apparatus which guides the pollen tube into the synergids. Antipodals are the three cells present at chalaza
end. Two polar nuclei are seen in the large central cell. Thus a typical angiosperm embryo sac, at maturity is 8
nucleate and 7 celled.

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POLLINATION
The transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of a pistil is called pollination. Based on the source of
pollen, pollination is of 3 types. 1. Autogamy 2. Geitonogamy 3. Xenogamy

1. Autogamy is the transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of the same flower or pollination is
achieved with in the flower. Requirement for autogamy are synchrony (same time) in pollen release and
stigma receptivity and also closeness of stigma and anther.

Chasmogamons flowers are flowers with exposed anthers and stigma or are opening flowers.
Cleistogamous flowers are flowers which do not open at all. In such flowers anther and stigma lie close to
each other and when the anthers dehisce in flower buds pollen grains come in contact with stigma and effect
pollination. Thus cleistogamous flowers are invariable autogamous and ensure seed set even in absence of
pollinators. Cleistogamy is disadvantageous because there is no chance of variation. Ex:- Oxalis, Viola,
Commelina etc. ( along with cleistogamous flowers Chasmogamons flowers also are produced)

2. Geitonogamy is the transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of another flower of the same plant. It
is functionally a cross pollination but genetically similar to autogamy since the pollen grain come from the
same plant. Ex:- Cucurbits

3.Xenogamy Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of another flower of different plant. In this
genetically different pollen grains are brought to the stigma.

AGENTS OF POLLINATION are called Pollinators. Two types Abiotic (non living) and biotic (living).
Important abiotic agents are wind and water. Important biotic agents are Insects, Birds, Bats , Reptiles
mammals etc
Adaptations in flowers for Pollination

I. Wind Pollination
1. Pollen grains are light weighted , non- sticky and winged( for easy transport in wind current)

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2. Anther will well exposed ( above other flower parts for easy dispersal in to wind current )
3. Stigma will large and feathery( to increase the pollen receptive area)
4. Flowers are normally with one ovule in ovary and arranged in to s inflorescences.
5. No colour, no pleasant smell and no nectar.
6. Numerous pollen grains produced to compensate the wastage.

Ex: quite common in grasses. (In Corn cob the tassels are the stigma and style which wave in air),
cotton, Date palm etc

II. Water Pollination is rare in plants and limited to about 30 genera, mostly monocots. Some examples are
Vallisneria, Hydrilla (fresh water) and Sea grass like Zostera. Not all hydrophytes perform hydrophily or
the water pollination. For e.g. Hydrophytes like water hyacinth, water Lilly etc. perform entomophily or
the insect pollination. In lower plants like algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes , water is essential for the
transport of the male gamete.

In Vallisneria, female flowers reach the surface of water by long stalks. Male flowers or pollen
grains are released on surface of water, carried passively by water current, reach the female flower and
stigma. In some plants like sea grasses female flowers remain submerged in water; pollen grains are long,
ribbon like and are carried passively inside water, reach stigma and achieve pollination. In most water
pollinated species, pollen grains are protected by mucilaginous covering.

Pollination by water in Vallisneria

Wind and water pollinated plants are not colourfull and do not produce nectar because the pollinators are
abiotic.

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 Majority of flowering plants use animals as pollinating agents. E.g. Bees, butterflies, flies,
beetles, wasps, ants, moths, sunbirds and humming birds, bats, lemurs, tree-dwelling rodents, garden
lizard etc. Flowers of animal pollinated plants are specially adapted for a particular species of animal.

