Sampling and Sampling Methods
1.0 Introduction
Sampling is a fundamental concept in research methodology.
It involves selecting a subset of individuals, items, or data
points from a larger population to make statistical inferences
about that population. In many cases, studying an entire
population is not feasible due to time, cost, and logistical
constraints; hence, sampling becomes essential.
2.0 Definitions
2.1 Sampling
Sampling is the process of selecting a representative group
from a population for the purpose of determining parameters or
characteristics of the whole population.
2.2 Population
A population is the entire group of individuals or elements that
the researcher is interested in studying.
2.3 Sample
A sample is a subset of the population selected for
measurement, observation, or questioning to provide statistical
information about the population.
3.0 Importance of Sampling
Cost-effective: Reduces the cost of research.
Time-saving: Takes less time compared to studying the
whole population.
Feasibility: More practical and manageable.
Accuracy: Proper sampling methods yield reliable and
valid results.
Generalizability: Allows inferences to be made about a
population.
4.0 Characteristics of a Good Sample
Representativeness: Reflects the population accurately.
Adequacy: Sufficient in size to allow valid conclusions.
Randomness: Every member has an equal chance of
being selected.
Independence: Selection of one element does not
influence another.
5.0 Types of Sampling
Sampling methods are broadly classified into:
A. Probability Sampling Methods
Every element of the population has a known and equal
chance of being selected.
5.1 Simple Random Sampling
Each member of the population has an equal chance of
being selected.
Tools: Lottery method, random number tables, computer-
generated random numbers.
Advantages:
Eliminates bias.
Easy to analyze statistically.
Disadvantages:
Requires a complete list of the population.
Can be costly and time-consuming.
5.2 Systematic Sampling
Selection is made at regular intervals (e.g., every 5th
person).
Involves a random start.
Advantages:
Simpler and faster than simple random sampling.
Suitable for large populations.
Disadvantages:
Can introduce periodicity bias.
5.3 Stratified Sampling
Population is divided into strata (groups) based on specific
characteristics (e.g., age, gender).
Random samples are drawn from each stratum.
Advantages:
Ensures representation of all key subgroups.
Increases precision.
Disadvantages:
Requires detailed population information.
Complex to administer.
5.4 Cluster Sampling
The population is divided into clusters (usually
geographically), and a random sample of clusters is
selected.
All members of selected clusters are studied.
Advantages:
Reduces cost and time.
Practical for large, scattered populations.
Disadvantages:
Less precise than other methods.
High sampling error.
5.5 Multistage Sampling
Combination of sampling methods applied in stages.
E.g. Randomly select regions, then schools, then students.
Advantages:
Flexible and efficient.
Suitable for large-scale surveys.
Disadvantages:
More complex.
May increase sampling error.
B. Non-Probability Sampling Methods
Not every member of the population has a known or equal
chance of being selected.
5.6 Convenience Sampling
Selecting individuals who are easiest to access.
Advantages:
Quick, easy, and inexpensive.
Disadvantages:
High risk of bias.
Limits generalizability.
5.7 Purposive (Judgmental) Sampling
The researcher selects participants based on specific
characteristics or purpose.
Advantages:
Useful for qualitative research.
Suitable for studying specific cases.
Disadvantages:
Subjective and prone to bias.
Limited external validity.
5.8 Quota Sampling
Population is segmented into mutually exclusive sub-
groups (like stratified), and judgment is used to select
subjects from each group.
Advantages:
Ensures representation of specific traits.
More efficient than random sampling in some cases.
Disadvantages:
Potential for selection bias.
Not truly random.
5.9 Snowball Sampling
Existing study subjects recruit future subjects from among
their acquaintances.
Advantages:
Useful for studying hidden or hard-to-reach populations
(e.g., drug users, sex workers).
Disadvantages:
Not representative.
High potential for bias.
6.0 Sample Size Determination
Factors influencing sample size:
Population size
Margin of error
Confidence level (e.g., 95%)
Variability in the population
Type of study (qualitative vs quantitative)
Note: Use statistical formulas or software like Raosoft,
G*Power, or Cochran’s formula for precise calculation.
7.0 Sampling Errors
Sampling error is the difference between the sample result and
the true population result.
Types:
Random errors: Due to chance variation.
Systematic errors: Due to flaws in the sampling process.
Minimization:
Increase sample size.
Use proper sampling techniques.
Avoid selection bias.
8.0 Sampling in Qualitative Research
In qualitative studies, sampling is aimed at depth and richness
of information rather than representativeness.
Common qualitative sampling methods:
Purposive Sampling
Snowball Sampling
Theoretical Sampling
Maximum Variation Sampling
9.0 Ethical Considerations in Sampling
Informed consent of participants.
Privacy and confidentiality.
Avoid coercion in selection.
Fair selection process.
10.0 Conclusion
Sampling is a vital aspect of research that significantly affects
the validity and reliability of study findings. The choice of
sampling method depends on the research objectives,
population characteristics, resources available, and the type of
data needed. A well-planned sampling strategy enhances the
credibility of a study and ensures that findings can be
generalized to the target population where appropriate.
