NEW WORDS

Absolutist Literally, a government or system of rule that has no restraints on the

power exercised.
Utopian A vision of a society that is so ideal that it is unlikely to actually exist
Plebiscite A direct vote by which all the people of a region are asked to accept
or reject a proposal.
Suffrage The right to vote.
Conservatism A political philosophy that stressed the importance of tradition, established
institutions and customs, and preferred
gradual
development to quick change.
Feminist Awareness of women’s rights and interests based on the belief of the
social, economic and political equality of the genders.
Ideology System of ideas reflecting a particular social and political vision.
Ethnic Relates to a common racial, tribal, or cultural origin or background
that a community identifies with or claims.
Allegory When an abstract idea (for instance, greed, envy, freedom, liberty) is
expressed through a person or a thing. An allegorical story has two meanings,
one literal and one symbolic.

1. Explain the theme of Frederic Sorrieu’s Painting?

OR
How has French artist, Frederic Sorrieu, visualised in his first print, of the series of four prints, his dream of a
world made up of 'democratic and social republics'? Explain.
OR
Describe Frederic Sorrieu’s utopian vision of the world as depicted in his painting in 1848.
• In 1848, Frédéric Sorrieu, a French artist, prepared a series of four prints visualising his dream of a world
made up of ‘democratic and social Republics’, as he called them.
• The first print shows the peoples of Europe and America – men and women of all ages and social classes –
marching in a long train, and offering homage to the statue of Liberty as they pass by it. On the earth in the
foreground of the image lie the shattered remains of the symbols of absolutist institutions.
• In Sorrieu’s utopian vision, the peoples of the world are grouped as distinct nations, identified through their
flags and national costume.
• Leading the procession, way past the statue of Liberty, are the United States and Switzerland, which by this
time were already nation-states. France, identifiable by the revolutionary tricolour, has just reached the statue.
• She is followed by the peoples of Germany, bearing the black, red and gold flag.
Interestingly, at the time when Sorrieu created this image, the German peoples did not yet exist as a united
nation – the flag they carry is an expression of liberal hopes in 1848 to unify the numerous German-speaking
principalities into a nation- state under a democratic constitution
• Following the German peoples are the peoples of Austria, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Lombardy,
Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary and Russia. From the heavens above, Christ, saints and angels gaze upon
the scene.

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2. What is Nation- state?
Ans. During the 19th century, nationalism emerged as a force which brought about sweeping changes in the political and
moral world of Europe.
• It resulted into 'Nation-States' in place of the multinational dynastic empires of Europe.
• It was a concept of modern states having centralized powers exercising sovereign control over their own
territory.
• In a nation state, people living in it develop a sense of common identity and shared history.
• This commonness was developed through struggles, actions of leaders and the struggles of the common people.
• This has given every nation state a single or a common language, common culture or tradition and an identity
with that particular territory and do and die feeling.
3. When did the first clear-cut expression of nationalism come in France? How did the French Revolution lead to the
transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French citizens? Explain any three measures taken by the
French revolutionaries in this regard.
• The first clear-cut expression of nationalism came to France with the French Revolution of 1789.
• The political and constitutional changes that came in the wake of the French Revolution led to the transfer of
sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French citizen
• The French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices which proclaimed that it was the people
who would henceforth constitute the nation and shape its destiny.
(i) The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasised the notion of a united
community enjoying equal rights under a constitution. A French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to
replace the royal standard.
(ii) The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed National Assembly.
(iii) A centralised administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all its citizens.

3. What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective identity among the French people?

• From the very beginning, the French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices that could create
a sense of collective identity amongst the French people.
• The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized the notion of a united community
enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
• A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace the former royal standard.
• The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
• New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated, all in the name of the nation.
• A centralised administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens within its
territory.
• Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
• Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spoken and written in Paris, became the common
language of the nation.
4. What was the mission declared by the French Revolutionaries? Describe the event of French Revolution which
had influenced the people belonging to other parts of Europe.
• The mission and the destiny of the French nation was to liberate the peoples of Europe from despotism, in other
words to help other peoples of Europe to become nations.

