India from 187 B.C. to 300 A.

D
161
heen depicted while in paint1ng no. 10, ten upasakas
and stupa have been depicted Both the
a worshipping a Buddha-tree
of
paintings have been regarded fine
sDecimens art. Literature also progressed
during this age Sanskrit was
oradually replacing Prakrat and getting the status of state
most of the texts were written in Sanskrit which constitutelanguage Therefore
the source-material
Chapter 10 of knowing the history of this age. The Manusm1rit1 was written from the
2nd century B.C. to the middle of the 2nd century A.D. Bhasa period
wrote several
dramas among which the Swapna Vasavadatta became quite famous in
which has
India from 187 B.C. to300 A.D. (Between becn described the love-story betwecn king Udayana and
princess Vasavadatta.
the Patanjali wrote the Mahabhasya during the middle of the 2nd century
Mauryas and the Guptas) A.D
Several texts were written on the science of medicine among which the Charaka-
Samhita became most renowned. Charaka was the contemporary of Emperor
FTER the downfall of the
Kanishka. One famous texts of this period was the Gatha-saptasati. It was written
A divided till the rise of the
the throne of
Maurya empire North India remaincd politically
Gupta empire. Pushyamitra Sunga who usurped
in Prakrat by Satavahana ruler under the nick-name, Halla.
a
Asvaghosha,
Parsva, Vasumitra, Nagarjuna and Sangharaksha were great scholars at the court
Magadha has been credited by many historians of protecting of Emperor Kanishka who wrote several treatises among which the Buddha-
Magadha from foreign invaders but he failed to revive its glory. The same way,
the Satavahanas in the South and Charita written by Asvaghoslha became very famous. Thus, the period proved
the kingdom of Kalinga certainly succeeded in
creating strong states in their respective territories but failed to create quite important from the point of view of the progress of Indian culture. In fact,
long- the foundation of its greatness which it achieved during the
standing empires. Thus, being politically divided, India provided an period of the Guptas,
for foreign invaders to opportunity was laid during this age. The period was not devoid of
great nulers as wel
penetrate deep into the Indian territories for the first time
after the coming of the Kanishka, Kharvela and Gautmiputra Satakarmi of this age proved powerful
Aryans. However, India neither succumbed to foreign rulers who continued the heritage of great kings
invaders permanently nor
permitted its culture to be overpowered by them Several category of sources throw light on the history and culture of this
Rather, after some lapse, it
again revived its political power and succecded in period. Different secular and religious Indian literature, literary writings of
strengthening its culture. The period between the Mauryas and the Guptas
not be glorious from the may foreigners, inscriptions, coins and several archaeological discoveries have helped
point of view of political solidarity, which was not always
us in this field. Different Puranas, Smir1tis
possible, but it proved quite important in certain other aspects. particularly the Manusmiriti,
culture proved its strength not Primarily, Indian Buddhist texts like the Divyavadana, the Lalitvistara, the Manjusrimulakalpa,
only in maintaining itselfbut in making alterations
and additions and.
thereby, further strengthening itself. It exhibited remarkable the Milindpanda, etc. have provided useful information to us concerning this
capacity to absorb foreigners within itself. The Parthians, the Sakas and the period. The Mahabhasya of Patanjali throws light on several events of the reign
Kushanas who penetrated into India were all of Pusyamitra Sunga and the Malavikagnimitra written by Kalidas and the
absorbed in the Indian society
Indian culture also got large converts in Gargi-Samhita refer to several attacks of foreigners during the reign of Pusya
distant lands during this
Buddhism, particularly its Mahayanism sect, got period. mitra Sunga. Among inscriptions, important ones are the Nasika inscription
Kaniska and spread into North-West patronage of the Kushana king,
of Gautmi Balsree, Girnara-inscription of Rudradaman and Hathigumpha-
Hinduism followed its example and
reaching as far as China and Japan.
large areas of South-East Asia were brought inscription of Udayagiri. Besides. many idols and a lot of coins of this age have
under the influence of Indian culture. The been found very much valuable for knowing the history and culture of this period
revival of Hinduism which
reached its zenith during the ultimately
period of the Guptas, started during this period
under the patronage of the THE SUNGAS AND THE KANVAS OF MAGADHA
Sunga king Pushyamitra. The period also witnessed
the revival of republican
kingdoms in different parts of India.
Besides, art and
literature also progressed. The art of sculpture which attained maturity 1. The Sungas (187-75 B.C.)
Guptas made notable progress during this age. Three during
the
period of the (0) Pushyamitra (187-151 B.C.) The Buddhist text, Divyavadana described
schools of
sculpture-Gandhara, Mathura and Amravati that the Sungas belonged to the Maurya-family. But historians do not accept this
regards painting, among the paintings of Ajanta developed during this age. As
caves, No. 9 and 10 belong to
view. The majority of them described that Pushyamitra, the founder of the Sunga
this period. In painting No. 9, sixteen dynasty in Magadha was a Brahamana. However, they haye differed concerning
upasakas proceeding towards a stupa have
162 History of Ancient India 187 B.C. to 300 A.D 163
Indiafrom
described that the Sungas
ncir Aula. In his text, Malvikagnimitra, Kalidas Brahamnanas have
head of cach monk. But, there is no independent evidence to prove this charge.