III. Insect Pollination: Characters of insect-pollinating flowers are large, colourful, fragrant and rich in
nectar (Nectar & pollen grains are the floral rewards for pollination). If the flowers are small, they form
inflorescence to make them visible. Some flowers that are pollinated by flies and beetles secrete foul
odours to attract these animals. d. The pollen grains are sticky. To maintain constant visit by the insects,
certain floral rewards like nectar and pollen grains are provided to pollinators. Some plants provide
safe place for to lay eggs. Eg. The tallest flower of Amorphophallus. Another example is the
relationship of a moth and the plant Yucca. Moth lays eggs in the locule of the ovary and the flower in
return gets pollinated.
OUTBREEDING DEVICES are the adaptation for Xenogamy or cross pollination. Majority of flowering
plants undergo self-pollination results in inbreeding depression. To avoid self pollination and encourage
cross-pollination, there are some adaptations in plants:
Ways to avoid Self-pollination:
(i) Pollen release & stigma receptivity – not synchronized. Either the pollen is released before the
stigma becomes receptive or stigma becomes receptive before the release of pollen. Prevent autogamy
(ii) Stigma and anther – placed at different positions. So the pollen cannot come in contact with the
stigma of the same flower and can prevent autogamy.
(iii) Self-incompatibility- inability of self pollen ( pollen from the same flower or pollen from another
flower of the same plant) to germinate on its own stigma.
(iv) Production of unisexual flowers- Eg: Castor, Maize (the plants are monoecious and it prevents
autogamy but not geitonogamy). But in plants like papaya, male and female flowers are seen on
different plants ( Diocious / Dioecy) which prevents autogamy & geitonogamy.
POLLEN – PISTIL INTERACTION
All dynamic processes – from deposition of pollen on stigma till the pollen tube enters the ovules
called Pollen-Pistil interaction. It involves recognition of compatible pollen, Germination of compatible
pollen grains on the stigma and development of Male Gametophyte.
If a right or compatible type of pollen falls on the stigma, the pistil accepts the pollen and
promotes post pollination events that lead to fertilization. Wrong type or incompatible pollens are
rejected by preventing the germination or the pollen tube development. Pollen recognition is normally
with the help of constant interactions of chemicals in pollen as well as stigma.
When the the pollen grain germinates on the stigma, it produce a pollen tube through one of the
germ pores. Contents of two celled pollen grain (generative cell and vegetative/tube nucleus) move to
pollen tube, pollen tube grows through the style and reaches the ovary and enters the ovule through the
micropyle and then the synergids through the filiform apparatus. When the pollen grains are shed in
three celled stage, the pollen tube carries two male gametes.

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Artificial Hybridization: It is one of the major approaches of crop improvement programme involving
crossing different varieties of species- hybrid individual- with desirable characters of the parent plants.
In this, desired pollen grains are used for pollination and the stigma is protected from contamination.
This is achieved by:-
1. Emasculation: Removal of the anther of bisexual flower bud of female parent before the anther
dehisces. If the flowers are unisexual , there is no need for emasculationand the female buds are bagged
before they are open. .
2. Bagging: Covered with a suitable bag of butter paper to prevent contamination of its stigma with
unwanted pollen.
3. Artificial pollination: When the stigma attains receptivity, mature pollen grains collected from anthers
of the male parent are dusted on the stigma.
4. Re bagging: The flowers are re bagged and allowed to develop the fruits.

DOUBLE FERTILISATION

After entering the synergids, pollen tube releases two male gametes (from generative cell by mitosis) into
the cytoplasm of the synergids. Fertilization in angiosperms is called double fertilization because it has got
two steps- syngamy and triple fusion.

1. Syngamy- One of the male gametes fused with the egg cell forms the zygote (2n) and develops into an
embryo.
[Male gamete (n) + Egg cell (n) →Zygote (2n) →Embryo →Plant (2n)]
2. Triple fusion- The second male gamete (n) fuses with 2 polar nuclei to produce a triploid (3n)primary
endosperm nucleus (PEN) which in future develops into the endosperm(3n)
[Male gamete (n) + 2 polar nuclei (n+n)→ Primary Endosperm Nucleus (3n)→Endosperm(3n)]

Since 2 types of fusions (syngamy & triple fusion) take place in an embryo sac it is called double fertilization.

Embryo sac after fertilization↑

POST- FERTILIZATION EVENTS

All events that occur in a flower, after double fertilization is called Post- fertilization events. They are
1. Development of endosperm 2. Development of embryo
3. Maturation of ovule into seed 4. Maturation of ovary into fruit

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1. Endosperm development. Endosperm is the triploid (3n) nutritive tissue formed by the repeated mitotic
division of primary endosperm cell (PEN). The cells of endosperm are filled with reserve food materials
which nourish the developing embryo.
The most common type of endosperm development is free nuclear type in which the PEN undergoes
successive nuclear divisions to give rise to free nuclei. This stage is called free-nuclear endosperm.
Subsequently cell wall formation occurs and the endosperm becomes cellular. The tender coconut water is
a free nuclear endosperm and the surrounding edible white kernel is the cellular endosperm.

