Lesson 1:

Aircraft Structures –General

AF-GC500

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Introduction-1
• History:
• The history of aircraft structures is history of
aviation in general.
• Advances in materials and processes of aircraft
construction led to the evolution of aircraft
structural materials.
• With continuous power plant development, the
structures of aircrafts have changed
significantly.

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Introduction-3
Definition:
• What is an Aircraft?
• Any structure, machine which is designed to be
supported in the air.
• Airframe is basic assembled structure of any
aircraft .
• It includes the fuselage, wings, tail, nacelle, cowling,
fairings, stabilizers, control surfaces and landing gear.

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Types of Aircraft
• Based on how they supported in the air, aircraft
can be classified as :
• Lighter than Air and
• Heavier than Air
• Lighter than air aircrafts
• Supported in the air by their own buoyancy.
• Heavier than Air aircrafts
• Supported in the air by the dynamic reaction of its
structure with the air.
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Lighter than air aircrafts -1
• Balloons
• an extremely large
bag filled with a
lighter-than-air-gas,
• used to transport
people & goods in
a suspended basket
called gondola.

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Lighter than air aircrafts -2

• Airships
• Are engine driven
and can be steered.
Heavier than Air Aircraft -1
• Classified as :
• Fixed wing
• have pairs of fixed
wings to generate lift.

Airplane
Example- Airplane

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Heavier than Air Aircraft -2
• Rotary Wing Aircrafts:
• have rotating airfoil
shaped wing which
generates lift .

Helicopter
• Example: Helicopter
and Autogiro.
Fixed Wing Aircraft Types-1
• Monoplane
• has a single pair of fixed
wings.
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• Biplane
• has two pairs of wings

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Fixed Wing Aircraft Types-2
• Sea plane
• lands on water surface

• Amphibian
• can land both on water
surface and on land
Major Structural Stresses-1
• Aircraft structures must be planned to carry the
load to be imposed upon it.
• The determination of such loads is called stress analysis.
• The five types of stress:
1. Compression
2. Tension
3. Bending
4. Twisting/Torsion
5. Shear
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Classification of Structural Units -1

• The structure of all aircraft is divided into three

significant categories:-
• Primary
• Secondary
• Tertiary
• Based on these categories, the type of repairs to
be carried out can be specified.

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Classification of Structural Units -2

• Primary Structures
Failure of would be likely to cause:
•
• Catastrophic structural collapse
• Inability to operate a service
• Injury to occupants
• Loss of control and Unintentional operation of a
service
• Power unit failure
• Examples : Engine Mountings, Fuselage Frames, Main
Floor members, Main Spars
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Classification of Structural Units -3
• Secondary Structures
• Have over design strength, and weakening may be
permitted, with out risk of failure.
• if damaged, would not impair (weaken) the safety of the
aircraft.
• Examples :
• Ribs and parts of skin in the wings
• Skin and stringers in the fuselage

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Classification of Structural Units -4
• Tertiary Structures
• Have low stresses , but which cannot be omitted
from the aircraft.

• Examples :
• fairings, fillets and brackets

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Airworthiness Requirements
• Are necessary with respect to aircraft structures
because:
• Establish standards of
• strength,
• control,
• maintainability
• Ensure that all aircraft will be constructed to the
safest possible standard .

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Fuselage Zone and Station Number
During many different maintenance operations , it is
necessary to know ,
• Location of the component to be changed
• correct location of the work to be carried out.
• Manufacturers make use of two systems, a
Zonal system and a frame/station method

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Zonal Number System-1
• Divides the airframe into a number of zones, (usually less
than 10)
• Give engineers and others a rough idea of where they
need to look
• Used also in component labeling and work card area
identification.
• Example :
• Work card numbered 500376, indicats Job 376 located
on left wing (Zone 500),
• Card number is 200376, job 376 is located on the
fuselage.

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Zonal Number System-2

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Fuselage station (or frame) Number-1
• Datum on the fuselage along the longitudinal axis parallel
to the centerline designated as Station 0 .
• Other station designations are located at measured
distances aft of this point.
• Example:
• Station 5050 is located at 5.05 meter ( 5050 mm) aft of (to the right
of) station 0 (Datum).

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Lateral location ( Buttock line)
• To locate structures to the
right or left of the aircraft,
consider the fuselage
center line as a station
zero.
• The wing or tail plane ribs
could be identified as
being a particular number
of millimeters (or inches) to
the right or the left of the
center line.

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Vertical Location - Water line (WL)
• Water Line (WL)
• The height in inches
from a horizontal
plane.
• Vertical location
usually measured
above or below a
‘water line’.
Drains and Ventilation Provisions-1

• Needed to :
• Prevent water and other fluids from collecting within the
structure.
• Avoid both a corrosion and fire hazard
• The forms of drainage can be divided into two
areas.
• External Drains
• Internal Drains (drain paths and drain holes)

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Drains and Ventilation Provisions-4
• Ventilation (Heating, air-conditioning, pressurization system)
• Needed as a system to precludes the presence of flammable
vapours from:
• Passenger and Cargo Compartment
• Battery Compartment and System Bays etc….
• Cavities will all be provided with vent pipes & ventilation scope
System Installation Provisions -1
• The installation of various systems within the
airframe includes:
• Adaptations from the perfect ‘drawing-board’ design.
• Facilities incorporated in the design to provide a location
for all the system components, their associated lines and
cables.
• Requires easy access for the maintenance engineers.

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System Installation Provisions -2
• On modern aircraft:
• Compartments allocated to each of the major systems
components . Like;
• Dedicated Avionics bays,
• Hydraulic bays,
• Air conditioning bays, etc.,
• Access for the easier replacement of replaceable
units provided.

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System Installation Provisions -3
• Older aircraft will still have
• Components scattered throughout the airframe,
• With difficult access in some places through small panels,
• All of which will obviously make maintenance on these
systems much more difficult.

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Aircraft Symmetric Checks-1
• To determine the wings and tail are symmetrical about the
longitudinal axis.