Delongcd to Bembic-family of the Brahamanas. The Bembic of the scholars do of course, the Sungas were strong supporters of Brahamanical religion but they
Deen regarded belonging to Kasyapa-gotra. But the majority were not intolerant of Buddhism. The great Buddhist stupa at Bharhut was
not accept this view. They have opined that the Sungas belonged to Bharadwaj
erected during the reign of the Sungas. If Pushyamitra and his descendants had
8ofra of the Brahamanas. Pushyamita was the commander-in-chief of the army
been the destroyers of Buddhist monasteries then it could not be possible. E.B.
of the last Maurya ruler Brihadratha. By that time, the Mauryas had lost not only
Havell has opined that even if we accept the version of Buddhist-texts that
their power but prestige also and their empire was reduced because of the Pushyamitra destroyed Buddhist monasteries, he did so not for destroying
intrnusion of the
Successful revolt of the Satavahanas (Andhras) in the South and Buddhism but for breaking their political power as these had become its centres.
Greeks in their North-West territories. Brihadratha was also an incapable nuler Pushyamitra has been branded as a traitor to his master by some historians but
and lost infuence over his army. Pushyamitra once assembled the army and
deposition of a weak ruler by a stronger contestant was a rule at that time.
requested the king to inspect it. At the time of inspection, Pushyamitra Pushyamitra was not an exception. The weak Maurya rulers had lost their right
assassinated Brihadratha before the army and usurped the throne of Magadha.
Pushyamitra tried to consolidate the remaining territories of the Magadha empire
to rule because of their incompetency. The Maurya empire was disintegrating
because of its own weaknesses and had become an easy prey to foreign invasions
and he succeeded. The South, being already lost, his territories extended only up by the Grecks. Pushyamitra succeeded in repulsing the foreign invasions and also
to the river Narmada in the South while in the North-West he could check the in checking further disintegration of the empire. Therefore, his actions
intrusion of the Greeks at the banks of river Indus. his usurpation of the throne. The success of Pushyamitra against the Greek
justified
Pushyamitra succeeded in defeating Yajnasena, the king of Vidarbha (Berar). invasions is enough to justify not only his claim over the throne but also his
Yajnasena had declared himself independent of Magadha. He was attacked by right to rule.
Agnimitra, son of Pushyamitra who was the governor of Vidisa at that time. (Gi) The Successors of Pushyamitra. According to the Puranas there
were
Yajnasena was defeated and, eventually, Vidarbha was divided between the two nine other rulers of the Sunga dynasty. Pushyamitra was succeeded by son his
cousins, Yajnasena and Madhavasena, under Pushyamitra as their suzerain. Agnimitra. Besides, Sujyestha, Vasumitra, Bhagvata were other rulers of this
But the primary achievement of Pushyamitra was to check the penetration of dynasty. Is last ruler Devabhumi or Devabhuti was killed by his minister
the Greeks in India. The Greeks had already occupied the North-West in India Vasudeva who laid the foundations of the rule of the Kanva dynasty in Magadha.
and had succecded in attacking upto Ayodhya during the period of Brihadratha. (ii) The mportance of the Sunga Dynasty. The rule of the Sunga dynasty
Pushyamitra had succeeded in defeating them even at that time and their further in Magadha, for more than a century, was important in many aspects. It checked
intrusion in India was checked. Probably, this had been the basic reason of his the further disintegration of the Magadha empire and atleast kept its central part
popularity among the soldiers of Magadha which helped him in usurping the intact. It also checked the further intrusion of the Greeks in the mainland of India.
throne itself. When he became the king, he pursued the task of fighting against Besides, the process of revival of Brahamanical religion and the Sanskrit
these foreigners. The one big invasion of the Greeks was led by king Demetrius
language started with the rule of the Sungas. The great grammarian Patanjali was
but it was successfully repulsed by Vasumitra, son of Agnimitra. Pushyamitra a contemporary of Pushyamitra. The Manu-Smiriti the
Vishnu-Smiriti and the
performed two Aswamedha (horse-sacrifice) yajnas and probably both of them Yagvayalka-Smiriti were compiled during this age. The Mahabharat was also
were performed after his success against the Greeks. During his time the Greeks written at this time. Dr K.M. Panikkar has expressed the view that the great
could not proceed into India beyond the river Indus. was a contemporary of Agnimitra though it has not
Sanskrit scholar, Kalidas,
Dr V.A. Smith and Dr layaswal have described that Pushyamitra fought a war been accepted by other scholars. The period also witnessed the growing iFfluence
against king Kharvela of Kalinga and was defeated. Dr Satyaketu Vidyalankar of the Bhagvata religion and drew converts even from among foreigners
has also agreed with this view. But Dr H.C. Ray Chaudhry and Dr R.S. Tripathi
particularly the Greeks. The arts, particularly architecture, also progressed
have proved that Kharvela was not a contemporary of Pushyamitra and so during this period. The stupa of Bharhut, some additions to Buddha-Gaya-Stupa
there and the gates and boundary wall of the stupa at Sanchi were built during this age
was no question of any war between them. The majority of historians
accept their view. which have been regarded as fine specimens of architecture. It is also
believed
Pushyamitra supported Brahamanical religion and revived its traditions. The that a new school of architecture grew up at
Vidisa which remained the capital
Buddhist texts the Aryamanjusrimulakalpa and the Divyavadana describe that he contributed to the
of later Sunga rulers. Thus, the nule of the Sungas positively
destroyed Buddhist monasteries, killed the monks and during his course of march betterment of the then Indian polity and culture.
