Classification of Materials and Energy Band Theory

Part -01

Introduction
The word "electronics' is derived from electron+dynamics which means the study of the behaviour of
an electron under different conditions of externally applied fields.
This field of science deals with electronic devices and their utilization. An electronic device is a device
in which conduction takes place by the movement of electron - through a vacuum, a gas or a
semiconductor.
Some familiar devices are :
(i) Rectifier (ii) Amplifier (iii) Oscillator etc.
Application of Electronics

Communication Entertainment Defence Medical

Telephone TV Broadcast Radar X-rays
Telegraph Radio Broadcast Guided missiles Electro cardio graph (ECG)
Mobile phone VCR, VCD CRO display
FAX E.E.G. (Electro Engio Graph)
FM mic

Main application of electronics is computer which is used in every field.

All electronics equipments required D.C. supply for operation (not A.C. supply)

Classification of Solids
Solids

On the basis of On the basis of

Conductivity & resistivity Energy bands

On the basis of conductivity & resistivity

1. Conductors
2. Insulators
3. Semiconductors

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Semiconductor Electronics – Part-01

Conductors Insulators Semiconductors

Abundance of Very few free e– Few free e−
free e−
High conductivity Low conductivity Intermediate conductivity
(σ ~ 102 – 108 S (σ ~ 10–11 – 10–19 S m–1) (σ ~ 105 – 10–6 S m–1)
m–1)
Low resistivity High resistivity Intermediate resistivity
(~ 10–2 – 10–8 (~ 1011 – 1019 m) ( ~ 10–5 – 106 m)
m)
Effect of (At very high temperature) (At room temperature)
temperature: R ↓ ρ↓ σ↑ T ↑ R ↓ ρ↓ σ↑
T ↑ R ↑ ρ ↑ σ↓
Effect of (At very high temperature) (At room temperature)
temperature: T ↑ R ↓ ρ↓ σ↑ T ↑ R ↓ ρ↓ σ↑
T ↑ R ↑ ρ ↑ σ↓
 = +ve  =− ve  =−ve
E.g. : Metals E.g.: Rubber, Wood, Plastic, E.g. : Elemental Semiconductors : Si, Ge
Diamond etc.
Inorganic Semiconductors :GaAs, CdS etc.
Organic Semiconductors: anthracene,
Polypyrole, Polyaniline etc

Energy Bands in Solids

• In isolated atoms the energy levels of electrons are discrete.
• When we draw the energy level diagram of isolated Si atom then we obtain different energy levels
corresponding to the energy of different electrons in different orbits.
e e

e + e e + e

e e

• However, if an atom belongs to a crystal, then the energy levels are modified.
• Consider a single crystal of silicon having N atoms. Each atom can be associated with a lattice site.
• Electronic configuration of 14𝑺𝒊 is 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p2.

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Semiconductor Electronics – Part-01

• Therefore interaction of a silicon atom with the neighboring atom causes change in energy levels
of electron.
• This modification is not appreciable in the case of energy levels of electrons in the inner shells
(completely filled).
• But in the outermost shells, modification is appreciable because the electrons are shared by many
neighboring atoms.
• So, what used to be the discrete energy levels, now split-up or spread out to form energy bands.

Valence Band
This is lower energy band, which contains valence electrons.
This band is either partially or completely filled with electrons but never be empty.
The electrons in this band are not capable of taking part in conduction of current.
Conduction Band
This is the higher band containing conduction electrons.
This band is either empty or partially filled with electrons.
Electrons present in this band take part in the conduction of current.
This band is completely empty. Electron is forbid to be in this energy gap.
The minimum energy required to shift an electron from valence band to conduction band is called
band gap (Eg).
Eg = (CB)min – (VB)max
It depends on nature of solid and on the interatomic separation.
It strongly depends on the interatomic separation.
It also depends on temperature, but this dependence is very weak.
Band gap or Forbidden Energy gap (FEG) (Eg)
Eg = (CB)min – (VB)max

Conduction band
Energy (eV)

forbidden
energy gap
Valence band

(i) It is the energy gap between CB and VB.

(ii) It is also called forbidden energy gap because free electrons cannot exist in this gap.
(iii) Width of forbidden energy gap depends upon the nature of substance.
(iv) Width is more, then valence electrons are strongly attached with nucleus.
(v) Width of forbidden energy gap is represented in eV.
(vi) As temperature increases forbidden energy gap decreases (very slightly).

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Semiconductor Electronics – Part-01

Classification of solids According to Energy Band Theory

According to energy band theory, solids are conductor, semiconductor and insulator :

CB
CB
CB
overlapping
~1eV >3eV
VB region

VB
VB

conductor semiconductor insulator

(Cu, Fe, Al, Na etc.) (Si, Ge, GaAs etc) Diamond, wood etc.
Conductor
In some solids conduction band and valence band are overlapped so there is no band gap between
them, it means Eg = 0.
Due to this a large number of electrons are available for electrical conduction and therefore its
resistivity is low
( = 10–2 – 10–8 -m) and conductivity is high [ =102 – 108 (-m)–1]
Such materials are called conductors. For example gold, silver, copper etc.
Insulator
In some solids energy gap is large (Eg > 3 eV).
So in conduction band there are no electrons and so no electrical conduction is possible. Here energy
gap is so large that electrons cannot be easily excited from the valence band to conduction band by
any external energy (electrical, thermal or optical).
Such materials are called as "insulator". Their r > 1011 W-m and s < 10–11 (W-m)–1
Semiconductor
In some solids a finite but small band gap exists (Eg < 3eV).
Due to this small band gap some electrons can be thermally excited to "conduction band".
These thermally excited electrons can move in conduction band and can conduct current. Their
resistivity and conductivity both are in medium range,  ; 10–5 – 106 -m and  ; 10–6 – 105 -m–1
Example of semiconducting materials
Elemental semiconductor : Si and Ge
Compound semiconductor • Inorganic : CdS, GaAs, CdSe, InP etc.
• Organic : Anthracene, Doped pthalocyanines etc.
• Organic polymers : Poly pyrrole, Poly aniline, polythiophene