• Alignment check should be performed when:

• Undesirable flight characteristics that cannot be
corrected by control surface adjustment
• Abnormal landing (hard landing)
• Manufacturer's maintenance manual lists the points to be
measured on a symmetry check.

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Aircraft Symmetric Checks-2
• Typical symmetry Figure .

• The precise figures, tolerances,

and checkpoints for a particular
aircraft are found in the applicable
service or maintenance manual.

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Methods and Procedures of Checking and Aligning

• The alignment checks specified usually include:

• Wing dihedral angle
• Wing incidence angle
• Verticality of the fin
• Engine alignment
• A symmetry check
• Horizontal stabilizer incidence
• Horizontal stabilizer dihedral

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Aligning the Wings-1
• Two very important alignments
• Dihedral angle
• Angle of incidence
• Related with the increasing & decreasing angle
of incidence - wash in & washout are wing
alignments

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Dihedral angle
• The positive angle formed
between the lateral axis
of an airplane and a
line which passes
through the center
of the wing or
the horizontal
stabilizer.

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Angle of Incidence
• The acute angle which
the wing chord makes
with the longitudinal
axis of the aircraft is
called the angle of
incidence or the
angle of wing
setting

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Wing Wash In and Wash Out-1
• Wing-heavy flight conditions are often corrected.
• On strut-braced airplanes (Refer next slide)
• Shortening the rear strut increases the angle of
incidence and washes the wing in
• Lengthening the rear strut decreases the angle of
incidence and washes the wing out.

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Wing Wash In and Wash Out-2
• If more correction
is needed, one wing
is washed in and the
opposite wing is
washed out.

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Wing Wash In and Wash Out-3
• On a cantilever airplane (refer next slide):
• Wash in is an increase in the angle of incidence
of the wing from the root to the tip.
• Washout is a decreasing angle of incidence
from the root to the tip of a wing

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Wing Wash In and Wash Out-4
• If a wing has an angle of
incidence of 2° at the
root and an angle of
incidence of 3° at the
outer end, it has a
wash in of 1°.

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Change in Dihedral Angle
• Cantilever wings are constructed in such a way
that the dihedral cannot be changed .
• The dihedral of strut-braced airplanes can be
adjusted by :
• changing the length of the strut that attaches to the
front wing spar .

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Checking Dihedral Angle
• Dihedral is measured using a
dihedral board OR
Straight Edge as shown.

• When the dihedral angle

is correctly adjusted, a spirit
level held against the bottom
of the board will be level.

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Adjusting Angle of Incidence
• Cantilever wings may
be adjusted at the rear spar.
• Doing this is by the use of
Eccentric Bushings.
• A special bushing used
between the rear spar of
certain cantilever airplane
wings and the wing attachment fit on the fuselage.

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Rigging –fixed wing- Biplane -1
• Rigging a biplane
includes stagger,
angle of incidence,
dihedral angle,
and de-calage.

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 Rigging –fixed wing- Biplane-2
Stagger :
• longitudinal difference in the positions of the leading edges
of the wings of a biplane.
• If the leading edge of the upper wing is ahead of the
leading edge of the lower wing, the stagger is positive.

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 Rigging –fixed wing- Biplane-3
De-calage :
• The difference between the angles of incidence of
the upper and lower wings .
• If the upper wing has a greater angle of incidence
than the lower wing, the de-calage is said to be
positive.

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Rigging –fixed wing- Biplane-8
• Next step is the attachment
of the lower wings.
• A padded support is placed
• Wing lifted into place and
attached to fuselage fittings
with bolts.
• interplane struts are attached
to fittings on lower wing .
• The upper ends of the interplane
struts are attached to lower side of each upper wing
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Rigging –fixed wing- Biplane-9
• Landing wires/ Ground wires, are installed between :
• Fittings at the tops of the cabane struts
• Fittings at the lower ends of the interplane struts.
• Landing wires are tightened to support the weight of both
wing panels on each side of the fuselage.
• Then supports can be removed from under the lower wing.

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Rigging –fixed wing- Biplane-10
• Flying wires,
• Carry the wing load in flight,
• Installed between :
• fittings at the butt end of the lower wing
• fittings at the upper ends of the interplane struts.

• Flying Wires are tightened just enough to take up the slack.

• When adjusting flying and landing wires, a nonmetallic wire
wrench should be used.

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Rigging –fixed wing- Biplane-11
• Not to have extra stress into the wings take care when
tightening the wing wires.
• Always loosen one wire before tightening the opposite
• The dihedral angle of the wings is established by adjusting
the landing wires.
• A bubble protractor or a dihedral board with the correct
angle is used for checking the dihedral angle.

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• After dihedral angle checked correct flying wires are
tightened. One side left & the other side right threaded
• Turning wire in one direction, it is tightened and turning it in
the opposite direction, it is loosened.

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Rigging –fixed wing- Biplane-12
• Tightening the landing wires
increases the dihedral angle.
• After Tightening dihedral
angle should be rechecked
using Straight edge or
bevel protractor or
Dihedral board.

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 Rigging –fixed wing- Biplane-13
• Stagger at the outer ends should
be checked to determine that it is
correct.
• If the airplane has incidence
wires between the inter plane
struts, it is necessary to adjust
these wires by means of
turnbuckles or other means to
set the correct stagger at these points .

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 Major Aircraft Structures

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Major Fixed-Wing Aircraft Structures
• Principal Structural
Components:
• The fuselage
• The wing
• The landing gear
• Empennage with
stabilizers
• Flight control
Surfaces

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Fuselage
• Main body of an aircraft to which the wings, tail, and
landing gear attached.
• Purpose:
• Provide space for passengers ,cargo, controls,
accessories, and other equipment.
• Provides attachment points to wings and tail section

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Fuselage Requirements
• Fuselage must be:
• Strong and light in weight
• Streamlined
• Air conditioned or ventilated
• Pressurized if the aircraft flies at high altitudes
• Provided with emergency exist

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Types of fuselage Construction
• Two type, based on stresses are transmitted to the
structure.
• Truss Type
• all members of the truss share both tension &
compression.
• Stressed Skin (Mon-ocoque )
• relies largely on the strength of the skin to carry the
primary streses.

