Chapter 3: The Dynamic Earth

Section 1, The Geosphere

The Earth as a System

• The Earth is an integrated system that consists of __________________________________________________________
that all interact with each other.
• Scientists divided this system into four parts:
• ______________________________________________
• ______________________________________________
• ______________________________________________
• ______________________________________________
• The ____________________________________ is the mostly solid, rocky part of the Earth that extends from the center of
the core to the surface of the crust.
• Nearly all of these gases are found in the first ___________________ above the Earth’s surface.
• The hydrosphere makes up all of the _____________________________________________________________________.
• Much of this water is in the ______________________, which cover nearly three-quarters of the globe.
• The _______________________________ is the part of the Earth where life exists.
• It is a thin layer at the Earth’s surface that extends from about _________________ above the Earth’s surface down to the
bottom of the ocean.
Discovering Earth’s Interior
• Scientists use _______________________________ to learn about Earth’s interior.
• A seismic wave is _______________________________________________________ through which it travels.
• Seismologists measure changes in the ________________________________________ of seismic waves that penetrate the
interior of the planet.
The Composition of the Earth
• Scientists divide the Earth into three layers:
• ____________________________________
• ____________________________________
• ____________________________________
• The ______________________________ is the thin and solid outermost layer of the Earth above the mantle.
• It is the ___________________________ layer, and makes up less than ________ percent of the planet’s mass.
• It is 5 km to 8 km thick beneath the oceans and is 20 km to 70 km thick beneath the continents.
• The _____________________________ is the layer of rock between the Earth’s crust and core.
• The mantle is made of rocks of medium density, and makes up ____________ percent of the mass of the Earth.
• The _____________________________ is the central part of the Earth below the mantle, and is composed of the densest
elements.
The Structure of the Earth
• The Earth can be divided into _____________________________ layers based on the physical properties of each layer.
• The __________________________________ is the solid, outer layer of the Earth that consists of the crust and the rigid
upper part of the mantle.
 • _____________________________________.
• The _________________________________ is the solid, plastic layer of the mantle beneath the lithosphere.
• It is made of _____________________________________ that flows slowly, which allows tectonic plates to move on top of it.
• Beneath the asthenosphere is the __________________________________, the lower part of the mantle.
• The Earth’s __________________________________ is a dense liquid layer.
• At the center of the Earth is a dense, solid inner core, which is made up mostly of
______________________________________________________.
• The inner and outer core make up about _____________________________ of Earth’s mass.
Plate Tectonics
• ____________________________________________ are blocks of lithosphere that consist of the crust and the rigid,
outermost part of the mantle and glide across the underlying asthenosphere.
Plate Boundaries
• Tectonic plates may __________________________________________ past one another.
Plate Tectonics and Mountain Building
• When tectonic plates collide, slip by one another, or pull apart, enormous forces cause rock to
___________________________________________.
Earthquakes
• A ___________________________________ is a break in the Earth’s crust along which blocks of the crust slide relative to
one another.
• When rocks that are under stress suddenly break along a fault, a series of ground vibrations, known as
________________________________, is set off.
• The measure of the energy released by an earthquake is called ___________________________________.
• Each increase of magnitude by one whole number indicates the release of __________________ times more energy than the
whole number below it.
Earthquake Hazard
• An area’s ________________________________________________ is determined by past and present seismic activity.
Volcanoes
• A _______________________________ is a mountain built from magma, or melted rock, which rises from the Earth’s interior
to the surface, and can occur on land or in the sea.
• The majority of the world’s active volcanoes on land are located along tectonic plate boundaries that surround the
______________________________________.
Local Effect of Volcanic Eruptions
• Clouds of host ash, dust, and gases can flow down the slope of a volcano at speeds of up to
________________________________ and sear everything in their path.

Global Effects of Volcanic Eruptions

• In large eruptions, clouds of volcanic ash and sulfur rich gases may reach the upper atmosphere, and spread across the
planet ____________________________________________________________ that reaches the Earth’s surface.
 • The reduction in sunlight can cause a drop in the ____________________________________________________________.
Erosion
• The Earth’s surface is continually battered by wind and scoured by running water, which moves rocks around and changes
their appearance.
• ____________________________ is the process in which the materials of the Earth’s surface are loosened, dissolved, or
worn away and transported from one place to another by a natural agent, such as wind, water, ice, or gravity.
Wind Erosion
• _______________________ also changes the landscape of the planet.