2. Embryo development: The zygote divides only after the formation of certain endosperm to ensure the
nutrition. Embryo develops at the micropylar end of the embryo sac where the zygote is situated. The early
developments of embryo (embryogeny) are similar in both monocots and dicots. The zygote gives rise to
proembryo and subsequently globular, heat shaped and mature embryo.

A typical dicot embryo has an embryonal axis and 2 cotyledons (food storing embryonal levees). The
portion of embryonal axis above the level of cotyledons is the epicotyl, which terminates with the plumule
or stem tip. The cylindrical portion below the level of cotyledons is hypocotyl that terminates with the
radicle or root tip. The root tip is covered with a root cap

A Monocot embryo possesses only one cotyledon. In the grass family the cotyledon is called scutellum
and is situated to one side of the embryonal axis. At its lower end, the embryonal axis has the radicle and
root cap enclosed with in Coleorhizae. The Epicotyl has a shoot apex and a few leaf primordia enclosed in
a hollow foliar structure called Coleoptile.

3. SEED: Seeds are the final products of sexual reproduction. It is a fertilized ovule formed inside fruits. It
consists of two seed coats, cotyledons and an embryo axis. Seed coats are tough protective covering formed
from integuments of ovules. It has a small pore called micropyle through which O2 & water enter into the
seed during germination.
• Cotyledons are swollen structures where reserved food is stored.
• Based on the endosperm remaining, mature seeds may be non albuminous or albuminous.
• In Non-albuminous or ex-albuminous seeds no residual endosperm will be present as it is
completely consumed during embryo development. e.g., pea, groundnut.
• In Albuminous seeds a part of endosperm is retained and not fully used during embryo
development.. e.g., wheat, maize, barley, castor.

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 • Remnants of nucellus or the residual persistent nucellus in matured seed are called Perisperm. Ex.:
black pepper, beet.

Seed Dormancy: - As the seed matures, its water content is reduced and seeds become dry (10-15%
moisture). The embryo may enter a state of inactivity called dormancy. If favourable conditions like
adequate moisture, O2 and suitable temperature are available, they germinate.
Advantages of seeds to angiosperms:
• Seeds have better adaptive strategies for dispersal to new habitats and help the species to colonize
in other areas.
• As the Seeds have sufficient food reserves, young seedlings are nourished until they are capable of
photosynthesis.
• The hard seed coat gives protection to the young embryo.
• Being product of sexual reproduction, the produce new genetic combinations on germination.

Seeds are the basis of our agriculture. Seeds could be used as food throughout the year and also to raise
crop in the next season. Dehydration and dormancy are crucial for storage of seeds for next season.
Viability of seed: Seed viability is the ability of the embryo to germinate. In a few species the seeds lose
viability within a few months after dispersal. Seeds of many species live or are viable for several years.
There are several records of very old viable seeds. The oldest – Lupinus arcticus from arctic tundra( 10000
years of dormancy). 2000 years old seeds of date palm, Phoenix dactylifera from King Herod’s palace near
Dead Sea.

FRUIT: Fruits are formed as a result of cell division and differentiation in the ovary. The wall of ovary
develops into Pericarp or the fruit wall.
• The fruit that develops from the ovary (other floral parts degenerate and fall off) are called true
fruits.
• Fruits that develop from the parts other than ovary are called false fruits or pseudo carps. E.g.
Apple, strawberry, cashew etc.
• Fruits develop without fertilization is called parthenocarpic fruits. . E.g. Banana.

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 APOMIXIS & POLYEMBRYONY : Apomixis is the special mechanism of production of seeds
without fertilization. It’s a form of asexual reproduction that mimics sexual reproduction.
• One way of development of apomictic seed is the diploid egg cell is formed without reduction
division and develops into the embryo without fertilization. E.g. Some species of Asteraceae and
grasses.
• Another way is that some of the nucellus cells surrounding the embryo sac start dividing protrude
into embryo sac and develop into the embryos. E.g. In many Citrus and Mango varieties.
• If progenies from hybrid plants are produced by apomixis, then there is no segregation of characters
in the hybrid progeny. This is very useful to farmers.