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Fuselage Construction - Truss Type-1
• Truss Type
• A rigid frame work of bars, beams, rods, tubes and wires.
• The members are joined together by riveting or welding.
• Longerons are the primary load carrying longitudinal
members
• Lateral bracing is placed at regular intervals.
• The frame work is covered with fabric, wood, aluminum
or fiberglass.
• Truss type further classified into two types.
• Pratt truss
• Warren truss

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Fuselage Construction –Truss Type-2
• Pratt Truss
• Vertical and diagonal
members connect the
longerons
• The diagonal members
can be wires (carry only
tension) or rigid tubing
(can carry either tension
or compression)

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Fuselage Construction –Truss Type -3
• Warren Truss
• The longerons are
connected only with
diagonal members
• Material is Steel and
aluminum alloy

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 Stressed Skin Construction
• Stressed Skin Construction
• Stressed Skin type relies largely on the strength of
the skin to carry the primery streses. These are
two types:
• i. Pure Monocoque :
• ii. Semi-monocoque

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Stressed Skin Construction- Pure Monocoque-1
• Pure Monocoque
• A method of construction where the skin carries all
the loads without internal structural members. It Is a
metal tube or cone .
• No bracing members, thus skin must be strong
enogh to keep the fuselage rigid.
• Formers can be used to give shape
• Strength/weight problem observed.

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Stressed Skin Construction- Pure Monocoque-2
Pure Monocoque

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Stressed Skin Construction- Semimonocoque-1
• Semimonocoque
• Has additional
longitudinal members
(Longerons and stringers)
to reinforce the skin
• The skin is riveted to
stringers which in turn are
riveted to the formers

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Stressed Skin Construction- Semimonocoque-2
• Semimonocoque…
• Half the loads are arried by the skin and half by the
supporting structure.

• Its advantage is that the space within the structure is

unobstructed and is used for passengers and freight.

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Stressed Skin Construction- Semimonocoque-3
• Structural members
• Skin (plating)- made up of aluminum alloy, titanium, and
stainless steel
• Longitudinal Members
• Stringers:-provide longitudinal shape and support to
the fuselage skin.
• Run from the nose of the aircraft to the tail of the
aircraft
• Span wise members of the wings, vertical and
horizontal stabilizers and flying control surfaces.
• Numerous in number and smaller in size than
longerons.
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Stressed Skin Construction- Semimonocoque-4
• Stringers…
• Provide space for fastening the skin
• Types :
• Extruded,
• Cast,
• Formed
• L- angles , Bulb angle , Hat Section, U- channel,
Z- Section are shape of its cross section
• Material is mostly Aluminum alloy
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Semimonocoque -Longerons
Longerons
• The primary load carrying length wise longitudinal
members.

• Needed at high load points such as floors, landing gear

attachments, etc. need to be interconnected.

• Much heavier construction than stringers and can be

solid extrusions or fabricated multiple part construction.

• Similar to Stringers in cross sectional shape

•

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Fuselage - Vertical Members

• Frames or formers:
• vertical structural members and provide the basic
fuselage shape,
• Transfer stresses from the fuselage to the bulkheads

• Bulkheads:
• are the heaviest vertical members
• carry concentrated loads

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Fuselage - Beams and Floor Structures
• Beams are often used laterally and longitudinally along the
fuselage to support the flight deck and passenger cabin
floors.
• Provide strong point
attachments for the crew
and passenger seats and
as such, constitute primary
structure.

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Wings - 4
Wing Plan Form
• An increase in aspect ratio decreases the drag.
• Most of the wing platforms in use (or have been used) fall
under one of these categories.
• Elliptical
• Rectangular Almost all used in subsonic aircraft
• High Tapered Wing
• Delta
• Swept Back wings Used in supersonic aircraft
Wings - 5
Elliptical Wing:
• It has the most efficient planform.
• Tapered leading & Trailing edge.
• It produces the minimum amount of
induced drag for a given aspect
ratio.
• Disadvantages :
• Difficult and expensive to
construct,
• Stall progression is inferior to that
of a rectangular wing.
Wings - 6
Rectangular wing
• has the most desirable
stall progression.
• straight, un-tapered wing.
• The stall begins at the
wing root and progresses
outward,
• Disadvantage :
• aerodynamically inefficient.
Wings - 7
High Tapered Wing
• Has many of the advantages
of an elliptical wing,
• modification of the rectangular
wing
• Constructed less costly than
elliptical wing.
• Its stall characteristics are
similar to elliptical wing.
• Chord is varied across the span
Wings - 8
Delta Wing:
• Very low aspect ratio wing .
• Advantages :
• Efficient in all the flight
regimes (subsonic, transonic and
supersonic)..
• Quite simple to build and maintain.
• disadvantages
• Have high induced drag
due to low aspect ratio
Wings -9
Swept Back wings:
• leading edges are
swept back.
• Reduces drag in
transonic speeds,
• used in almost all high
speed commercial airliners.
• Example:
• Boeing B787 Dreamliner
Wings – Internal Structural Members…
• Internal structures of most wings are made up of
• Spars and Stringers running span wise and
• Ribs and Formers or Bulkheads running chord
wise (leading edge to trailing edge).
• The Spars are the principle structural members of
a wing.

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Wing Spar
• Support all distributed loads, as well as concentrated
weights such as the fuselage, landing gear, and engines.
• The skin, which is attached to the wing structure, carries
part of the loads imposed during flight.
• Transfers the stresses to the wing ribs. The ribs, in turn,
transfer the loads to the wing spars.
• Spars may be made of metal, wood, or composite
materials depending on the design criteria of a specific
aircraft.

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Wing Spars - Material
• Wing spars made of solid extruded aluminum or aluminum
extrusions.
• Currently use of composites and other combined materials is
increasing.