to Sakala (Sialkot in Punjab) declared a
prize of one hundred gold coins on the
 164 History of Ancient India
India from 187 B.C. to 300 A.D 181

2. The Kanva Dynasty (75-30 B.C.)

It was also a period of religious ferment and missionary activity. It witnessed the
The last ruler of the Sungas, Devabhumi was killed by a slave-girl at the
instruction of his minister Vasudeva who established the rule of the Kanva development of Saivism and the allied cults of Kartrikeya, of the Mahayana form
dynasty in Magadha. The rulers of this dynasty, namely, Vasudeva, Bhumimitra, of Buddhism and the cults of Mihira and Vasudeva Krishna, and it saw the
introduction of Buddhism into China by Kasyapa Matanga ( 61-67 A.D.). The
Narayana and Susarman ruled for 9. 14. 12 and 10 years respectively. Very little
is known about the history of the Kanvas and their successors. However, it is dynasty of Kanishka opened the way for Indian civilization to Central and
Eastern Asia.
accepted that the Andhras from the South conquered Magadha and destroyed the And, there is no doubt that Kanishka had contributed a lot to this progress.
rule of the Kanvas and when they left Magadha. it was divided into several small
not only amongst the Kushana
Therefore, he rightly deserves an honoured place
kingdoms which existed till the estabBishment of the Gupta empire.
nulers but also among the great rulers of India
was succeeded by Vasishka who,
THE KINGDOMS OF THE SOUTH (i) The Successors of Kanishka. Kanishka
probably, was his But his rule was short-lived. He ruled only for four years,
son.
His
1. The Andhras or the Satavahanas i.e., 102-106 A.D. He was then succeeded by Huvishka (106-138 AD.)
with Kanishka Vasishka is not clear. Probably he was a great
) Origin and Chronology. The word Satavahana represents a kula or family relationship or
he lost his
while Andhra was the name of a Jati or tribe. The Satavahana family of Andhra grandson of Kadphises I. Huvishka was a capable ruler but, probably
the great
Jati established an independent kingdom in West and East of South India in the hold over the lower Indus valley which seems to have been occupied by
first century A.D. It has also been said that originally the Satavahanas did not Saka Satrap Rudradaman. He was patron a of Buddhism and built a splendid
at Mathura. During his period, another uler named Kanishka II
belong to the Andhra stock. But when in later times their political authority was monastery
seemed to have ruled jointly with him for some time. Kanishka II, probably,
was
confined to the territory at the mouth of the river Krishna, the name Andhra was
in India was
applied to them. the son of Vasishka. The next and the last inmportant Kushana king
of the
However, there is no doubt that the Satavahanas belonged to Dravadian stock Vasudeva I who ruled between 145-176 A.D. But by his time the power
Kushanas had declined. Though nothing is known about the extent
of his empire,
and, later on, were accepted within the
Aryan fold. Dr K. Gopalacharya has Pradesh and North Western
regarded Satavahana nulers as Kshatriyas while Dr Raychaudhary has stated that probably, in India, it was limited only to Uttar
Most of the coins of Vasudeva exhibit the figure of Siva with his
they were Brahamanas with a little admixture of Naga blood. The majority of provinces.
scholars have accepted them as Nandin. Therefore, it has been suggested that he was a Saiva.
Brahamans
There is a difference of opinion The Kushana power declined in India shortly after the reign of
Vasudeva. By
amongst scholars as regards the chronology A.D. the Kushana power was left limited only to
of Satavahanas. The the middle of the third century
Alatsaya-Purana states that the family nuled for 400 years the Punjab, N.W.F.P. and Afghanistan. Their history after
Vasudeva is also
and had 30 kings though it named
only 19 of them. The l'avu-Purana states that even ninth
it ruled for 300 ycars and had obscure. Though there were Kushana rulers up to fourth, fifth and
only 19 rulers. Therefore. Dr Raychaudhary has were not mighty kings of an empire but nulers
of small
concluded that the main family nuled for 300 century A.D., they
ycars and had 19 nulers while some other overlords. The later Kushana rulers
offshoots of the family niled for another hundred kingdoms who owed their allegiance to
ycars and had 11 more nulers The different
However, it is generally accepted that after the downfall of the proved incapable and failed to maintain the unity of the empire.
Andhras established an independent Mauryas, the provincial governors and local dynasties threw
off their supremacy and
kingdonm in the South-West. Simuka, in the established independent kingdoms. The Sakas in Western and Central India,
the
late first century B.C. laid the foundation of the
greatness of this family and the Mathura and its ncarby regions, Daudheyas in the valley of the river
family niled up to the middle of third century A.D. Nagas in
Siladas in the No:th-West
() Important Rulers. The founder of the rule of this Sutlej in Punjab, the Malavas in Rajputana and the
He founded his dynasty was Simuka. succeeded in establishing their independent kingdoms and the mighty Kushana
independent kingdom in the later period of the first century B.C. The neighbours also drew advantage from the
and nuled for 23 years. He empire broke into pieces. powerful
destroyed the Kanvas of Magadha and the later Sungas
weakness of the Kushanas. The Sassanian Emperors of Persia started extending
of Vidisha and occupied a
part of Central lndia. Simuka was succeeded and
brother Krishna who nuled for 18 by his their power towards the East near about the middle of the third century A.D.
years. He included Nasik in his empire in Central Asia
Krishna was succeeded by his son Satkarni-I. kingdom.