The events of French Revolution which had influenced the people belonging to other parts of Europe :
• Students and other members of educated middle class began to set up Jacobin clubs.
• Their activities and campaigns prepared the way for the French armies.
• The French armies began to carry the idea of nationalism abroad.
5. Explain the Civil Code of 1804 or Napoleonic Code
Or
Napoleon had destroyed democracy in France, but in the administrative field he had incorporated
revolutionary principles in order to make the whole system more rational and efficient. Analyse the
statement with arguments
Or
Explain any five changes which Napoleon introduced to make the administrative system more rational and

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 efficient in Europe.

Napoleon incorporated revolutionary principles in the administrative field to make the whole system more rational and
effective. His civil code of 1804 was known as
Napoleonic Code
• First, he did away with all the privileges based on birth.
• Everyone became equal before the law.
• He abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial duties in the regions under
French control, like Dutch Republic, Italy, Germany and Switzerland
• He secured the right to property.
• In towns guild restrictions were removed
• Transport and communication systems were improved
• Uniform laws, standardised weights and measures, a common national currency facilitated the movement and
exchange of goods and capital from one region to another
6. What were the major political features during mid-eighteenth century in Europe?
Or
There were no ‘nation-states’ in mid-eighteenth-century Europe. Discuss
• In the mid-eighteenth-century Europe there were no ‘nation-states’ as we know them today. •
• The countries such as Germany, Italy and Switzerland, which we know today were divided into kingdoms,
duchies and cantons whose rulers had their autonomous territories.
• Eastern and Central Europe were under autocratic monarchies within the territories of which lived diverse
peoples.
• They did not see themselves as sharing a collective identity or a common culture.
• Often, they even spoke different languages and belonged to different ethnic groups.
• The Habsburg Empire that ruled over Austria-Hungary, for example, was a patchwork of many different
regions and peoples.

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8. How was the Habsburg Empire a patchwork of many different regions and peoples in
Europe? Explain.
• The Habsburg Empire that ruled over Austria-Hungary, for example, was a patchwork of
many different regions and peoples.
• Often, they even spoke different languages and belonged to different ethnic groups.
• It included the Alpine regions – the Tyrol, Austria and the Sudetenland – as well as
Bohemia, where the aristocracy was predominantly German-speaking.
• It also included the Italian- speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia.
• In Hungary, half of the population spoke Magyar while the other half spoke a variety of
dialects
• In Galicia, the aristocracy spoke Polish
• Such differences did not easily promote a sense of political unity
• The only tie binding these diverse groups together was a common allegiance to the
emperor.
9. What were the social composition of mid- eighteenth century of Europe?
Or
Socially and politically which was the dominant class in Europe in the mid 18th century.
Or
Discuss the lives of the aristocrats and the new middle class in 19th century Europe
Ans. • Socially and politically, a landed aristocracy was the dominant class on the continent.
• The members of this class were united by a common way of life that cut across regional
divisions. They owned estates in the countryside and also town-houses.
• They spoke French for purposes of diplomacy and in high society.
• Their families were often connected by ties of marriage.
• This powerful aristocracy was, however, numerically a small group. The majority of the
population was made up of the peasantry.
• To the west, the bulk of the land was farmed by tenants and small owners, while in
Eastern and Central Europe the pattern of landholding was characterized by vast estates
which were cultivated by serfs.
• In Western and parts of Central Europe the growth of industrial production and trade
meant the growth of towns and the emergence of commercial classes whose existence was
based on production for the market.
10. What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for?
Or
Explain liberalism in political and economic fields prevailing in Europe in the 19th century.
or
What were the political, social and economic ideals supported by the liberals in Europe?
Ans. Ideas of national unity in early-nineteenth-century Europe were closely allied to the ideology of
liberalism.
• The term ‘liberalism’ derives from the Latin root liber, meaning free.
• For the new middle classes liberalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality of
all before the law.
• Politically, it emphasised the concept of government by consent.
• Since the French Revolution, liberalism had stood for the end of autocracy and clerical
privileges
• A constitution and representative government through parliament.
• Nineteenth-century liberals also stressed the inviolability of private property.
• Men without property and all women were excluded from political rights. Only for a brief
period under the Jacobins did all adult males enjoy suffrage.
• However, the Napoleonic Code went back to limited suffrage and reduced women to the
status of a minor, subject to the authority of fathers and husbands.
• Throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth century’s women and non- propertied men
organized opposition movements demanding equal political rights.

