Unit 4 iv.

Progressive creationism
EVOLUTIONN - accepts the Big Bang as the origin of the Universe.
4.1 Definition - accepts the fossil record of a series of creations for all of the organisms. But it does
Evolution is descent with modification. not accept these as part of a continuing process; each is seen as a unique creation.
Evolution is the gradual change in genetic composition of a population over successive v. Theistic evolution/Evolutionary creationism
generations, which may be caused by meiosis, hybridization, natural selection or - explain that God ‗invented‘ evolution and he takes active part in the ongoing process
mutation. This leads to a sequence of events by which the population diverges from other of evolution.
populations of the same species and may lead to the origin of a new species. - promoted by the Pope for the Catholic Church and is also supported by most mainline
- Refers to all changes that produce diversity of life on earth. Protestants.
Theories of the Origin of Earth vi. Intelligent design
There are two speculations that try to describe how earth is evolved. - is the newest version of creationism and maintains that God‘s hand work can be seen
1. Big Bang theory of origin of universe in all of creation.
2. Special creationism theory - is a pseudoscientific argument for the existence of God, presented by its proponents as
Theories on the origin of life on earth "an evidence-based scientific theory about life's origins"
- Theory of evolution describes how the various forms of life on earth (including humans) - a version of the theological argument from design for the existence of God
emerged and evolved. - intelligent design offer sophisticated arguments, often based on cell biology and
- There are five main theories mathematics, to give the impression of complex scientific arguments.
1. special creationism 2. Spontaneous generation (abiogenesis)
2. spontaneous generation(abiogenesis) - suggests that life can evolve ‗spontaneously‘ from non-living objects.
3. eternity of life - proposed by Aristotle and supported by John Needham, and Van Helmont.
4. cosmozoan(panspermia) theory - Aristotle forwarded hypothesis that support his theory
5. biochemical origin - Hypothesis states that ‗all non-living things have ―active principle‖ that can
spontaneously give rise to life when it gets confortable conditions.‘
1. Special creationism
- Francisco Redi, and Lazaro spalanzini claimed and tried to disprove the abiogenesis
- Special creationism explains that the formation of life on earth may have been taken
idea, and also Louis Pasteur disproved it once and for all using scientific experiment.
place due to supreme being or divine force.
- How ever an acceptance of evolution is linked to scientific thinking. - In 1668, an Italian biologist, Francesco Redi, was first to disprove by conducting first
- There are fundamental difference between special creationism and scientific thinking in experiment.
that it likely the difference b/n the two will ever be resolved. - He used wide-mouth jars containing meat. Some jars were left open to the air.
- Special creation states that at some stage, some supreme being (God) created life on - Others were covered with a piece of gauze.
Earth. - After several days, maggots and then flies could be seen in the open jars, but none
- There are many different versions of special creation, linked with different religions. appeared in the closed jars.
i. Young Earth creationism - Redi hypothesised that only flies could produce more flies and predicted that, in his
- suggests that the Earth is only a few thousand years old. experiment, flies would be found in the open jars, but not in the covered jars.
- Young Earth creationists often believe the Earth was created in six 24-hour days. - Redi was able to conclude that flies cannot be produced from rotting meat.
- agree that the Earth is round and moves around the Sun.
ii. Old Earth creationism
- believe that the Earth is very old but still maintain that all life was created by God.
iii. Day-age and gap creationism
Gap creationism:- believes that there is a large gap between the formation of the Earth
and the creation of life on earth. The gap could be millions or billions of years.
Day-age creationism:- is similar in the length of time but talks about each of the six
‗days‘ as really meaning a billion years or so of geologic time; the ‗days‘ are just
symbolic.

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- In 1748, the English priest John Needham (1713–1781) report the result of his
experiments on spontaneous generation.
- Needham boiled mutton broth, hoping to kill all preexisting microbes
- He then sealed the flasks.
- After a few days, Needham observed that the broth had become cloudy and a single
drop contained microorganisms.
- He argued that the new microbes must have arisen spontaneously
- He thought organic matter contained a vital force that could confer the property of life
on non-living matter.
- In reality, however, he likely did not boil the broth enough to kill all preexisting
microbes.