He proved himself an illustrious
succeeded in conquering the central part of the Kushana
and Afghanistan. The Kushana nulers of the North-West seemed to have accepted
king and perfornied one Rajasuya and two Asvamedh A.D.
western Malwa. Vidharbha (modern yajnas. He conquered the suzerainty of the Sassanian emperors. However, in the fourth century
Berar) and parts of the South and assumed of the Sassanians was replaced by that of the Gupta nulers. But the
the supremacy
182 History of Ancient India
India from 187 B.C. to 300 A.D. 183
in the North-
Kushana rulers existed and they were regarded as notable powers
to exist even seem to suggest that the artists were well-trained in working on some other matter
West even in the middle of the fourth century A.D. They continued
on. But the
than stone (probably, it was ivory) and now tried their skill on wood and stone.
afterwards and fought against the Hunas and the Muslims later
The figures on the railings of the sacred path of the Gaya stupa are deeper, more
mighty empire of the Kushanas was lost for ever. The Kushana's
rule was finally
exterminated even from the North-West by the Hindushahi dynasty of vital, more rounded and therefore, more beautiful than the figures at Bharhut
which proves further improvement in the art. The stupa of Sanchi (Madhya
Afghanistan and the Punjab in the ninth century A.D. Pradesh) was constructed during the Mauryan-age but its boundary-wall of stone
was constructed during the rule of the Sungas and its entrance-gates were,
THE ART OF SCULPTURE: ITS DIFFERENT SCHOOLS
probably, constructed during the rule of the Satavahana rulers of south India as
on its gate towards the south is engraved the name of the Satavahana ruler,
The period under study witnessed remarkable progress in the art of sculpture. The
Satakarni. The figures carved on the gateways of Sanchi stupa are still more
three important schools of Indian sculpture, i.e., (1) The Gandhara school, (2)
The Mathura School, and (3) The Amravati School grew and progressed during
beautiful which proves that the art which grew up at Bharhut marked its climax
by the time the gateways of Sanchi were erected. Yaksas, Yaksnis, scenes
this period. Each of these schools produced fine pieces of sculpture and the art
developed to an extent which it could not at any other time prior to this age. depicting events from the life of the Buddha or from Jataka tales, horses in
procession, elephants roaming in jungle, lions, snakes, peacocks, etc. have been
Each of these schools has occupied a commanding place in the field of Indian beautifully carved out here. The figures are beautiful not only from the point of
sculpture and has contributed towards its growth and fulfilment. view of their structures but also from the point of view of their expresions of
The art of sculpture was practised by the Indians since ancient times. The most
moods and instincts. It seems that these were infuenced by the Mesopotamian
ancient specimens of Indian sculpture are in the seals found at the sites of the or Persian art but primarily they are the specimens of Indian art
Indus valley civilization. After that we find no specimens of Indian sculpture till Another fine specimen of architecture as well as sculpture is the
age of the Mauryas. It does not mean that the art remained dead during this
Garuda-pillar
the at Besnagar in Madhya Pradesh near Sanchi. It was constructed by Heledorus
intervening period. It existed in some form even during this period but it seems
that perishable materials were used in preparing art pieces of sculpture and
who was the ambassador of the Greeks at the court of the Sunga-ruler at Vidisa
(Madhya Pradesh). This column (pillar) was decorated with beautiful half open
therefore, these could not survive. During the Mauryan age, the patronage lotus flowers. At the top of it was constructed the figure of Garuda which was
provided by the emperors, the influx of foreign influence, and growing material
beautiful.
prosperity led to the revival of the art of sculpture. The animal-figures on Asoka's
Yet, the art of sculpture had not reached its perfection because by then no
stone columns have existed till now and have been regarded as beautiful works
of art. The famous lions of Sarnath column and the beautiful bull of the column images were buiit by Indian artists. In India, the first images of the Buddha were
built under the influence of Mahayanism Prior to it, the presence of the Buddha
of Rampurva are the works of talented
sculptors. A beautiful figure of a Yaksni was indicated by various symbols such as footprint, umbrella etc. Mahayanisnm
has been found at Didarganj but it is that of the
post-Mauryan period. A number inspired artists to carve images of the Buddha and a beginning was made during
of figures of Yaksas have also been found at different
places. They are strong, the period of the Kushanas. This led to the growth of Gandhara and Mathura
heavy, bull-necked and a few of them even larger than life-size. Though not schools of art in sculpture which vie with each other for the honour of having
perfect they have been regarded as fine specimens and when compared with the
figures of Harappa's seal-figures they exhibit the survival of an ancient tradition produced the best images of the Buddha. While European scholars have
maintained that this credit goes to the Gandhara school, the Indian scholars
in sculpture. However, the most beautiful
pieces of sculpture art of the post- contend that it goes to the Mathura school.
Mauryan period are the carvings on the railings and gateways of the stupas at
Bharhut, Gaya and Sanchi. The remains at Bharhut seem to be that of
BC.. that of Sanchi about the end of the first
nearly 150 1. The Gandhara School (50 B.C.-500 A.D.)
century B.C. and that of Gaya The Gandhara art has been called by several other names, i.e., Greco-Roman,
between period of these two. The stupa of Bharhut is in
Madhya Pradesh. t was Greco-Buddhist, Indo-Greek etc. because it clearly exhibits the influence of
constructed during the rnule of the Sungas by the followers of Buddhism.