Polyembryony: Occurrence of more than one embryo in a seed. e.g. Citrus, Mango etc

NCERT SOLUTIONS

1. Name the parts of anangiosperm flower in which development of male and female gametophytes take
place.
Development of male gametophyte (micro- gametogenesis) occurs in pollen sac of anther up to 2 –
celled stage. The female gametophyte develops (megagametogenesis) in the nucellus of ovule.
2. Differentiate between microsporogenesis and megasporogenesis. Which type of cell division occurs
during these events? Name the structures formed at the end of these two events?

Character Microsporogenesis Megasporogenesis

Process It is the formation of haploid It is the formation of haploid
microspores from the diploid microspore megaspores from the diploid
mother cell. megaspore mother cell.
Number of spore A large number of microspore mother Only a single megaspore mother cell is
mother cells involved cells are involved. involved.
Arrangement of spores The arrangement of microspores in a The arrangement of megaspores in a
tetrad is generally tetrahedral. tetrad is commonly linear.
Fate of spores The microspore leads to the formation of The megaspore leads to the formation
the male gametophyte. of the female gametophyte.
Functionality of spores All the four microspores of a spore tetrad Only one megaspore of a spore tetrad
are functional. is functional.
Site of occurrence It occurs inside the microsporangium. It occurs inside the megasporangium.

Each microspore mother cell and megaspore mother cell contain two sets of chromosomes and are therefore
diploid. The diploid megaspore mother cell and microspore mother cell enlarges and undergo meiosis to produce, four

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haploid cells called megaspores and microspores respectively.The chromosome number is reduced by half and therefore
megaspores and microspores are haploid.
Microsporogenesis and megasporogenesis give rise to pollen grains and embryo sac respectively. Pollen grain is the male
gametophyte and embryo sac represents the female gametophyte.
3. Arrange the following terms in- the correct developmental sequence : Pollen grain, sporogenous tissue,
microspore tetrad, pollen mother cell, male gametes.
Sporogenous tissue – pollen mother cell – microspore tetrad – pollen grains – male gametes.

4.With a neat, labelled diagram, describe the parts of a typical angiosperm ovule.

A typical angiospermic ovule is a small structure which is formed in the ovary. Ovule first develops as a
projection on the placenta and composed of multilayered cellular tissue called the nucellus. The hypodermal cell
of die nucellus enlarges and transformed into megaspore mother cell. This cell undergoes meiosis to produce
four haploid cells only one of which develops & forms embryo sac (female gametophyte). An ovule may be
surrounded by one or two protective layers called integuments, leaving a small opening at one end termed as
micropyle which acts as passage for the entry of the pollen tube into the ovule. Thus, a typical ovule consists of
a fully developed embryo sac with the nucellus and integuments.
5.What is meant by monosporic development of female gametophyte?
In many flowering plants, only one out of the four megaspores enlarges and develops into female gametophyte
or embryo sac. The other three megaspores degenerate. This type of embryo sac formation is called as
monosporic type of development.
6. With a neat diagram explain the 7-celled, 8- nucleate nature of the female gametophyte.

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Embryo sac (or female gametophyte) is formed by three successive mitotic divisions that take place in the
nucleus of megaspore.
The nucleus of the functional megaspore divides meiotically to form two nuclei which move to the opposite
poles, forming the 2-nucleate embryo sac. Two more sequential mitotic nuclear divisions result in the formation
of the 4-nucleate and later the 8-nucleate stages of the embryo sac. After the 8-nucleate stage, cell walls are laid
down leading to the organisation of the typical female gametophyte or embryo sac. Six of the eight nuclei are
grouped together at micropylar and chalazal end and form the egg apparatus and antipodals respectively. The
large central cell left over with two polar nuclei. Thus, a typical female gametophyte consists of 7 cells with 8
nucleus.