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 Intrinsic Semiconductors

Part -02

Intrinsic Semiconductors
Semiconductors in their purest form. Free from any type of impurity All the covalent bonds are
complete, No free electrons. Valence bands are completely filled. Conduction bands are complete
empty. It behaves as perfect insulator.

EC

Eg

EV

Some of the covalent bonds are broken due to thermal energy.

(Thermally generated free electron)

+4 +4 +4
EC
Hole at site 1
Eg
+4 Site 1 +4 +4 (electron vacancy)
EV

Site 2
+4 +4 +4

+4 Si or Ge

On receiving an additional energy, one of the electrons from a covalent band breaks and is free to
move in the crystal lattice.

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Semiconductor Electronics – Part-02

While coming out of the covalent bond, it leaves behind a vacancy named ‘hole’. This process is called
Electron-hole pair generation.
(Thermally generated
free electron

+4 +4 +4

Hole at site 1
(electron
+4 Site 1 +4 +4
vacancy)

Site 2
+4 +4 +4

+4 Si or Ge

In intrinsic semiconductor, the number of thermally generated electrons always equals the
number of holes.
ne = free electron concentration
nh = hole concentration
ne =nh = ni
Valence Band Current Ih , Conduction Band Current Ie
Total Current = Ih + Ie
Conductivity
σ = e (ne μe + nh μh)
σ = σe + σh
"Where"
σe = μ e n e e
σ = σe + σh
σh = μ h n h e

Properties of Semiconductor
Negative temperature coefficient (), with increase in temperature resistance decreases.
Crystalline structure with covalent bonding [Face centred cubic (FCC)].
Conduction properties may change by adding small impurities.
Position in periodic table → IV group (Generally)
Forbidden energy gap (0.1 ev to 3 ev)
Charge carriers : electron and hole.
There are many semiconductors but few of them have practical application in electronics like
Ge32 : 2, 8, 18, 4 Si14 : 2, 8, 4

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Semiconductor Electronics – Part-02

CB CB

Energy (eV)

Energy (eV)
0.7 eV 1.1 eV
VB
VB

Effect of temperature

At absolute zero kelvin temperature at this Above absolute temperature with increase in
temperature covalent bonds are very strong and temperature some covalent bonds are broken
there are no free electrons and semiconductor and few valence electrons jump to conduction
behaves as perfect insulator. band and hence it behaves as poor conductor.

Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si
hole
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si

at 0k at higher temperature
Valence band conduction band Valence band conduction band
fully filled fully empty partially empty partially filled

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 Concept of Electron Current and Hole Current

Part -03

Electron and hole current

In conductors current is caused by only motion of electrons but in semiconductors current is caused
by both electrons in conduction band and holes in valence band.
Current that is caused by electron motion is called electron current and current that is caused by hole
motion is called hole current. Electron is a negative charge carrier whereas hole is a positive charge
carrier.
At absolute zero temperature intrinsic semiconductor behaves as insulator. However, at room
temperature the electrons present in the outermost orbit absorb thermal energy. When the outermost
orbit electrons get enough energy then they will break bonding with the nucleus of atom and jumps
in to conduction band. The electrons present in conduction band are not attached to the nucleus of
an atom so they are free to move.

When the valence electron moves from valence band to the conduction band a vacancy is created in
the valence band where electron left. Such vacancy is called hole.

When the valence electron moves from valence band to the conduction band a vacancy is
Conduction band

Electron flow Electron

A A B A C B A
fig(1) fig(2) fig(3) fig(4)
Hole flow Hole
Valence band

Conduction in intrinsic semiconductor

The process of conduction in intrinsic semiconductor is shown in below fig. In the below fig, an intrinsic
semiconductor is connected to a battery.
Here, positive terminal of battery is connected to one side and negative terminal of the battery is
connected to other side. As we know like charges repel each other and opposite charges attract each
other. In the similar way negative charge carriers (electrons) are attracted towards the positive terminal
of battery and positive charge carriers (holes) attracted towards the negative terminal of battery.

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Semiconductor Electronics – Part-03

Flow of holes
Flow of electrons
Free electron
Hole

+ –

Battery
Electrons will experience a attractive force from the positive terminal, so they move towards the
positive terminal of the battery by carrying the electric current. Similarly, holes will experience a
attractive force from the negative terminal, so they moves towards the negative terminal of the battery
by carrying the electric current. Thus, in a semiconductor electric current is carried by both electrons
and holes.
In intrinsic semiconductor the number of free electrons in conduction band is equal to the number of
holes in valence band. The current caused by electrons and holes is equal in magnitude.
The total current in intrinsic semiconductor is the sum of hole and electron current.
 = hole + electron

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