Wooden wing spar shapes Metalic wing spar shapes

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Wing Spar Shapes-2
• In an I–beam spar,
• The top and bottom of the I–beam are called the caps
and the vertical section is called the web.
• Web forms the principal depth portion of the spar and
the cap strips are attached to it.
• Together, these members carry the loads caused by
wing bending, with the caps providing a foundation for
attaching the skin.

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Wings Spar-Fail safe design
• Fail-safe spar web
design exists.
• Fail-safe means
• If one member of a
structure fail, some
other part of the
structure assumes the
load and permits
continued operation.

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Wings construction type
• Mono spar
wing
• incorporates
only one main
span wise or
longitudinal
member
(spar) in its
construction

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Wings construction type

• Multi spar Rear Spar

wing
• more than
one Spar.
Front Spar
Wings construction type
BOX Bam
• Box beam
• uses two Spar with
connecting
bulkheads to furnish
additional strength
and to give contour
to the wing.
• Air transport category
aircraft often utilize
box beam wing
construction.
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Wing Ribs-1
• Chord wise members
• Extend from the leading edge to the trailing edge or
from front spar to the rear spar
• Give shape to the wing
• Transmit loads from the covering to the spars
• Can be made of wood or metal
• Types
• Built up
• Stamped

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Wing Ribs-2
▪ False ribs:
• Extend from
the front spar
to the leading
edge
• Give
streamlined
shape to the
leading edge

PPT 1.85 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Wing Skin-1
• Wing skin
• Designed to carry part of the flight and ground
loads in combination with the spars is stressed-skin
design.
• The skin on the top surface of the wing has to be
stiffer than the lower side.
• The upper surface is exposed to compressive stress,
while the lower side is subjected to tensile stress.

PPT 1.88 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Wing Skin-2

Skin

All-metal, full cantilever wing section

PPT 1.89 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Stabilizers
• The empennage of an
aircraft is also known as the
tail section.

• Includes the tail boom,

vertical stabilizer, and the
horizontal stabilizer

PPT 1.120 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Horizontal Stabilizers-1
Purpose:-
• provides longitudinal stability and control
• Provides attachment point for the elevator
Construction- similar to the wing
• Truss
• Stressed skin
• Bonded honey comb

PPT 1.107 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Horizontal Stabilizers- 2

PPT 1.108 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Vertical Stabilizer
Purpose
• provides directional stability
and control
• Provides attachment point for
the rudder
Construction-
• similar to the horizontal
Stabilizer
• Location – usually attached
at the rear of the fuselage
PPT 1.123 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Flight Control Surfaces-1
• Fixed Wing aircrafts can
maneuver around
• Lateral
• Longitudinal
• Vertical axes
• Movement about axis is
controlled by flight control
surfaces which:
• control movement about axis
• Hinged or moveable surfaces
Flight Control Surfaces-2
• Flight controls can be
divided into two
• Primary controls
• Aileron , Elevator and
Rudder
• Secondary s control
• Flaps , Slats, Spoilers
,Tabs
Aileron-1
• Purpose :
• Provides lateral control
(roll control)
• Location :
• Usually mounted on the
trailing edge of the wing
• Construction
• Fabric covered truss
• Stressed Skin
• Bonded honeycomb

PPT 1.114 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Aileron-2
• Operation
• Operated by moving the control
yoke or wheel to the right or to
the left
• Moving the control yoke to the
left
• deflects the trailing edge of the left
aileron up and
• the trailing edge of the right
aileron down,
• decreasing the lift on the left wing
and
• banking the aircraft to the left

PPT 1.115 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Aileron -3

• Operation….
• The opposite holds true when the wheel is moved to the
right.
• Can be actuated mechanically by control cables,
electrically or hydraulically
• when moved, rotate the aircraft around the longitudinal
axis.

PPT 1.116 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Aileron Action

Aileron Action

PPT 1.117 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Elevator-1
• Purpose
• provides longitudinal control (pitch
control)
• Location
• usually mounted on the trailing edge
of the horizontal stabilizer.
• Construction
• Fabric covered truss
• Stressed Skin
• Bonded honeycomb
• Can be actuated mechanically by
control cables,
electrically or hydraulically

PPT 1.112 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Elevator-2
• Operated by moving the control
yoke or wheel forward or
backward
• Moving the control yoke forward,
deflects the trailing edge of the
elevator downwards,
Elevator Action
• which moves the nose of the
aircraft downwards.
• The opposite holds true when the
wheel is moved backwards.
PPT 1.113 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Rudder-1
• Purpose
• Provide directional control
(yaw control)
• Location
• Usually mounted on the trailing
edge of the Vertical Stabilizer
• Construction
• Fabric covered truss
• Stressed skin
• Bonded honeycomb

PPT 1.118 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
 Rudder-2
• Location:
• hinged to the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer.
• Operation:
• operated by pushing rudder pedals in the cockpit
• Can be actuated mechanically, electrically or
hydraulically
• Pushing the right pedal deflects the trailing edge of the
rudder to the right turning the nose of the aircraft to the
right.
• When the rudder changes position, the aircraft rotates
about the vertical axis (yaw).

PPT 1.119 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Flaps
• Materials and techniques used on flap
construction
• are the same as used on other airfoils and control
surfaces
• Aluminum or composite is used to fabricate Flaps for
heavy & large aircrafts.
• There are various kinds of flaps .
• Trailing edge flaps- Plain , split and fowler flap
• Leading edge flaps

PPT 1.127 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Trailing edge flaps
Purpose :
• Increase wing camber
and area in order to .
• Increase lift
• Increase drag
• Reduce airspeed for
landing
• Shorten the landing
roll
• Shorten the takeoff
run
PPT 1.128 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Trailing edge flaps-2
• Location :
• Usually hinged or mounted on the trailing edge of the wings
• Operation:
• Can be actuated mechanically, hydraulically or
electrically
• Construction:
• Fabric covered truss
• Stressed skin
• Bonded honeycomb
PPT 1.129 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Leading edge flaps -1
• Heavy aircraft often have leading edge flaps
that are used in conjunction with the trailing
edge flaps.
• Purpose
• Their use with trailing edge flaps can greatly
increase wing camber and lift at lower speed.
• Construction:
• Can be made of machined magnesium or can
have an aluminum or composite structure

PPT 1.134 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Leading edge flaps -2
• Location
• Usually hinged on the leading edge of a wing .
• Normally flush with the lower surface of the leading
edge of the wing.