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 Economically, liberalism stood for
• Freedom of markets;
• End of state restrictions on movement of goods and capital
• They argued for the creation of unified economic territory.
• Reduction of currency disparities and following of uniform weights and measures
• In 1834, the customs union of Zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia
and was joined by most of the German states
• The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty
to two.
• A network of railways led to great mobility and gave an impetus to national unity. It
boosted economic nationalism.

11. Why was Zollverein formed?

Ans. • In 1834, a custom union or Zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia
and was joined by most of the German states.
• The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty
to two.
• The creation of a network of railways further stimulated mobility, harnessing economic
interests to national unification.
• Varied currencies and weights and measures were obstacles to economic growth, so the
creation of a unified economic territory allowing the unhindered movement of goods,
people and capital was needed. So, Zollverein was formed
12. Explain the conditions that were viewed as obstacles to the economic exchange and growth
by the new commercial classes during the nineteenth century in Europe?
• There were many states imposed restrictions on the movement of goods, capital and
people.
• Each confederation had its own system of weights and measures that involved time-
consuming calculations.
• Because of countless principalities, there were many check posts where custom
duties were paid by the merchants.
• Duties were often levied according to the weight or measurement of the goods

13. How did a wave of economic nationalism strengthen the wider nationalist sentiments
growing in Europe? Explain

• the demands of new commercial classes for a unified economic territory allowing
the unhindered movement of goods, people and capital.
• In 1834, a custom union or Zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia
and was joined by most of the German states.
• The union abolished tariff barriers
• Reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two.
• The creation of a network of railways further stimulated mobility, harnessing economic
interests to national unification

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14. Write a note on a New Conservatism after 1815?
Or
Explain any three beliefs of the conservatism that emerged after 1815
Ans. • Following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, European Governments were driven by spirit of
Conservatism.
• Conservatives were people who believed that established, traditional institutions of state
and society like the monarchy church, social hierarchies, property and the family should
be preserved.
• But after the rule of Napolean the basic ideas of conservatism were changed. Most
conservatives did not want to return to the society of pre-revolutionary days.
• They realised the changes initiated by Napoleon - strengthened the traditional institutions
like the monarchy in reality.
• They understood that a modern army, an efficient bureaucracy, a dynamic economy, the
abolition of feudalism and serfdom could strengthen the autocratic monarchies in Europe.
15. Describe the Congress of Vienna or Treaty of Vienna (Explain the objectives of the ‘Treaty
of Vienna’ of 1815.)
Or
Explain the changes brought about in Europe by the Treaty of Vienna (1815)

Ans. • In 1815, representatives of the European powers – Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria,
met at Vienna to draw up a settlement for Europe.
• The Congress was hosted by the Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich.
• The treaty was aimed at undoing most of the changes that had come about in Europe
during the Napoleonic wars.
• It aimed to restore the monarchies that had been overthrown by Napoleon and create a
new conservative order in Europe.
• As a result, the Bourbon dynasty deposed during the French Revolution, was restored to
power, and France lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon.
• A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French expansion in
future
• Thus, the kingdom of the Netherlands, which included Belgium, was set up in the North
and Genoa was added to Piedmont in the South.
• Prussia was given important new territories on its western frontiers, while Austria was
given control of Northern Italy.
• The German confederation of 39 states that had been set up by Napoleon was left
untouched.
16. What was the nature of conservative regimes set up in 1815?
Or
Enumerate any three features of conservative regimes set up in Europe following the defeat
of Napoleon in 1815.
• Conservative regimes set up in 1815, were autocratic.
• They did not tolerate criticism and dissent and sought to curb activities that questioned the
legitimacy of autocratic governments.
• Most of them imposed censorship laws to control what was said in newspapers, books,
plays and songs and reflected the ideas of liberty and freedom associated with the French
Revolution.