- Later, Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729–1799) improved on Needham‘s experimental design

by fist sealing flasks that have water and seeds. 3. Eternity of life
- As in Needham‘s experiment, broth in sealed jars and unsealed jars was infused with - In this theory of life, there is no beginning and no end to life on Earth and so life neither
plant and animal matter. needs special creation nor does it need to be generated from non-living matter.
- Spallanzani‘s results contradicted the findings of Needham: - They believe that life is an inherent property of the Universe and has always existed –
- Heated but sealed flasks remained clear, without any signs of spontaneous growth, as has the Universe.
unless the flasks were subsequently opened to the air.
- Albert Einstein – believed that the Universe was unchanging so does the life
- This suggested that microbes were introduced into these flasks from the air.
4. Cosmozoan theory, Panspermia or Spore broth theory
- In 1859, Louis Pasteur carried out experiments to show that the micro-organisms that Cosmozoan theory
caused wine and broth to go cloudy came from the air and was not made from the - proposed by Richter in 1865.
broth itself. - proposed that life has always existed in the Universe, propagating itself from one
- He used special ‗swan-necked flasks‗. place to another by means of ‗cozmozoa‘ (germs of the cosmos) transported by means
- Pasteur boiled broths in swan-necked flasks to kill any microorganisms that might be in of meteorites or by comets.
them. Helmholz (1884) speculated that ‗protoplasm‘ in some form reached the earth with
- The boiling forced steam and air out of the flasks. falling meteorites. According to this theory, ‗protoplasm‘ reached the earth in the
- When the boiling stopped and the broth cooled, air was sucked back into the flasks. form of spores or germs or other simple particles from some unknown part of the
- but the twists and bends of the flasks‘ neck prevented the introduction of airborne universe with the cosmic dust, and subsequently evolved into various forms of life.
microorganisms.
Panspermia theory
- if a life force besides the airborne microorganisms were responsible for microbial
- proposed by Svante Arrhenius in 1908.
growth within the sterilized flasks, it would have access to the broth, whereas the
microorganisms would not. - is the new version of cosmozoan theory.
- He correctly predicted that sterilized broth in his swan-neck flasks would remain sterile - he proposed that bacterial spores were propelled through inter-planetary space by
as long as the swan-neck remained intact. radiation pressure.
- However, should the necks be broken, microorganisms would be introduced, - But Arrhenius‘ theory was dropped by most scientists when it became apparent that
contaminating the flasks and allowing microbial growth within the broth. the bacterial spores would be subject to UV radiation and X-radiation, zones of
- pasteur‘s set of experiments irrefutably disproved the theory of spontaneous generation charged particles, which would destroy them.
and also articulated ―Omne vivum ex vivo‖ means ―life come from life‖ Weak panspermia or pseudo-panspermia theory
- Is another version of the cosmozoan theory or panspermia which states that organic
compounds arrived from outer space and added to the chemicals on Earth to give
rise to the first life
- eg. In 1969 a meteorite landed in Australia that was contained 12% water and traces
of 18 amino acids. Also, complex organic molecules have been detected in star-
forming clouds, further adding to the evidence for organic molecules in space.
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5. Biochemical origin
- proposed that life may have evolved on Earth as a result of series of biochemical
reactions (sometimes called abiogenesis).
- proposed by Aleksander Oparin in 1924 and John Haldane in 1929.
Both believed that
1. organic molecules could be formed from abiogenic materials in the presence of
an external energy source such as ultraviolet radiation and lightening
2. the primitive atmosphere of the Earth was a reducing atmosphere with no free
oxygen – but contained ammo nia, water vapor and other gases.
3. Both also suspected that the first life-forms appeared in the warm, primitive
ocean and were heterotrophic(obtaining preformed nutrients from the compounds
in existence on early earth)
- They proposed that common gases in the early earth atmosphere combined to form
simple organic chemicals , and these in turn combined to form more complex
molecules called colloidal aggregates, or ‗coacervates‘,
- Then, the complex molecules become separated from the surrounding medium, and
acquired some of the characters of living organisms. i.e. The coacervates were able
to absorb and assimilate organic compounds from the environment in a way similar to Figure. Stanley Miller’s spark discharge experiment
the metabolism of cells. - By leaving the equipment for longer periods of time, they found a larger variety and
more complex organic molecules were formed including:
Stanley Miller and Urey Experiment • amino acids – essential to form proteins
- In 1953, Stanley Miller conducted his now-famous spark-discharge experiment to • pentose sugars – needed to form nucleic acids
support oparin-haldane view of origin of life. • hexose sugars – needed for respiration and to form starch and cellulose.
- Miller and Urey constructed the chamber that simulates the primitive earth conditions. • Hydrogen cyanide again – but it has been shown that the nitrogenous bases
Eg. Electric spark – simulate lightening or solar radiation. found in nucleotides.
Boiling water – simulates hot sea due to volcanic eruption. - This evidence the used to support the Oparin–Haldane hypothesis. But it is with its
Air in chamber- simulates the reducing primitive atmosphere, with no free problems.
oxygen but contains CH4, NH3, H2O and H2. The evolution of autotrophs on Earth
In the investigation - The first organisms appeared – about 4 billion years ago and were prokaryotes that
- they passed electric sparks repeatedly through a mixture of gases that were thought to had no true nucleus. And had RNA as their genetic material rather than DNA.
represent the primitive atmosphere of the Earth. These gases were methane (CH4), - They gave rise to three distinct lines of evolution leading to:
ammonia (NH3), water (H2O) and hydrogen (H2). • archaebacteria – prokaryotes including thermophilic sulphobacteria,
- the molecule formed condensed in the chamber, and moved down into boiling water. methanobacteria and halophilic bacteria
- liquid in the water trap was analyzed and found to contain a number of simple organic • eubacteria – prokaryotes; ordinary bacteria and cyanobacteria (blue-green bacteria
molecules and hydrogen cyanide (HCN) was one of them. and sometimes known as blue-green algae)
• eukaryotes – eventually evolving into protoctistans, fungi, plants, animals (nearly all
are aerobic)
- One great change that affected the evolution of early life forms was the shift from the
reducing atmosphere to an atmosphere containing oxygen.
- The fossil record shows that cyanobacteria had been producing oxygen by
photosynthesis from about 3.5 billion years ago but that for almost 1 billion years the
levels in the atmosphere did not rise because the oxygen was absorbed by the vast
amount of iron in the Earth – it rusted!!