• Operation:
• Can be actuated mechanically, electrically or
hydraulically

PPT 1.135 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Leading edge flaps -3

Actuating Mechanism Leading Edge Flap

PPT 1.136 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Slats
• Purpose:
• LE device which extends wing camber for greater lift & slower
flight.
• Allows control at low speeds for short field takeoffs & landings
• Operation:
• Independently of the flaps with their own switch in the cockpit.
• When extended, it opens a slot to allow air flow and prevent
stalling.
• Location : Mounted on the leading edge of the wing

PPT 1.137 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Slat with slot
• Location -Mounted on the leading edge of the wing
• Construction is similar to trailing edge flaps

Slot Slat

Slat

Slot
Spoilers and Speed Brakes-1
• A device found on the upper surface of many
heavy and high-performance aircraft.
• Purpose-
• to reduce lift and to increase drag
• to aid the aileron in lateral control
• to reduce speed of the aircraft during decent and
after landing

PPT 1.139 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Spoilers and Speed Brakes-2
• Construction
• Stressed Skin
• Bonded honeycomb
• Location:
• hinged surfaces located ahead of the flaps
• Some a/c have speed brakes mounted on the fuselage
Spoilers and Speed Brakes -3
Actuating mechanism

Spoiler
Landing Gear Structures
• Purpose
• Supports the aircraft during ground operations
• Dampens vibrations while towing and taxing
• Cushions the landing impact
• Location-
• Attached to the fuselage or the wing
• Type:
• Can be Fixed or Retractable
• Operation:
• Extending and retracting systems
• Mechanical
• Electrical
PPT 1.145 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Landing Gear Terminologies -1
Fixed landing gear :-
• Means the gear is stationary
and does not retract for flight.
• Mostly for simple aircraft that
fly at low speeds.
• Light weight fairings and wheel
pants can be used to keep
drag to a minimum. Fixed landing gears

PPT 1.146 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Landing Gear Terminologies-2
Retractable Landing Gear
• The landing gear is
retracted Into the fuselage
or wings and out of the
airstream.
• Important because
extended gear create
significant parasite drag
Retractable landing gears
which reduces
Performance.

PPT 1.147 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Requirements of Landing Gear Structures
• Must be strong enough to withstand forces of
landing with maximum aircraft load.
• Should be as light as possible.
• Made from a wide range of materials including
steel, aluminum, and magnesium.
• Main wheel assemblies usually have a braking
system.
• Has shock struts.

PPT 1.149 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Landing Gear with out Wheels -1
• Not all aircraft landing gear are configured with
wheels.
• Skis
• are used for take off and landing on snow or ice .
• Floats
• are used for those aircraft which can take off and land
on water surfaces
• Floats is completely enclosed water tight structure
attached to an aircraft to provide buoyancy and
stability while landing on water surfaces.
PPT 1.150 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Landing Gear with out Wheels-2

PPT 1.151 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Nacelles ( Pods)
• Are streamlined enclosures used to cover the
engines
• The structure consists of skin, cowling, structural
members, the fire wall and engine mounts

PPT 1.190 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Nacelles ( Pods)
Cowlings-1
• Refers to the detachable panels covering those areas
into which access must be gained regularly, such as the
engine and its accessories.
• Designed to provide a smooth airflow over the nacelle
and to protect the engine from damage.
• Usually present a round or elliptical profile to the wind
thus reducing aerodynamic drag.
• The framework of a nacelle usually consists of structural
members similar to those of the fuselage.

PPT 1.167 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Nacelles ( Pods)
Cowlings

PPT 1.168 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Nacelles ( Pods)
Engine Mounts
• The structural assemblies to which the engine is
fastened.
• Constructed from
• Chrome/molybdenum steel tubing in light aircraft and
• Forged chrome/nickel/molybdenum assemblies in larger
aircraft.

PPT 1.169 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Nacelles ( Pods)
Fire Walls:
• Isolate the engine compartment from the rest of
the aircraft during fire on the engine.
• Material:
• A stainless steel or titanium bulkhead
• Contains a fire in the confines of the nacelle rather
than letting it spread throughout the airframe.

PPT 1.174 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Nacelles ( Pods)
Engine mount Firewall
Fire wall

Engine mount

PPT 1.199 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
 Lesson 5:
Cockpits, Cabins and Compartments

PPT 1.217 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Cockpit-1

• Portion of the airplane occupied by the pilot

• All controls radiate from the cockpit
• All means ,provided to enable the pilot to
control the speed, direction, attitude, power
and altitude of the aircraft.

PPT 1.218 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Cockpit-4

PPT 1.221 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Passenger Cabin-1
• Have to have seats that comply with crashworthiness
regulations and:
• With a person correctly & safely in place,
• Must withstand a sudden stop of over 20 times the force
of gravity, (20g),
• With this force the floor mountings not failing, or the seat
itself not collapsing.
• The tubular framework and floor attachment 'feet' are
very strong,
• Light in weight and can be disconnected from the floor if
necessary, by releasing a few quick-release
fasteners.
PPT 1.222 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Passenger Cabin-2

Seats

seat tracks Floor

Tubular framework
Passenger Cabin-4
• The galleys and bulkhead
Galleys
partitions can also be
attached to location holes.
• Equal spacing of the seat
track attachment holes,
allows the seats ;
• To be fitted at a variable increment, or pitch,
• To cater for different classes of cabin (economy or
first class).
PPT 1.189 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Passenger Cabin-5

PPT 1.190 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Cargo Compartment-1
• Have to have the floor
modified to allow the
movement of pallets or
containers.
• Consist of substantial Cargo floor with tracks,
guides and rollers
reinforcement of the
flooring with tracks, guides
and rollers fitted to allow safe
and easy motorized movement up and down the freight
bay.