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17. Why secret societies sprang of in Europe after Congress of Vienna?
Ans. • During the years following 1815, the fear of repression drove many liberal nationalists
underground.
• Secret societies sprang up in many European states to train revolutionaries and spread their
ideas.
• To be revolutionary at this time meant a commitment to oppose monarchical forms that had
been established after the Vienna Congress, and to fight for liberty and freedom.
• Most of these revolutionaries also saw the creation of nation-states as a necessary part of this
struggle for freedom.
18. Write a short note on Giuseppe Mazzini.
Or
Explain the contribution of Giuseppe Mazzini in spreading revolutionary ideas in
Europe.
Ans. • Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary, born in Geneva on June in1807.
• He believed in single unified republic instead of being a patchwork of small states and
kingdoms.
• He became a member of the secret society of the Carbonari
• In 1831, at the age of 24 he was sent into exile for attempting a revolution in Liguria.
• He founded underground societies like Young Italy in Marseilles, and Young Europe in Berne.
• Following his model, secret societies were set up in Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland
• His relentless opposition to monarchy and his vision of democratic republic frightened the
conservatives
• Metternich described him as ‘the most dangerous enemy of our social order’

19. How had revolutionaries spread their ideas in many European states after 1815. Explain with
examples.
• After the Congress of Vienna in 1815 when conservative regimes were restored to power,
many liberal minded people went underground because of the fear of repression.
• Secret societies sprang up in European states to train the revolutionaries and spread their ideas.
• Many revolutionaries opposed monarchial rule and fought for liberty and freedom of their
respective states.
• One such revolutionary was Giuseppe Mazzini, an Italian patriot, was sent to exile in 1831 for
attempting a revolution in Liguria.
• He became the member of a secret society carbonari.
• He founded two underground societies, first Young Italy in Marseilles and the other Young
Europe in Berne.
• The society had members from Poland, France, Italy, Germany, etc. The members believed in
the formation of nation states and they were liberal minded people.
• Following the example of Italy, secret societies were set up in Germany, France Switzerland,
Poland. Mazzini’s vision of democratic republics frightened the conservatives.

20. Write a short note on July revolution in France of 1830.

OR
What were the effects of revolutionary upheaval in France in 1830
• The first upheaval took place in France in July 1830.
• The bourbon kings who had been restored to power during the conservative reaction after
1815, were now overthrown by liberal revolutionaries, who installed a constitutional
monarchy with Louis Philippe at its head.
• Metternich once remarked, “When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold”.
• The July Revolution sparked an uprising in Brussels which led to Belgium
breaking away from the United Kingdoms of the Netherlands.

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21. Write a note on the Greek War of Independence.
Or
How did the Greek War of Independence mobilized nationalist feeling among the educated elite
across Europe ? Give five points
• Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century.
• The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence
amongst the Greeks which began in 1821.
• Nationalists in Greece got support from other Greeks living in exile and also from many west
Europeans who had sympathies for ancient Greek culture
• Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle of European civilisation and mobilised public
opinion to support its struggle against a Muslim empire.
• The English poet Lord Byron organised funds and later went to fight in the war, where he died
of fever in 1824.
• Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an independent nation.
22. Metternich once remarked “When France sneezes, rest of Europe catches cold”. Justify
• The upheaval in France in July 1830 which led to the overthrow of the Bourbon dynasty and
installation of constitutional monarchy under Louis Philippe had repercussions all over Europe
• The July Revolution sparked an uprising in Brussels which led to Belgium
breaking away from the United Kingdoms of the Netherlands
• The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence
amongst the Greeks which began in 1821.
• Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an independent nation.
• In Poland, the revolution in the form of an armed rebellion against Russian took place but it
was crushed with heavy hand
23. What was Romanticism? How did Romanticism seek to develop a particular form of nationalist
sentiment during 18th century? Explain.
Or
“Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation in Europe.” Support the
statement with examples.
Or
The development of nationalism in Europe was not only the result of war and territorial
expansion. Explain
Or
Discuss the importance of language and popular traditions in the creation of national identity.
• Romanticism was a cultural movement which sought to develop nationalist sentiment.
• Romantic artists and poets generally criticised the glorification of reason and science and
focused instead on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings.
• Their effort was to create a sense of a shared collective heritage, a common cultural past, as
the basis of a nation.
• The emphasis on vernacular language and the collection of local folklore was not just to
recover an ancient national spirit, but also to carry the modern nationalist message to large
audiences who were mostly illiterate
• Some Romantics, like the German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder claimed that true
German culture was to be discovered among the common people – das volk
• It was through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances that the true spirit of the nation was
popularised
• The Polish artist, Karol Kurpinski encouraged National Struggle through his operas and music,
turning folk dances like the ‘polonaise’ and ‘mazurka’ into national symbols.
• Language also played an important role in developing nationalist feelings.
• The Grimm Brothers promoted German language to oppose French domination through their
collection of folk tales.
• After Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian
language was imposed everywhere
• Following this, many members of the clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon of
national resistance
• Polish was used for Church gatherings and all religious instructions.
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 • The use of polish came to be seen as a symbol of struggle against Russian dominance