7. What are Chasmogamons flowers? Can cross-pollination occur in cleistogamous flowers? Give reasons
for your answer.
Chasmogamons flowers or open flowers in which anther and stigma are exposed for pollination. Cross-
pollination cannot occur in cleistogamous flowers. These flowers remain closed thus causing only self-
pollination. In cleistogamous flowers, anthers dehisce inside the closed flowers. So the pollen grains come in
contact with stigma. Thus there is no chance of cross-pollination, e.g., Oxalis, Viola.
8. Mention two strategies evolved to prevent self-pollination in flowers.
Continued self-pollination decreases the vigour and vitality of a particular race. Thus, flowering plants have
developed many devices to discourage self-pollination and to encourage cross-pollination.
Dichogamy and self-sterility are two most common devices that ensure cross-pollination. Dichogamy –
Maturation of anther and stigma at different times in a bisexual flower prevent self-pollination.
Self-sterility (or self-incompatibility) – Due to the presence of self-sterile gene in some flowers, pollen grains
do not germinate on the stigma of those flowers. e.g. tobacco, potato.
9. What is self-incompatibility? Why does self-pollination not lead to seed formation in self-incompatible
species?
When the pollen grains of an anther do not germinate on the stigma of the same flower, then such a flower is
called self-sterile or incompatible and such condition is known as self-incompatibility or self-sterility.
The transference of pollen grains shed from the anther to the stigma of the pistil is called pollination. This
transference initiates the process of seed formation. Self-pollination is the transfer of pollen grain shed from the
anther to stigma of pistil in the same flower. But in some flower self-pollination does not lead to the formation
of seed formation because of the presence of same sterile gene on pistil and pollen grain.
10. What is bagging technique? How is it useful in a plant breeding programme?
It is the covering of emasculated flowers (removal of anthers in bud condition from a bisexual flower by a bag
of butter paper or polythene in their bud condition i.e., before anthesis) to prevent contamination of its stigmas
with unwanted pollens. When the stigmas of emasculated flowers mature the bags are removed, stigmas are
dusted with pollen grains of desired male plants by means of a presterilized brush and flowers are re bagged till
fruit develop. This technique is mainly used in artificial hybridization. Plant breeders often use this technique to
prevent the contamination of stigma of the flowers from unwanted pollen grains.
11. What b triple fusion? Where and how does it take place? Name the nuclei involved in triple fusion.
Fusion of second male gamete with die two polar nuclei located in the central cell to form the triploid primary
endosperm nucleus (PEN) is called triple fusion or vegetative fertilization. This process takes place in the
embryo sac. After reaching the ovary, pollen tube enters into the embryo sac from the micropylar end. After
penetration, the tip of the pollen tube ruptures releasing the two male gametes. The one male gamete fuses with
the egg to form the diploid zygote. This process is called syngamy and the other male gamete fuses with the two
polar nuclei to form the triploid primary endosperm & this process is known as triple fusion. These two events
of fertilization constitute the process of double fertilization.
12. Why do you think the zygote is dormant for sometime in a fertilised ovule?
The zygote after a period of rest develops into embryo. Most zygotes remain dormant till certain amount of
endosperm forms. They do so, to provide assured nutrition to the developing embryo.
13. Differentiate between: (a) Hypocotyl and Epicotyl; (b) Coleoptile and coleorhizae;

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(c) Integument and Testa; (d) Perisperm and Pericarp.

Hypocotyl Epicotyl
• The portion of the embryonal axis below the level of • The portion of the embryonal axis above the level of
cotyledons is called the hypocotyl. cotyledons is called epicotyl.
• It terminates at its lower end in the radicle or root tip • It terminates with the plumule.
covered with a root cap.
• In epigeal germination, the hypocotyl elongates so • In hypogeal germination, the epicotyl elongates so
that the cotyledons come out of the soil. that the cotyledons remain in the soil.

Coleoptile Coleorhizae
• It is a conical protective sheath over • It is a protective sheath over the radicle and root cap.
the epicotyl bearing the shoot apex and
leaf primordia.
• It has a terminal pore for the emergence of the first • It is a solid structure.
leaf.
• It comes out of the soil. • It remains inside the soil.
• It protects the plumule during its emergence from • It does not protect the radicle during its passage into
the soil. the soil.
• It grows much beyond the grain. • It stops growing after its emergence from the grain.
• It emerges from the soil, turns green in colour and • It remains inside the soil and is non-green.
carries out photosynthesis.

Integument Testa
• It is the protective covering of the ovule. • It is the protective covering of the seed.
• It is a thin covering. • It is a thick covering.
• The cells are living. • The cells are dead.
• Sclereids are absent in the cells. • Sclereids are present in abundance in the cells.
• It arises from the chalazal end of the ovule. • It is derived from the outer integument of the ovule.
• It is a pre-fertilisation structure. • It is a post-fertilisation structure.

Perisperm Pericarp
• It represents residual persistent nucellus. • It represents the fruit wall derived from the ovary
wall.
• It is part of the seed. • It is part of the fruit.
• It is generally dry. • It can be dry or fleshy.
• It is often non-functional for the seed. • It acts like a protective covering, helps in dispersal
and providing nutrition.
• It is present only in few seeds. • It is found in all fruits.