Chapter 3: The Dynamic Earth

Section 2, The Atmosphere
The Atmosphere
• The ____________________________________ is a mixture of gases that surrounds a planet, such as Earth.
• ______________________________________________________________________ are all parts of this mixture.
• ___________________________________________ also add gases to the atmosphere, while vehicles both add and remove
gases.
• The atmosphere also ___________________________ Earth’s surface.
• This insulation _________________________ the rate at which the Earth’s surface loses heat and keeps Earth temperature
at which living things can survive.
Composition of the Atmosphere
• Nitrogen makes up __________percent of the Earth’s atmosphere, and enters the atmosphere when volcanoes
_________________________________________________________________.
• Oxygen is the _____________________ most abundant gas in the atmosphere and is
primarily produced by plants.
• In addition to gases, the atmosphere contains many types of tiny, solid particles, or
______________________________________.
• In addition to nitrogen and oxygen, other gases such as
___________________________________________________________________ make up
the rest of the atmosphere.
Air Pressure
• Earth’s atmosphere is pulled toward Earth’s surface by ____________________________ and as a result, the atmosphere is
____________________________ near the Earth’s surface.
• Almost the entire mass of Earth’s atmospheric gases is located within _________________________ of the surface.
• Air also becomes less dense with ____________________________, so breathing at higher elevations is more difficult.
Layers of the Atmosphere
• The atmosphere is divided into four layers based on temperature changes that occur at different distances above the Earth’s
surface.
• ________________________________________________
• ________________________________________________
• ________________________________________________
 • ________________________________________________
The Troposphere
• The __________________________________ is the lowest layer of the atmosphere in which temperature drops at a constant
rate as altitude increases.
• This is the part of the atmosphere where ___________________________________ exist.
• The troposphere is Earth’s __________________________ atmospheric layer and extends to 18 km above Earth’s surface.
The Stratosphere
• The _______________________________ is the layer of the atmosphere that lies immediately above the troposphere and
extends from about 10 to 50 km above the Earth’s surface.
• Temperature ________________________________________________ because ozone in the stratosphere absorbs the
sun’s ultraviolet (UV) energy and warms the air.
• ___________________________________ is a gas molecule that is made up of three oxygen atoms.
• Almost all of the ozone in the atmosphere is concentrated in the ____________________________________.
• Because ozone absorbs _____________________________, it reduces the amount of UV radiation that reaches the Earth.
• UV radiation that does reach Earth can _______________________________________.
The Mesosphere
• The layer above the stratosphere is the _______________________________________.
• This layer extends to an altitude of about 80 km.
• This is the _______________________________________ of the atmosphere where temperatures have been measured as
low as –93ºC.
The Thermosphere
• The atmospheric layer located farthest from Earth’s surface is the __________________________________________.
• Here, nitrogen and oxygen absorb ________________________________ resulting in temperatures measuring above 2,000
ºC.
• The absorption of ______________________________________ by nitrogen and oxygen causes atoms to become
electrically charged.
• Electrically charged atoms are called _______________________, and the lower thermosphere is called the
_________________________________.
Energy Transfer in the Atmosphere
• ________________________________ is the energy that is transferred as electromagnetic waves, such as visible light and
infrared waves.
• ________________________________ is the transfer of energy as heat through a material.
• ________________________________ is the movement of matter due to differences in density that are caused by
temperature variations an can result in the transfer of energy as heat.
Heating of the Atmosphere
• Solar energy reaches the Earth as ____________________________________________, which includes visible light,
infrared radiation, and ultraviolet light.
 • About ___________________________ of the solar energy that enters the atmosphere passes through it and reaches the
Earth’s surface, while the rest of the energy is absorbed or reflected in the atmosphere by clouds, gases, and dust or it is
reflected by Earth’s surface.
• The continual process of warm air rising and cool air sinking and moving air in a circular motion is called a
____________________________________.
The Greenhouse Effect
• The ______________________________________ is the warming of the surface and lower atmosphere of Earth that occurs
when carbon dioxide, water vapor, and other gases in the air absorb and reradiate infrared radiation.
• The gases in the atmosphere that trap and radiate heat are called ______________________________________.
• The most abundant greenhouse gases are
__________________________________________________________________, although none exists in high
concentrations.