was made to depict the life of Mahatma Buddha and
Attempt Roman, Greek or Hellenistic art. But this art did not grow during the domination
forty Jataka-stories by means of north-west India by the Greeks but much after it. The patrons of this art were
of icons constructed on the
boundary-wall and entrance-gate of the stupa. not the Greeks but the Sakas and the Kushanas who carried on and protected the
Beautiful figures of Yaksas and Yaksnis and figures
Jataka tales have been carved on the railings of Bharhut
depicting scenes from traditions and culture of their Hellenistic predecessors in this region. The art
stupa. These figures flourished in the north-western frontier of India, the region called the Gandhara-
 187 B.C. to 300 A.D. 185
Indiafrom
History of Ancient India
184
acquired the highest position in the field of sculpture. It was so popular that at
Pradesh and therefore, it has been named as the
Gandhara school of art. And, a later stage the images which were built here were exported to Taxila and even
it has becn called the Central Asia in the West and to Sravasti and Sarnath in the East. It also provided
as the Hellenistic influence on this art is undeniable,
it
Besides, as it was inspired by Buddhism, has the basis for further progress of the art of sculpture. The art of sculpture of the
Gracco-Roman or Indo-Greek art.
been called Greco-Buddhist art. Thus the inspiration
of this art was primarily Gupta age has been accepted as a developed form of the Mathura school.
Indians though it was influenced by The Mathura school was somewhat influenced by the Gandhara school in the
Buddhism and its creators were mostly
apart. For it is first half of second century A.D. The images of the Buddha of Gandhara art were
foreign art. Kramrisch says, "Gandhara. . occupies position and colonial
a
is also
copied here but in a more refined way. The Gandhara-composition
.

of view, it is Hellenistic
Indian and colonial from a Hellenistic point evident in certain reliefs and decorative motifs. In turn, it also influenced the
when viewed from India."
Gandhara school of art. The school was directly influenced by Roman art as well
The art pieces of Gandhara school have been found at Bimaran, Hastnagar, whatever
sites of because of its direct links with the Roman empire by the sea-route. But
Sakra Dheri, Shah-ji-ki-dheri, Hadda near Jalalabad and at various influence it had, it was slowly given up and by the coming of the Gupta
foreign
Taxila. Most of them have been kept in the museums of Peshawar and Lahore.
best specimens. age it was perfectly free from it.
Amongst these art pieces the images of the Buddha are the A standing female figure of Amohini relief, the standing statue of emperor
that the
Viewing them from a critical point of view it has been concluded Kanishka kept in the museum of Mathura, the statue of a slave girl kept
in the
Gandhara school progressed during l150 years of its beginning, it deteriorated in stone of the
museum of Benaras and a large number of figures and images in
the second century A.D., but then again improved itself in the beginning of the found at
Buddha and Bodhisattvas, Yaksas and Yaksnis, males and females,
third century A.D. In its later stages it was affected by the Mathura school and, finest of the art
Mathura and its nearby region, have been regarded as the pieces
when finally grown up, it affected the art of sculpture in China and Central Asia.
of sculpture.
Its chief characteristics are the realistic representation of human figures, that
In its early stages, the school was probably inspired by Jainism as we find
distinguished muscles of the body and transparent garments. The images of the many figures of cross-legged naked Tirthankaras in meditation were
carved by
Buddha were so beautifully made that they look like images of Apollo, the Greek Mathura craftsmen. Afterwards, the images of the Buddha replaced them
which
god of beauty. Dr A.L. Basham writes, "The Gandhara sculptures had other art of the
clearly exhibits the influence of Buddhism on it. But more than that the
models in the gods of the Greco-Roman world. Often their inspiration seems of
Mathura school proved to be the art for the sake of art. Not only were statues
almost wholly western." These beautiful images of the Buddha were ranked creation
Kushana emperors prepared by sculptors but the great majority of their
among the best pieces of sculpture and therefore, the Gandhara school was consisted of nude or semi-nude figures of female-faksnis or apsaras in
erotic
considered the best school amongst the schools of Indian sculpture and, at one
time, it was claimed that it was primarily responsible for the growth of all great
postures
The royal statues of Kushana kings were found near Mathura. They belong
to
schools of Indian sculpture. The claim has been refuted. Now the majority of A.D. and exhibit foreign influence. The most
the last quarter of the first century
scholars believe that the Mathura school stands higher than the Gandhara school,
striking statue is that of emperor Kanishka though it lacks its head. It is draped
the art of sculpture of the Gupta age belongs to the Mathura school and, that it solid
in the dress of Central Asia -a long coat and quilted boots. It is grand and
was free from the influence of the Gandhara art. Yet the Gandhara school of art
from physical point of view though technically it lacks a sense of depth. The same
has been recognised as one of the best schools of Indian sculpture and the images the Mathura school are fleshy figures
way the early Buddhas and Bodhisattvas of
of the Buddha which were built under its patronage are amongst the best
and possess no expression of spirituality. But, afterwards, religious feeling and
possessions of Indian art. Dr A.L. Basham comments, "The Buddhas of
spirituality were exhibited in them. Then the images exhibited not only firm,
a
Gandhara though perhaps lacking in the spirituality of those of the Gupta period masculine and energetic body but also one with grace and religious feeling. The
are gentle. graceful and compassionate, while some of the plaques are vivid and the faces of the images
attempt to display spiritual strength by a circle behind
energetic. began with the Mathura school. Yet the most remarkable pieces of the Mathura
The craftsmen of this school mostly used white stone to prepare the images art are its beautiful female figures. Most of these figures are nude or semi-nude
have full round breasts, full heavy hips and slender waists. Besides, postures of
2. The Mathura School (150 B.C.-300 A.D.) their bodies, heads, hands and legs are definitely erotic. Thus, their aim is frankly
Mathura is one of the district towns of western U.P. The art of sculpture sensual. Thus, the Mathura school succeeded in depicting the beauty of the body,
which developed here has been called the Mathura School. Its origin
hasbeen
traced back to the middle of the second century B.C. but it was only in the first
both of male and female, and also their religious, spiritual and sensual moods.