PPT 1.228 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Cargo Compartment -3
• Containers & pallets
should be used to Containers
prevent weight
shifting.
• The capacity of the
cargo is placarded.
• It should fulfill fire
protection requirement.

PPT 1.230 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
 Lesson 1:
Aircraft Assembly

PPT 2.5 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Introduction
• Assembly of an aircraft is:
• Joining of parts or subassemblies until entire aircraft is
operational.
• Various means are used to assemble aircraft
structure.

PPT 2.6 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Aircraft Assembly-1

• Aircraft must be assembled and rigged in strict

accordance with the airplane manufacturer’s
instructions.

• Improper procedures can damage the aircraft &

the aircraft cannot fly as the manufacturer
designed it to do.

PPT 2.7 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Aircraft Assembly-2

• Manuals & other documents which provide

information .
• Aircraft Maintenance Manual ( AMM ).
• Illustrated parts catalog ( IPC)
• Structural Repair Manual (SRM)
• Advisory Circulars ( AC )
• Airworthiness Directive ( AD )

PPT 2.8 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Manufacturer and Production Body Breaks -3

• Connecting the
forward, mid,
and aft fuselage
sections.

• This process is the

so called
Production body
break

PPT 2.18 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Manufacturer and Production Body Breaks-7
Moving assembly line at (Boeing).

PPT 2.23 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Assembly Methods & Procedures -1
• Actual assembly of the aircraft varies greatly according to
the type, make, and model,
• A few general principles apply for all.
• In a factory, all operations can be planned for the
greatest efficiency, but
• In a repair station/shop, where the jobs vary to a great
extent , this type of planning can not be done as easily

PPT 2.24 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Assembly Methods & Procedures-2
In both plants ( Production & Maintenance)
• Use correct information source for the task.

• Always use the correct type and size of hardware.

• Insert bolts and clevis pins in the proper direction

• If no direction for bolts to be inserted is specified or

indicated , install them with the bolt head up or
forward.

PPT 2.25 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Assembly Methods & Procedures-3
• Use only the correct type of hardware safety
mechanism.

• Never force components together without checking to

determine why the force is necessary.

• Check the location routing of all cables, hose, tubing,

before assembling components

• Follow all recommended safety precaution when

working with aircraft on jacks, hoists and assembly
supports
PPT 2.26 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Tools and Equipment for Assembly-1
• Variety of hand tools & power tools used in driving and
upsetting hardware:
Example: Rivet gun, Rivet cutters, Screw drivers,
Wrenches , Dimpling tools , etc…
• Be sure of using proper tool for each task per service or
maintenance manual.

PPT 2.30 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Assembly Methods and Procedures -2
• Assembly/Installation process Wings……
• Inspect mounting area , fittings & hardware & Replace
as required .
• Apply corrosion preventive compound/lubricant as
required
• Support wing - Install wing-root fitting ,Install strut fitting
• Connect Control cables -Electrical cables -Plumbing
lines

PPT 2.38 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
 Lesson 2:
Aircraft Rigging

PPT 2.51 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Concept of Rigging-1
• After manufactured or a major overhaul, repair, or
alteration, the assembly or reassembly of an aircraft needs

• Adjustments to its structures in order to have

proper flight and ground operation characteristics.
• These adjustment operation is Rigging and it includes:
• Adjustments of fixed surfaces
• Adjustment of control surfaces

PPT 2.54 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Tools and Equipment used in Rigging -2
Tensiometer:
• Determine the amount of
tension on a cable
• A tensiometer is 98% accurate.

• Cable tension is determined by

using Anviles & a Riser or
plunger

PPT 2.66 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Leveling the Aircraft-3
- spirit level is a curved glass
tube partially filled with a
liquid, but with a bubble in it.
-For leveling Sprit level placed
at specified location.
- When the device in which the
tube mounted is level, the
bubble will be in the center of
the tube.

PPT 2.75 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
 Lesson 1:
Weight and Balance Concept

PPT 3.6 ET-AF01: Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Weight and Balance Concept-1
• Weight and balance is affecting safety of flight:
• Responsible for control & performing task :
• Engineers and designers and
• Pilot who operates and
• Aviation Maintenance Technician (AMT) who
maintains the aircraft.

PPT 3.7 ET-AF01: Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Weight and Balance Concept-2
• Importance of weight and balance
• Safety
• Flight safety
• Structural safety
• Efficiency
• Ceiling
• Maneuverability
• Rate of climb
• Speed
• Fuel consumption

PPT 3.8 ET-AF01: Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Weight and Balance Concept-3
• Longitudinal balance
• Given more emphasis on aircraft loading

PPT 3.20 ET-AF01: Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Weight and Balance Concept-4
• Lateral balance
Controlled by fuel consumption management.
•
Lateral unbalance
•
will cause wing
heaviness.
• The lateral balance
can be upset by
uneven fuel loading
or burn off.
• Lateral CG position is not normally computed
• Corrected by using the aileron trim tab.
PPT 3.21 ET-AF01: Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Weight and Balance Concept-5
Adverse Loading:
• Resulted from;
• After Major repair &
alteration
• Imbalanced load
distribution
• EWCG be out of its range.
• Fore and aft check for
adverse loading needed

PPT 3.22 ET-AF01: Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Weight and Balance Theory-1
The Law of the Lever :
• Aircrafts can be considered as first class lever
• W & B problems are based on the physical law of the lever
• Lever is balanced when :
• Weight (R) X Arm = Weight (L) X Arm, or
• Algebraic sum of the moments about the fulcrum is zero.

PPT 3.29 ET-AF01: Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Weight and Balance Theory-2
• Balanced Seesaw or Teeter-totter

PPT 3.30 ET-AF01: Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Weight and Balance Theory-3
Determining the CG:
• Steps;
• Measure the arm of each
weight from the datum.
• Get Moment (in-lb)= ( Arm
x Weight) of each weight.
• Determine total weight
and total moment.
• Divide the total moment by the total weight
• Result is CG in inches from the datum.
PPT 3.31 ET-AF01: Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
Weight and Balance Theory-4
Determining the CG…
• Using chart ( Table);

• Using mathematical formula:

PPT 3.32 ET-AF01: Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
 Any Questions?