24. Explain any five ways in which nationalists’ feelings were kept alive in Poland in the
18th and 19th century
Polish people used their culture in a big way. They strived hard to keep their national identity.
Nationalist feelings were kept alive in Poland in the following ways:
• National feelings were kept alive through music and language.
• Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music.
• Traditional dance forms of Poland polonaise and mazurka became their national symbols.
• After Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian
language was imposed everywhere
• Following this, many members of the clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon of
national resistance
• Polish was used for Church gatherings and all religious instructions.
• The use of polish came to be seen as a symbol of struggle against Russian dominance
25. Language too played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments. Justify
• Language played an important role in developing nationalist feelings.
• At that time most of the people were illiterate. They were able to understand only vernacular
or regional language. So vernacular language was used by the nationalist to carry out the
message to the large audience easily
• After Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian
language was imposed everywhere
• Following this, many members of the clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon of
national resistance
• Polish was used for Church gatherings and all religious instructions.
• The use of polish came to be seen as a symbol of struggle against Russian dominance
• The Grimm Brothers promoted German language to oppose French domination through their
collection of folk tales.
The French revolutionaries discouraged regional dialects and encouraged the use of French language
as the common language of the nation
26. ‘The 1830s were years of great economic hardship in Europe.’ Support the statement
with examples.
• The 1830s were years of great economic hardship in Europe.
• The first half of the nineteenth century saw an enormous increase in population all over
Europe.
• In most countries there were more seekers of jobs than employment.
• Population from rural areas migrated to the cities to live in overcrowded slums.
• Small producers in towns were often faced with stiff competition from imports of cheap
machine-made goods from England, where industrialisation was more advanced than on the
continent.
• This was especially so in textile production, which was carried out mainly in homes or small
workshops and was only partly mechanised.
• In those regions of Europe where the aristocracy still enjoyed power, peasants struggled under
the burden of feudal dues and obligations.
The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread pauperism in town and country.
27. What is the significance of 1848 revolution in France?
Or
What were the consequences of bad harvest, hunger and hardship in France in the year 1848