century AD. that its genuine progress began. It flourished here for centuries and
186 History of Ancient India India from 187 B.C. to 300 A.D 187

instincts and expressions. which had started at Bharhut, Gaya and Sanchi. The school of Mathura accepted
The one distinguishing feature of the Mathura school was that the stone which a human being as a distinct entity and emphasis was laid on the depiction of
the craftsmen used was mostly spotted red sandstone found at Fatehpur Sikri The Amravati school forged ahead of it. While the
physical beauty through art.
near Agra. Mathura school failed to exhibit sensuous desires markedly, the Amravati school
succeeded in that. Thereby, for the first time, the Indian art of sculpture came
3. The Amravati School (150 B.C.-400 A.D.) closer to the physical and emotional needs of man. Hence, the primary aim of art
In the region between the lower valley of the rivers Krishna and Godavari in no longer served religion but human beings.
The change of attitude in art was
the South are the districts of Amravati and Guntur where another school of a part of change in attitude of society
in general because of increased trade and
commerce and, thereby, economic prosperity. The
factor for increased economic
sculpture called the Amravati school flourished. The region had become an
remain agriculture. It was
important centre of Buddhism as early as the second century B.C. and it provided prosperity of the Indian people at that time did not
the first incentive to this school. By the middle of the second century A.D., the trade in which the South had marched ahead of the North.
replaced by foreign
with the Roman
school matured itself and beautiful sculptural pieces were created. The school The growing foreign trade with western countries, particularly
responsible for the change in the Indian
exerted grcat influence not only on the ater South Indian sculpture but as its empire by the sea-route, was primarily
in social attitude which brought about its effect
products were carried to Ceylon and South-East Asian countries, it also economy and, thereby, change
a

nearer to man than his religion.

This helped in the
influenced sculptural arts of those countries. The Amravati school serves as a link on art as well, bringing it
between the carlier art of Bharhut, Gaya and Sanchi on the one hand and the later of art because art became free from certain inhibitions and the artists
progress
the art of Amravati
Gupta and Pallava art on the other. Accepting freely the principle of art for the could pursue the principle of art for the sake of art. But, then,
and that of an urban
sake of art, the craftsmen ofthe Amravati school created beautiful human images. reflected the attitude of a mercantile social economy
and temporary values of life
Of course, inmages of the Buddha were built and the great stupa of Amravati was bourgeois society which preferred transient pleasures
art. It was only in the
adorned with lime-stone depicting scenes of the Buddha's life and surrounded by and therefore, failed to reach the best amongst the Indian
the Gupta that the art was relieved of the
free-standing figures of the Buddha but figures and statues of males and females fifth and sixth centuries during age
an intellectualised
exceed them in number and quality. The same way, though this school weight of physical substance and became illuminated by
and therefore. reached its climax.
successfully depicted love, compassion, devotion and sacrifice, yet the physical spiritual experience
beauty and the sensual expressions commanded its art. The figures and statucs DEVELOPMENT OF
THE CONTRIBUTION OF TRADE TO THE
carved under the influence of this school have been regarded as the best
amongst INDIAN ECONOMY AND SOCIETY
the contemporaries not only from the point of view of their size,
physical beauty
and expressions of human enmotions but also from the 187 B.C. and 300
point of view of India enjoyed immense prosperity during the period between
composition. The figures and images are so composed that they seem to ou A.D. Agriculture and trade, both internal and foreign, flourished. The foreign
interlinked with each other and present before an onlooker not distinct trade was facilitated due to the infiltration of the Greeks, the Sakas,
the Parthians
and images but a well-composed painting
figures
their kingdoms in north-west
depicting a scene or an event. The art and the Kushanas in India wiho established
of Armravati is frankly naturalistic and sensuous. The female the period of the
figures in different sometimes extending up to Central Asia, as was the case during
moods and poses, standing, sitting. bending, flying, North by sea-route
dancing, hanging are its best rule of the emperor Kanishka. Besides, while the trade of the
creations. The forms of the Yaksnis and the dancing girls have full busts, was limited to the Western world
and China, the South carried on favourable
heavy
hips and living flesh and they exhibit infinite love, grace and beauty. Even men. trade by sea-route not only with China and countries of the
West but also with
animals and vegetation have been treated elegantly. And Asia. It resulted in the growth of industries and
images and figures of the countries of South-East
even more than 16 feet in height were built here. Here an organised and
feminine beauty has been handicrafts and increased prosperity and also in the rise of
depicted more successfully than compared to Mathura. Dr Nihar Ranjan Ray powerful mercantile community. This change in economy
affected the social,
comments, "Never so far was the delicate and were reflected in
voluptuous beauty of the human artistic and religious attitudes of the society which ultimately
frame so richly and luxuriously conceived, and never were technical skill its literature, fine arts and changes in religion.
and
efficiency more adequate for realisation of the conception." The entire Indian sub-continent was covered by different and well-connected
The Amravati artists used white marble for the constrnuction of their The Mauryas had
figures trade routes. They tended follow highways and river valleys.