14.Why is apple called a false fruit? Which Part(s) of the flower forms the fruit?
Botanically ripened ovary is called a true fruit. The fruits in which thalamus and other floral parts develop along
with the ovary are called false fruits. For example – apple, strawberry, cashew etc. In apple the main edible
portion of the fruit is the fleshy thalamus. Ovary forms the fruit after fertilization or without fertilization in
parthenocarpic fruits.
15.What is meant by emasculation? When and why does a plant breeder employ this technique?
Emasculation is the removal of stamens mainly the anthers from the flower buds before their dehiscence. This is
mainly done to avoid self-pollination. Emasculation is one of the measures in the artificial hybridization. Plant
breeders employed this technique to prevent the pollination within same flower or to pollinate stigmas with
pollens of desired variety.

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 Previous Questions

1. Explain how self pollination is favored in cleistogamous flowers?

2. We can see many embryos in the seeds some plants. What is this phenomenon called?
3."Suppose you are provided with the flowers of the plants -Sunflower, Maize, and Vallisnara.
Find out any two adaptations in each flower for successful pollination.
4. Pollengrains represent the male gametophyte.
a. Outer hard layer of pollens is made of………………
b. Name the two cells present inside a typical pollen grain. How these cells differ from each other,
5. Flowering plants have developed many devices to discourage self pollination and to encourage
cross pollination. List out such features found in plants
6. In angiosperms during fertilization two types fusions found.
a) What are these fusions?
b) Which are the nuclei involved in each fusion?
7. In some seeds the nucellus may be persistent. Such nucellus is called
(a) Endosperm (b) Scutellum (c) Plumule (d) Perisperm
8. What is a false fruit? Cite an example.
9. Many of the flowering plants have developed some devices for discouraging inbreeding. Write any two of
them.
10. A unisexual flower having no androecium is called
(a) Dithecous (b) Dioecious(c) Monoecious (d) Pistillate
11. A microsporangium is surrounded by four layers. Name the first three Iayers and write their functions?
12. Wind is a common abiotic agent of pollination. Write any four features of wind pollinated flowers
13. Based on the nature of development of zygote, animals are categorized into two.
(a)Name the two categories.
(b) Which category has greater chances of survival of young ones? Justify, your answer.
14. Bamboo species and Strobilanthes kunthiana exhibit unusual flowering phenomena.
Explain their flowering characteristics.
15. Some organisms develop through parthenogenesis. Define this phenomenon and give an example.
16. Pollination by water is seen in Zostera and Vallisnara. Enumerate its adaptations.
17. Depending of the source of pollen, pollination can be divided into three types.
What are they? Explain each.
Answers
1. Cleistogamous flowers are closed flowers. So no chance for cross pollination
2. Polyembryony
3. Sunflower (insect pollinated) - attractive colour, sweet scent,
Maize (wind pollinated)-many pollen grain, non sticky pollen,
Vallisnara (Water pollinated)-detachment of male flower, adjusting pedicel
4. a) Sporopollenin b) Vegetative cell,- larger, generative cell-smaller
5. Dioecy, dichogamy, heterostyly, self incompatibility
6. a) syngamy, triple fusion
b) Male + female gamete- syngamy, male gamete+central cell- triple fusion
7. Perisperm
8. Fruit develop from part other than ovary Eg. Apple (from thalamus)
9. Dioecy, dichogamy, heterostyly, self incompatibility
10. Pistillate
11. Epidermis, Endothecium, middle layer, tapetum.
Epidermis-protection, Endothecium, middle layer- breakage of anther
12. Feathery stigma, non sticky pollen, many pollen grains develop, light weight pollen
13. Oviparous, viviparous

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 b) Viviparous: because internal development
14. Bamboo-in 100 years Strobilanthus-in 12 years
15. Development of organisms without fertilization.(honey bee)
16. The pollen grains have a mucilaginous covering to protect them from wetting.
b. The stigma is long and sticky.
c. Colourless and nectar less
17. Autogamy: transfer of pollen grain from anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower
Geitonogamy: transfer of pollen grain from anther of a flower to the stigma of the another flower born on
the same plant
Xenogamy: transfer of pollen grain from anther of a flower to the stigma of the another flower born on
another plant

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