• Food shortages and widespread unemployment brought the population of Paris out on the
roads.
• Barricades were erected and Louis Philippe was forced to flee.
• A National Assembly proclaimed a Republic
• Granted suffrage to all adult males above 21
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 • Guaranteed the right to work.
• National workshops to provide employment were set up
28 Describe the cause of the Silesian weavers’ uprising.
• The cause of the ‘Silesian Weavers’ uprising was due to the cheating of the weavers by the
contractors
• In 1845, the weavers raised a revolt against the contractors as the contractors drastically
reduced their payments
• The journalist Wilhelm Wolff described the events in a Silesian village as follows:
In these villages (with 18,000 inhabitants) cotton weaving is the most widespread occupation
• The misery of the workers is extreme.
• A large crowd of weavers reached the house of the contractor and demanded higher wages
• They were not treated well, so a group of the crowd entered the contractor’s house forcibly
and destroyed the furniture, windowpanes and plundered it
• Another group broke into the storehouse and plundered it of supplies of cloth which they tore
to shreds
• The contractor fled with his family to a neighbouring village but did not get shelter
• After 24 hours, he returned back with army and eleven weavers were shot dead.
• This shows that the viewpoint of the journalist was based against the weavers and in favour of
the contractor. He did not understand the misery of the weavers properly
29. Explain what is meant by the 1848 revolution of the liberals. What were the political, social and
economic ideas supported by the liberals?
Or
What is the significance of 1848 for France and the rest of Europe? What did the liberals
demand
• Parallel to the revolts of the poor, unemployed and starving peasants and workers in many
European countries in the year 1848, a revolution led by the educated middle classes was
under way.
• Events of February 1848 in France had brought about the abdication of the monarch
• A republic based on universal adult suffrage was proclaimed.
• In other parts of Europe where independent nation-states did not yet exist – such as Germany,
Italy, Poland, the Austro-Hungarian Empire – men and women of the liberal middle classes
combined their demands for constitutionalism with national unification.
• They took advantage of the growing popular unrest to push their demands for the creation of a
nation-state on parliamentary principles – a constitution, freedom of the press and freedom of
association
The political, social and economic ideas supported by the liberals were:
• Politically, they demanded constitutionalism with national unification, nation-state with
written constitution and parliamentary administration.
• Socially, they wanted to rid society of its class-based privileges and birth rights. Serfdom and
bonded labour had to be abolished.
• Economically they demanded freedom of markets and right to property. Abolition of state-
imposed restrictions on the movements of goods and capital.
30. Write a note on the Frankfurt Parliament.
• In the German regions a large number of political associations whose members were middle-
class professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans came together in the city of Frankfurt
and decided to vote for an all-German National Assembly.
• 831 persons were elected, called Deputies. They comprised the National Assembly.
• The assembly decided to organize Frankfurt Parliament in the church of St. Paul.
Thus, on 18th May, 1848 the famous Frankfurt Parliament was convened.
• They drafted a constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy subject to a
parliament.
• When the deputies offered the crown on these terms to Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia,
he rejected it and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly.
• The parliament faced strong opposition from aristocracy and military.
• The parliament was dominated by the middle classes who resisted the demands of workers and
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 artisans. As a result of this middle class lost their support
• In the end troops were called in and the assembly was forced to disband.

31. Examine the role of women in the nationalist struggles of Europe.

• The issue of extending political rights to women was a controversial one within the liberal
movement.
• Large numbers of women had participated actively over the years for equal political rights.
• Women had formed their own political associations, founded newspapers and taken part in
political meetings and demonstrations.
• Despite this they were denied suffrage rights during the election of the Assembly.
• When the Frankfurt parliament convened in the Church of St Paul, women were admitted only
as observers to stand in the visitors’ gallery.
32. Though conservative forces were able to suppress liberal movements in 1848. They could not
restore the old order. Explain
Or
What were the outcomes of Frankfurt Parliament?
• The parliament faced strong opposition from aristocracy and military.
• The parliament was dominated by the middle classes who resisted the demands of workers and
artisans. As a result of this middle class lost their support
• In the end troops were called in and the assembly was forced to disband
• Though conservative forces were able to suppress liberal movements in 1848 in Frankfurt and
in large part of Europe. But they could not restore the old order.
• Monarchs were beginning to realise that the cycles of revolution and repression could only be
ended by granting concessions to the liberal-nationalist revolutionaries.
• Hence, in the years after 1848, the autocratic monarchies of Central and Eastern Europe began
to introduce the changes that had already taken place in Western Europe before 1815.
• Thus, serfdom and bonded labour were abolished both in the Habsburg dominions and in
Russia. T
• Habsburg rulers granted more autonomy to the Hungarians in 1867
33. Otto von Bismarck was the architect of ‘German Unification’. Explain.
Or
Describe the process of unification of Germany.
• Nationalist feelings were widespread among middle-class Germans, who in 1848 tried to unite
the different regions of the German confederation into a nation-state governed by an elected
parliament.
• This liberal initiative to nation-building was repressed by the combined forces of the
monarchy and the military, supported by the large landowners (called Junkers) of Prussia.
• From then on, Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification.
• Its chief minister, Otto von Bismarck, was the architect of this process carried out with the
help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy.
• Three wars over seven years – with Austria, Denmark and France – ended in Prussian victory
and completed the process of unification.
• On the bitterly cold morning of 18 January 1871 the Prussian king, Kaiser William I, was
proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held in the unheated Hall of Mirrors in the Palace
of Versailles.
• The princes of the German states, representatives of the army, important Prussian ministers
including the chief minister Otto von Bismarck gathered in this assembly.