to
and images. with each
constnucted many roads which connected different parts of the country
The school of Mathura and Amravati closed hat refer to the more frequented routes
chapter in the artsculpture other. That helped in trade. Buddhist sources
188 History of Ancient India India fronm 187 B.C. to 300 A.D
189

the north to the south-cast from Shravasti to Pratishthana. the north to south-east mostly dominated this trade
from Shravasti west route which followed the Increased trade helped in the growth of industries and handicrafts
route to Rajagriha, and thecast In the
valley's of the North. Besides. 1India was well connected by road routes with main, industry was organized in arcas where raw materials were
iver
Central Asia and Western Asia and through them maintained trade relations with
readily found
or where a tradition of a particular craft existed. This was
specially so with the
the Roman and Hellenic world. Overland trade with Western Asia and the Roman spinning and weaving of cotton and silk. Textiles of various kinds were locally
and Hellenic world went through the cities of the north via Grand Tnunk Road produced in every region. Magadha continued to supply large quantities of iron
from Pataliputra to Tavila in the north-west. Patliputra was connected by road and copper mined in Rajasthan, the Deccan and the foothills of the Himalayas:
with Tamluk. the chief port for trade with Burma, the east coast of India and the Himalayan slopes supplicd musk, saffron and medicinal herbs. and South
Ceylon. The land routes to the south followed the river valleys and the coast. India provided spices. gold. precious stones and sandalwood The
growth of
Broach was still the main port for the western sea-coast. Besides, there were many industries and trade helped in the growing prosperity of India. It also increased
other ports both on the eastern and western sea coasts of India like Barbaricum the number of artisans and craftsmen particularly in cities. It has been referred
on the Indus delta and in the Mahavastu that there were thirty-six categories of craftsmen in the
Kaverippattinam in the south which served the purpose city
of trade with the western world and the countries of South-East Asia. Thus. Rajgraha. Another Buddhist text, the Milinda-Panha refers to seventy-five
foreign trade was carried on by India both by sea and land and had connections
with many and far-distant countries of the
diferent professions. The progress of different crafts and professions led to their
world specialization which resulted in their technological advance giving them further
The chief of export from India were spices, perfumes, medicinal herbs.
articles impetus. But the most notable feature in Indian economy was the growing
pIgments. pearls, precious stones like diamond, sapphire, turquoise and lapis number of guilds and their influence on politics and society The guilds existed
lazuli, iron, steel, copper, sandalwood, animal skins, cotton cloth, silk yarn,
muslin, indigo, ivory, porcelain and tortoise shell. The principal imports were even during the period of the rule of the Mauryas and wielded good infuence.
During this period, the guilds became more important factors in urban life. both
cloth, linens, perfumes, glass vessels, silver, gold, tin, lead,
pigments, precious in organizing production and in shaping public opinion. Diferent groups of
stones and coral. The hinterland of
Ethiopia provided African ivory and gold and artisans and craftsmen organized their diferent guilds Leading guilds were
was also a market for Indian muslin. Towns on
the southern shores of the Persian those of the potters, weavers, metal-workers and carpenters. The guilds enjoyed
Gulf received Indian copper, sandalwood, teak and
ebony and sent to India pearls, wide powers and influence. These guilds acted as bankers. financiers and
purple dye, textiles, wine, dates, gold and slaves. But the most lucrative foreign trustees. The guilds fixed rules of work and the quality and price of the finished
trade which India had at that time was with the Roman
empire which was firmly products. The guilds also enjoyed wide powers concerning even private lives of
established by the Ist century B.C. India mosthy exported luxury articles to Rome
their members. The guilds and the establishment of money economy helped in
such as spices, jewels, textiles,
particularly muslin and amusing animals (apes making banking a widespread profession. The guilds issued their hundis which
peacocks, parrots, etc.) and, in return, imported mostly gold. Rome had a good were honoured as cash-money. In certain cases, coins were also issued by the
market for Indian cotton and silk-cloth which
helped in the growth of these guilds which were accepted in the market. Coins issued by a guild have been
industries. The Milinda-Panha states that Gautami, one of the relatives of
found in Taxila. It is now accepted by scholars that coins were issued by the guilds
Mahatma Buddha used five different techniques to
that Mathura produced a special
produce cloth. Patanjali stated at Kosambi, Tripuri, Vidisa. Mahismati and Varanasi as well The guilds.
thus
quality of cloth called the Sataka. Rome had also helped in further growth of trade. industries and money-economy
large demand of Indian white sea-pearls as well which were tagged not
only on One more thing helped in internal and external trade Several nilers issued
garments but on ladies-shoes as well. The frequency of hoards of Roman coins
found in the Deccan and South India which had good coins of good metals during this period. Coins were the best medium of
larger share in this trade as exchange at that time. Their improved quality. certainly, facilitated trade leading
compared to the North at that time indicate the volume of the trade. India to its growth both internally and externally
imported good variety of silk from China. Again, it was because of the demand The growth of trade, particularly with forcign countries. affected Indian
of silk-cloth by Rome. India
developed brisk trade-relations with China mostly society. Firstly, it helped in the rise ofa mercantile community which continued
to procure silk from China to feed the
demand of Rome. The period also to grow from strength to strength. As the merchant community grew wealthy it
witnessed the extension of trade with South-East Asia
caused, at first, again by asserted its power and influence in society. Of course. it avoided holding political
the Roman demand for spices. Firstly, trade relations
developed with Burma and power directly which was regarded the sole privilege of the Kshatriyas, yet its
Ceylon but, later on, Indian merchants reached as far as Malaya, Java, Sumatra.
intuence on society went on increasing. Both Jainism and Buddhism which were
Cambodia, Borneo etc. Merchants from South India,
Kalinga and Magadha supported by merchants saw their heyday during these centuries. Besides
 India from 187 B.C. to 300 A.D.