Chapter 3: The Dynamic Earth

Section 3, The Hydrosphere and Biosphere

The Hydrosphere
• The ________________________________ includes all of the water on or near the Earth’s surface.
• This includes water in the oceans, lakes, rivers, wetlands, polar ice caps, soil, rock layers beneath Earth’s surface, and clouds.
The Water Cycle
• The ________________________________ is the continuous movement of water from the ocean to the atmosphere to the
land and back to the ocean.
• ____________________________________ is the change of a substance from a liquid to a gas.
• ___________________________________ is the change of state from a gas to a liquid.
• ___________________________________ is any form of water that falls to the Earth’s surface from the clouds, and includes
rain, snow, sleet, and hail.
Earth’s Oceans
• All of the oceans are joined in a single large interconnected body of water called the
___________________________________________________. The world oceans play important roles in the regulation of
the ___________________________________________________.
• The largest ocean on Earth is the __________________________________________ with a surface area of about
165,640,000 km2.
• The deepest point on the ocean floor, the ____________________________________, is found in the Pacific Ocean.
• Oceanographers often divide the Pacific Ocean into the North Pacific and South Pacific based on the
______________________________________________________flow in each half of the Pacific Ocean.
• Surface currents in the Pacific move in a _________________________________ direction north of the equator.
• Surface currents in the Pacific move in a _________________________________ direction south of the equator.
• The second largest ocean on Earth is the _______________________________________, and covers about half the area of
the Pacific Ocean, which is a surface area of about 81,630,000 km2.
• The ___________________________________________ is the third largest ocean on Earth with a surface area of
73,420,000 km2.
 • The smallest ocean is the __________________________________, which covers 14,350,000 km2.
• The Arctic Ocean is unique because much of its surface is covered by floating ice, called
_________________________________, which forms when either waves or wind drive together frozen seawater, known as
sea ice, into a large mass.
Ocean Water
• The difference between ocean water and fresh water is that ocean water contains more salts.
• __________________________________ is a measure of the amount of dissolved salts in a given amount of liquid.
• Salinity is lower in places that get _______________________________________________________________________.
• Most of the salt in the ocean is ____________________________________________, which is made up of the elements
sodium and chloride, although many other elements can be found in the ocean as well.
Temperature Zones
• The surface of the ocean is ________________________________________________, while the depths of the ocean,
where sunlight never reaches, are very cold, just above freezing.
• Surface waters are stirred up by ___________________________________________ so the warm surface zone may be as
much as 350 m deep.
• Below the surface zone is the ____________________________________, which is a layer about 300 to 700 m deep where
the temperature falls rapidly.
A Global Temperature Regulator
• One of the most important functions of the world ocean is to
__________________________________________________________ from sunlight which in turn regulates temperatures in
Earth’s atmosphere.
Ocean Currents
• Stream like movements of water that occur at or near the surface of the ocean are called
______________________________________________________.
• Surface currents are ________________________________ and result from global wind patterns.
• Surface currents can be __________________________________________ currents. However, currents of warm water and
currents of cold water do not readily mix with one another.
• ________________________________________ are stream like movements of water that flow very slowly along the ocean
floor.
• Deep currents form when the cold, dense water from the poles _______________________ below warmer, less dense ocean
water and flows toward the equator.
Fresh Water and River Systems
• ___________________________________ is water that contains insignificant amounts of salts.
• Most of the fresh water is locked up in icecaps and glaciers while the rest is found in places like lakes, rivers, wetlands, the
soil and atmosphere.
• A ___________________________________ is a network of streams that drains an area of land and contains all of the land
drained by a river including the main river and all its smaller streams or rivers that flow into larger ones, or tributaries.
Ground Water
 • Rain and melting snow sink into the ground and run off the land. Most of this water trickles down through the ground and
collects as __________________________________.
• Although it makes up only _____________ percent of all the water on Earth, groundwater fulfills the human need for fresh
drinking water, and supplies agricultural and industrial need.
Aquifers
• A rock layer that stores and allows the flow of groundwater is called an _______________________________________.
The Biosphere
• The ___________________________________ is the part of Earth where life exists, extending about 11 km into the ocean
and about 9 km into the atmosphere.
• _______________________________________ allows a planet to maintain an atmosphere and to cycle materials.
• Suitable combinations that organisms need to survive are found only in the biosphere.
The Biosphere
• The ____________________________________ is located near Earth’s surface because most of the sunlight is available
near the surface.
Energy Flow in the Biosphere
• _________________________________________ are systems that cannot exchange matter or energy with its surroundings.
• _________________________________________ are systems that can exchange both matter and energy with its
surroundings.
• In the process, some energy is lost as ___________________ to the environment.