Thank You!

PPT 2.207 ET-AF01:Aircraft Structures, Assembly, Rigging, Weight and Balance Rev No. 0
 Lesson 1:
Aircraft Wood Structures and Repair

PPT 1.6 ET-AF02: Aircrfat Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Introduction -1
• How does wood structure Aircraft Introduced?
• In the late 1930s, Dehaviland designed and developed
Mosquito.

• In the late 1940s, Dehavilland produced airplanes made

of spruce, birch plywood, and balsa wood
• Early of world war II Howard Hughes constructed the
largest sea plane.

PPT 1.7 ET-AF02: Aircrfat Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Introduction-2
• Sitka spurs
• best type for aircraft construction

• light weight, strong and tough

• easily worked

• uniform texture

• resistant to rotting

PPT 1.8 ET-AF02: Aircrfat Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Construction Methods of Wooden Structures - 1
• Aircraft parts that are constructed from wood
are:
• Wing spars
• Wing Ribs
• Control surface
• Fuselage

PPT 1.9 ET-AF02: Aircrfat Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
 Lesson :
Aircraft Fabric Covering and Repair

PPT 1.79 ET-AF02: Aircrfat Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Introduction - 1
• Utilized by the famous Wright Flyer
• Continued to be used in many aircraft
• Advantage:
• light weight

• Disadvantages:
• Flammability and
• Lack of durability

PPT 1.80 ET-AF02: Aircrfat Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Introduction - 2
• Some of the earliest flying machines were covered with
cotton and linen
• without the application of any finish

• Not airtight

• Later tried to shrunk fabric with

• banana oil

• collodion

PPT 1.81 ET-AF02: Aircrfat Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Introduction - 3
• Cellulose nitrate dope was soon developed
• Deteriorates when exposed to sunlight.

• Is also flammable

• Colored enamel for protection against sunlight

PPT 1.82 ET-AF02: Aircrfat Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Fabric - 1

• Organic
• Cotton
• linen

• Inorganic
• Dacron (Polyester)
• Glass cloth

PPT 1.86 ET-AF02: Aircrfat Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
 Lesson 1:
Aircraft Finishing and Marking

PPT 1.142 ET-AF02: Aircrfat Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Aircraft Finishing Materials
• Paint
• a colored liquid to
• Decorate, protect or create a painting

• Finish
• to treat something for a desired surface effect
• Purpose
• Protection from deterioration
• Pleasing appearance (desired appearance)

PPT 1.144 ET-AF02: Aircrfat Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Finishing Equipment and Application

• Paint Booth
• May be a small room for component painting

• it can be an aircraft hangar for largest aircraft

PPT 1.153 ET-AF02: Aircrfat Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Spray Equipment - 1
• Airless spraying
• Paint solely is forced out under pressure
• Atomizes after exiting the paint gun.
• Air spraying
• Paint is delivered to the paint gun by means of
• gravity
• siphon
• pressure

PPT 1.154 ET-AF02: Aircrfat Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
 Lesson 2:
Sheet Metal Structural Repairs

PPT 2.275 ET-AF02: Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Sheet Metal Structural Repairs
• For the satisfactory performance of an
aircraft

• Made according to the best techniques

• Repairs must be strong enough

• but they must not have too much extra strength

PPT 2.276 ET-AF02: Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Sheet Metal Repair Principles - 1
• Primary objective
• to restore damaged parts to their original condition
• Principal requirement
• strength
• qualities
• Steps in repairing structural damage
• an inspection of the damage
• estimate of the type of repair
PPT 2.277 ET-AF02: Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Sheet Metal Repair Principles 2
• In a sheet metal repair, it is critical to:
• Maintain original strength
• Maintain original contour
• Minimize weight

• Read ET-AF02 M2 of Page 166-170

PPT 2.278 ET-AF02: Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Types of Damage and Defects
• Cracks • Galling
• Dent • Nick
• Scratch • Pitting
• Corrosion • Score
• Erosion • Stain
• Burr
PPT 2.284 ET-AF02: Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Classification of Damage and Defects

• Negligible Damage

• Damage Repairable by Patching

• Damage Repairable by Insertion

• Damage Necessitating Replacement of

Parts
PPT 2.285 ET-AF02: Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
 Lesson 3:
Sheet Metal Layout and Fabrication

PPT 2.160 ET-AF02: Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Layout and Forming Terminologies - 1

Bend allowance terminology

PPT 2.161 ET-AF02: Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Layout and Forming Terminologies - 2
• Base measurement
• the outside dimensions of a formed part
• Leg
• the longer part of a formed angle
• Flange
• the shorter part of a formed angle
• Bend allowance (BA)
• refers to the curved section of metal within the bend
• Bend radius
• the arc is formed when sheet metal is bent.
PPT 2.162 ET-AF02: Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Layout and Forming Terminologies - 3
• Bend tangent line (BL)
• the location at which the metal starts to bend
• the line at which the metal stops curving
• Neutral axis
• an imaginary line that has the same length after bending
as it had before bending

Neutral line
PPT 2.163 ET-AF02: Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
 Lesson:
Aircraft Welding (Level 1)

PPT 2.306 ET-AF02: Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Introduction

• Welding is a process joining metals

• Early-stage commercial aircrafts were

constructed from welded steel tube

• Later lighter metals were used in construction

• With new processes and methods of welding

PPT 2.307 ET-AF02: Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Types of Welding

• Three general types

• Gas welding

• Electric arc welding

• Electric resistance welding

PPT 2.308 ET-AF02: Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Brazing and Soldering
• Brazing -
• to join metals that may be damaged by high heat

• the bonding material is a nonferrous metal or alloy

• melting point higher than 800 °F, but lower than that
of the metals being joined

PPT 2.330 ET-AF02: Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Brazing - 2
• Types

• Silver soldering

• Copper brazing

• Aluminum brazing

• Flux is used while brazing and soldering for cleaning the area

• A neutral flame is usually used for brazing

PPT 2.331 ET-AF02: Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Soldering
• Used
• leak proof joints
• to connect electrical connections

• Melting point of the welding material is less than 800 0F.