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 “Italy had a long history of political fragmentation.” Support the statement
34. • Italians were scattered over several dynastic states as well as the multi-national Habsburg
Empire.
• During the middle of the nineteenth century, Italy was divided into seven states, of which
only one, Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house.
• The north was under Austrian Habsburgs, the centre was ruled by the Pope and the
southern regions were under the domination of the Bourbon kings of Spain.
• Even the Italian language had not acquired one common form and still had many regional
and local variations
35. Describe the process of the unification of Italy
• Italians were scattered over several dynastic states as well as the multi-national Habsburg
Empire.
• During the middle of the nineteenth century, Italy was divided into seven states, of which
only one, Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house.
• The north was under Austrian Habsburgs, the centre was ruled by the Pope and the
southern regions were under the domination of the Bourbon kings of Spain.
• During the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini tried to unite Italian Republic, however he failed in
his attempt.
• Now the onus lies on Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler King Victor Emmanuel II to unify
the Italian states through war.
• Chief Minister Cavour who led the movements to unify the regions of Italy was neither a
revolutionary nor a democrat
• Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France engineered by Cavour ensured the
victory of Sardinia-Piedmont over the Austrian forces in 1859.
• In 1860, a large number of armed volunteers under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi
marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
• They succeeded in winning the support of the local peasants and drove out the Spanish
rulers.
• In 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy
36.. In Britain the formation of the nation-state was not the result of a sudden upheaval or
revolution. It was the result of a long-drawn-out process. Explain
Or
How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe?
Or
Describe in brief the process by which the British Nation came into existence?
• There was no British nation prior to the eighteenth century.
• The primary identities of the people who inhabited the British Isles were ethnic ones –
such as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish.
• All of these ethnic groups had their own cultural and political traditions.
• English nation steadily grew in wealth, importance and power; it was able to extend its
influence over the other nations of the islands.
• The English parliament, which had seized power from the monarchy in 1688 was the
instrument through which a nation-state, with England at its centre, came to be forged.
• The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland that resulted in the formation of
the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’ meant, in effect, that England was able to impose
its influence on Scotland.
• The British parliament was henceforth dominated by its English members.
• The growth of a British identity meant that Scotland’s distinctive culture and political
institutions were systematically suppressed.
• The Catholic Scottish Highlands suffered terrible repression when they attempted to assert
their independence.
• The Scottish Highlanders were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or wear their
national dress, and large numbers were forcibly driven out of their homeland.
• Ireland was a country deeply divided between Catholics and Protestants.

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 • The English helped the Protestants of Ireland to establish their dominance over a largely
Catholic country.
• Catholic revolts against British dominance were suppressed.
• After a failed revolt led by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen (1798) Ireland was
forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.
• A new ‘British nation’ was forged through the propagation of a dominant English culture
• The symbols of the new Britain – the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God
save Our Noble King), the English language – were actively promoted and the older
nations survived only as subordinate partners in this union.
37. Explain how Ireland got incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801? What were the
symbols of the new British nation?
• Ireland was a country deeply divided between Catholics and Protestants.
• The English helped the Protestants of Ireland to establish their dominance over a largely
Catholic country.
• Catholic revolts against British dominance were suppressed.
• After a failed revolt led by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen (1798) Ireland was
forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.
• A new ‘British nation’ was forged through the propagation of a dominant English culture
Symbols:
The symbols of the new Britain – the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God save Our
Noble King), the English language – were actively promoted and the older nations survived only
as subordinate partners in this union.