190 History of Ancient India
191
which was further facilitated by The growth of trade and industry affected Indian
Contacts with the western world through trade, affected Indian society in some It led to the growth of many prosperous cities both insociety in yet another
way.
the settlement of foreigners on the Indian soil, the North and the South
was the fairly detailed which, in turn,
helped in the growth of
respects. One of the enduring results of this contact
refernce to India in the works of several western scholars such
as Strabo's Varanasi, Kosambi, Sravasti, Hastinapur, city-culture. Vaisali, Pataliputra
Mathura, Indraprashta, Ropar,
Geography etc. Ludhiana, Jalandhar, Ujjain, Meerut etc. were among many
Geography, Arians's Jndica, Pliny's Natural History, Ptolemy's
and its manifestation in north India. Similarly, Paithan, Amravati, prosperous cities of
impact is visible in the evolution of Buddhism Nagarjunakonda,
Kaveripattam etc. were prosperous cities in south India. AllBaroach,
Another
contributed Sopra,
art. Of course, no Indian scholar accepts the view that Christianity of these cities
in any way towards the philosophy of Mahayanism but the Gandhara
school of remained prosperous during most of the period of the third
century A.D
art was certainly influenced by the Greco-Roman art of sculpture.
The art of Thus, the trade, particularly foreign trade affected Indian
economy and society
and in various ways. All changes in these
Amravati also positively reflected the attitude of a mercantile social economy fields, barring exceptions, which finally
that of an urban bourgeois society. The V'aisyas who mostly constituted the found their culmination during the nule of the Guptas, began during this
period.
mercantile community and the Sudras who mostly organised themselves in guilds
INDIAN CONTACTS WITH CENTRAL ASIA AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA
Brahamanas allowed them
certainly
clamoured for better status in society. The
to improve their social status as they were conferring the status of "fallen India developed contacts with Central Asia and countries of South-East Asia
Hinduism. But, during this period. The eastern regions of Afghanistan were always regarded as
Kshatriyas to foreign immigrants so as to tempt them to accept
at the same time, the Dharmashastras (Law Books) of this period repeatedly part of India. The rest of the territory remained Indian in culture and
emphasized the superiority of the Brahamanas as compared to other castes predominantly within the political orbit of India, although it was also subjected
because a challenge was posed to them by the rising importance of the mercantile tothe influence of the Persians, the Greeks, the Parthians, the Scythians and the
community or the l'aisyas, the creation of new subcastes and the liberal Kushanas.
atmosphere of urban life. Another impact of flourishing trade was the Central Asia was profoundly influenced by Indian culture. It had both trade
construction of stupas, chaityas and viharas in large numbers. The rich and cultural relations with India, particularly more intimate since the times of the
mercantile community mostly helped Mahayana-sect of Buddhism. The result mighty Mauryas. The people who inhabited this region adopted Indian religion
was that the Buddhist monasteries were richly endowed, huge stupas were built and used Indian scripts and language. Their art was also deeply influenced by
and the Buddhist order became affluent and respected. Education also received Indian art. Primarily, it was Buddhism which helped in propagating ndian
impetus during this period. The guilds provided professional to their
cducation culture in this region. But, Brahamanism also played its part. Besides. trade
members. Knowledge of mining, metallurgy, weaving, dying. carpentry etc.
was relations also helped in this process. There were Indian colonies in different parts
improved by the relevant guilds. The knowledge of geometry and astronomy also of this region such as Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan, Demoko. Rawak, Miran.
grew as it was necessitated due to deep-sea navigation. The science of medicine Kuchi, Yen Ki etc. The Indian colonists, too, must have helped in spreading
also developed because of the contact with the West. Buddhism, Jainism and
Brahamanism underwent changes during this period. While Mahayanism
Iluiu culture there. Thus, Central Asia remained part of Indian culture for a
long time. (For details see the chapter titled Greater India').
developed into a separate and distinct sect of Buddhism and drew large converts
both in India and outside, Jainism spread to Kalinga, Mysore and Tamil-land in sUGGESTED REDINGS
the South and to Mathura, Ujain and finally in Saurashtra towards the West. the Brit1sh Museum.
Allan, J., Catalogue of Coins in

Brahamanism also undervent change. The Vedic religion lost its popularity and Barratt, D, Sculpturefrom Amravati in the Briush fuseum
its place was taken by Bhagvatism which reached its zenith during the period of Krishna Rao, B.V., History of the Early Dynastes of Andhradesa.
Majumdar, R.c, (Ed), History and Culture of Indian People. Vol I1. The Age of Imperial Unity
the nile of the Guptas. Vedic religion was not rejected. It still provided the
Marshall, J.H., Monuments of Ancient India.
ceremonial content on different occasions. But the worship of Vishnu and his Narain, A.K. The Indo Greeks.
different incarnations and worship of Siva became more popular. it was not a "The of Alexandar the Great," Cambr1dge History of Indha I.
Rapson, E.J., successors

direct result of foreign trade but an indirect one. The threat posed by the growing Raychaudhuri, H.C., Political History of Ancient Inda
popuiarity of Buddhism and Jainism with the support of the mercantile Ray, Niharranjan, Maurya and Sunga Art.
Sarcar, D.C., Successors of the Satavahanas in the Lower Deccan
community necessitated change in it. Yet, another result of foreign trade was the Subramanjan, K.R., Buddhist Remans in Andhra and the History of Andhra between 225 and 610 ad
introduction of Indian culture in South-East Asia because the contacts with these Smith, V.A, History of Fine Art in India and Ceylon.
countries there began with trade. Yazdani, G., The Early History of the Deccan