• Copper or iron is used as a source of heat
• The solders are usually the alloys of tin and lead
• Tip must be tinned before soldering

PPT 2.332 ET-AF02: Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
 Lesson 1:
Bonded Metal Honeycomb

PPT 3.6 ET-AF02 :Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Introduction
• Came as a major break through
• for efficient aircraft construction and operation
• Used on
• Bulkheads

• Fuselage panels
• Wing panels

• Control surfaces

• Empennage skin

• Radome

PPT 3.7 ET-AF02 :Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Construction - 4
• Advantages
• High strength - to - weight ratio
• High resistance to sonic vibration
• Reduces sealing problems
• Increases aerodynamic smoothness
• Less fastener requirement

PPT 3.11 ET-AF02 :Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Inspection and Evaluation of Damage - 1

• Common causes of damage

• Flight loads

• Improper ground handling

• Sonic vibration

• Water ingestion

PPT 3.13 ET-AF02 :Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Inspection and Evaluation of Damage - 2

• Common types of damage

• Delamination

• Cracks

• Dents

• Scratches

PPT 3.14 ET-AF02 :Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Inspection

• Metallic ring test-for delamination

• Clear metallic sound - no delamination

• Dull thud sound - delamination

• Radiography (x-ray)-for water

• Borescope
PPT 3.15 ET-AF02 :Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
 Lesson 2:
Advanced Composites

PPT 3.35 ET-AF02 :Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Introduction - 1
• Composite materials are more important
• For Aircraft construction

• Were developed in 1960s:

• Fairings
• Spoilers
• flight controls

PPT 3.37 ET-AF02 :Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Introduction - 2

• Advantages
• high strength

• relatively low weight

• better resistance to sonic vibration

• Corrosion resistance

PPT 3.38 ET-AF02 :Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Composite Fundamentals
• Fiberglass
• Aramid fibers (Kevlar)
• Carbon/Graphite
• Boron
• Ceramic Fibers
PPT 3.39 ET-AF02 :Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Composite Structures

• Laminated and Sandwich Structures

PPT 3.52 ET-AF02 :Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
 Lesson 3:
Aircraft Plastic Materials and Repair

PPT 3.167 ET-AF02 :Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Types of Plastics

• Thermoplastics

• Thermosetting plastics

PPT 3.168 ET-AF02 :Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
 Lesson 1:
More about Causes and Types of Corrosion

PPT 4.6 ET-AF02 :Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Introduction - 1
• Corrosion is an attack on metal by
• chemical

• electrochemical action

• Deteriorates metals into

• Carbonates, sulphates, oxides, hydroxides, metallic
salts

PPT 4.7 ET-AF02 :Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
 Lesson 2:
Forms of Corrosion

PPT 4.27 ET-AF02 :Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Forms of Corrosion
• Forms of corrosion depends on
• Type of metal
• Function
• Atmospheric condition
• Size and shape

• Forms
• Surface
• Pitting
• Galvanic
• Concentration cell
• Intergranular

PPT 4.28 ET-AF02 :Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
 Lesson 3:
Factors Affecting Corrosion

PPT 4.38 ET-AF02 :Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Factors Affecting Corrosion
• Climate

• Atmospheric Condition

• Moisture

• Size and type of metal

• Foreign material
PPT 4.39 ET-AF02 :Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
 Lesson 4:
Corrosion detection methods

PPT 4.47 ET-AF02 :Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Corrosion Detection Methods
• Inspection for corrosion
• is a continuing problem

• should be handled on a daily basis

PPT 4.48 ET-AF02 :Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
 Lesson 5:
Corrosion prone areas of an Aircraft

PPT 4.59 ET-AF02 :Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Corrosion prone areas of an Aircraft
• The trouble areas common to all aircraft
• Wheel well and landing gear
• Battery compartment and vent openings
• Bilge Areas, Control Cables, Welded Areas
• Lavatories & Food Service Areas
• Engine inlet, Exhaust & Mount Areas and Fuel Tanks

PPT 4.60 ET-AF02 :Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
 Lesson 6:
Corrosion Removal and Treatment

PPT 4.70 ET-AF02 :Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Corrosion Removal and Treatment
Procedures include
• Cleaning and paint striping
• Corrosion removal and blend out
• Neutralizing
• Restoring protective surface films
• Damage evaluation and repair
• Applying permanent or temporary paint coatings

PPT 4.71 ET-AF02 :Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Mechanical Corrosion Removal
• Acceptable techniques of removing
• abrasive papers and compounds

• small power buffers and buffing compounds

• hand wire brushing or steel wool

• nonwoven abrasive pad

• Flap wheels, pads with rotary or oscillating power tools

• hand-held

PPT 4.72 ET-AF02 :Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Chemical Treatment - 1
• Anodizing-
• A surface treatment for non clad aluminum surfaces

• Increases the thickness of the oxide film

• Excellent corrosion resistance and bonding qualities

• Alodizing-
• Chemical treatment for aluminum alloys (For corrosion resistance, For Better bonding
qualities)

• After the metal is cleaned by an acid or alkali and rinsed with water alodine is
applied by dipping or spraying

• The excess alodine is cleaned by washing with water

PPT 4.74 ET-AF02 :Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
 Lesson 7:
Corrosion Prevention and Aircraft Cleaning

PPT 4.79 ET-AF02 :Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
Corrosion Prevention
• Adequate and periodic cleaning
• Periodic lubrication
• Detailed inspection
• Treatment of corrosion and touch up
• Keeping drain holes free from obstruction
• Daily draining of fuel cell sumps
• Making maximum use of protective covers
PPT 4.80 ET-AF02 :Aircraft Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0
 Any Questions?

Thank You!

PPT 1.187 ET-AF02: Aircrfat Structural Materials and Repairs Rev No. 0