38 What was the impact of the Act of union on Scotland?

• The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland that resulted in the formation of
the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’ meant, in effect, that England was able to impose
its influence on Scotland.
• The British parliament was henceforth dominated by its English members.
• The growth of a British identity meant that Scotland’s distinctive culture and political
institutions were systematically suppressed.
• The Catholic Scottish Highlands suffered terrible repression when they attempted to assert
their independence.
• The Scottish Highlanders were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or wear their
national dress, and large numbers were forcibly driven out of their homeland.

40. Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way in which they
were portrayed?
• Artists in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries personified a nation in the form of
person. They tried to give the abstract idea of the nation a concrete form
• These artists portrayed female figures as nation.
• Artists personified France as Marianne, a popular Christian name, which underlined the
idea of a people's nation.
• Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and the Republic – the red cap, the
tricolour, the cockade.
• Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares to remind the public of the national
symbol of unity and to persuade them to identify with it.
• Marianne images were marked on coins and stamps.
• In Germany, Germania became the allegory of the German nation.
• In visual representations, Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak
stands for heroism

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 41. Why was Balkans after 1871 the most serious source of nationalist tension in Europe.
Or
Why did Nationalist tensions emerge in Balkans
Or
The most serious source of nationalist tension in Europe after 1871 was the area called the
Balkans. Why?
• The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern-day
Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia,
Serbia and Montenegro whose inhabitants were broadly known as the Slavs.
• A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire.
• The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans together with the
disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive.
• All through the 19th century the Ottoman Empire had sought to strengthen itself through
modernisation and internal reforms but with very little success.
• One by one, its European subject nationalities broke away from its control and declared
independence.
• The Balkan peoples based their claims for independence or political rights on nationality
and used history to prove that they had once been independent but had subsequently been
subjugated by foreign powers.
• The rebellious nationalities in the Balkans thought of their struggles as attempts to win
back their long-lost independence.
• As the different Slavic nationalities struggled to define their identity and independence,
the Balkan area became an area of intense conflict.
• The Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each other and each hoped to gain more
territory at the expense of the others.
• Matters were further complicated because the Balkans also became the scene of big power
rivalry.
• During this period, there was intense rivalry among the European powers over trade and
colonies as well as naval and military might.
• These rivalries were very evident in the way the Balkan problem unfolded. Each power –
Russia, Germany, England, and Austro-Hungary – was keen on countering the hold of
other powers over the Balkans, and extending its own control over the area.
• This led to a series of wars in the region and finally the First World War

42. “Nationalism spreads when people begin to believe that they are all part of the same nation.”
Support the statement
• The term nationalism refers to the feeling of oneness based on common heritage and common
identity and a sense of belonging to one’s nation.
• The spirit of nationalism can spread and develop only when people discover some bond or unity that
binds them together.
• The sense of collective belonging develops through the experience of united struggles.
• There are a variety of cultural process through which nationalism captures people’s imagination.
• History and fiction, folklore and songs, popular prints and symbols, all play a role in the spread of
nationalism.
• Any image or symbol that is identified as nation is also recognised as a bond and help in the spread of
nationalism
43. Nationalism no longer retained its idealistic liberal democratic sentiments by the last quarter of the
19th century in Europe’. Analyse the statement with examples.

• Towards the end of the 19th century, nationalism became a narrow belief with inadequate
ends.
• This period saw nationalist groups becoming increasingly prejudiced of each other and
ready to wage a war at the slightest of the pretext.
• Nationalism was now identified with increasing one’s sphere of influence, by establishing
control over more territories.
• Balkan states became jealous of each other and entered into a conflict to establish more
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 control and power in the region at the cost of others.
• The chief European authorities saw this as an opportunity and manipulated the nationalist
desires of the subject peoples. ‘
• European powers were keen on countering the hold of other powers over the Balkans.
• They did nothing serious to solve the Balkan issue rather watched the situation to turn
fruitful for them.
• The most severe tensions emerge after 1871, leading to a series of wars and ultimately led to
the First World War in 1914.

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