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-But, by 2.4 billion years ago, the concentration began to rise and the rate of increase, 4.1.2. Theories of evolution
accelerated from 2.1 billion years ago. There are three theories of evolution
The two major types of autotrophs are chemoautotrophs and photoautotrophs 1. Lamarckism or theory of transformation
Chemoautotrophs 2. Darwinism or theory of natural selection
- Chemoautotrophs are organisms that obtain their energy from a chemical reaction 3. Neo-Darwinism
(chemotrophs) but their sources of carbon is CO2. 1. Lamarckism
- the best known chemoautotrophs are the chemolithoautotrophs that use inorganic energy - Proposed by Jean-Baptiste De Lamarck(1744- 1829).
sources, such as ferrous iron, hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide, elemental sulfur, or ammonia, - proposed that organisms passed on to subsequent generations traits acquired during
and CO2 as their carbon source. their life-time.
- All known chemoautotrophs are prokaryotes, belonging to the Archaea or Bacteria He postulated:
domains. A. New Needs:
- They have been isolated in different extreme habitats, associated to deep-sea vents, the - Changes in the environment factors like light, temperature, medium, food, air, etc or
deep biosphere or acidic environments. migration leads to origin of new needs in living organisms.
- This form of energy conservation is considered one of the oldest on earth. - To fulfill these new needs, living organisms have to exert special efforts like changes in
Photoautotrophs habits or behavior.
- photoautotrophs are organisms that use light energy and inorganic carbon to produce B. Use and disuse of organs
organic materials. - the new habits involve the greater use of certain organs to meet new needs, and the
- Eukaryoyic photoautotrophs absorb energy through the chlorophyll molecules in their disuse or lesser use of certain other organs which are of no use in new conditions.
chloroplasts. C. Inheritance of acquired characters:
Era Million First evidence of - He believed that the favorable acquired characters are inheritable and are transmitted
years ago to the offsprings so that these born fit to face changed environmental conditions and
Cenozoic 7-5 → Humanlike apes chance of their survival are increased.
65 → Primates D. Speciation:
Mesozoic 140 → Flowering plants - Lamark believed that in every generation, new characters are acquired and transmitted
220 → Mammals to next generation, so that new characters accumulate generation after generation.
235 → Dinosaurs - After a number of generations, a new species is formed.
Paleozoic 300 → Reptiles Lamark‘s theory was based on two conditions and these are
360 → Amphibians • Use and disuse, and
400 → Land animals • Inheritance of acquired traits.
430 → Land plants
Use and disuse
520 → Vertebrates
- Lamarck suggests that by continually using a structure or process, that structure or
Precambrian 2,100 → Eukaryotes
process will become enlarged or more developed. Conversely, any structure or
2,500 → Free oxygen released into atmosphere by prokaryotes
3,500 → Prokaryotes process that is not used or is little used will become reduced in size or less developed.
4,600 → Formation of Earth eg. Elongated neck of the giraffe: According to Lamarck, a given giraffe could, over a
lifetime of straining to reach high branches, develop an elongated neck.
Geologic time scale: This timeline relates several major biological events to the history
- Toes of water birds; from years of straining their toes to swim through water, these
of Earth.
birds gained elongated, webbed toes to improve their swimming.
Endosymbiont evolution
Inheritance of acquired traits
- Margulis propose that eukaryotic cells have evolved when large prokaryotic,
- Traits changed or acquired during an individual‘s lifetime could be passed on to its
unicellular organisms engulfed smaller prokaryotic, unicellular organisms. Engulfed
offspring.
prokaryotes eventually gave rise to modern mitochondria and chloroplasts, which carry
eg. Giraffes that had acquired long necks would have offspring with long necks rather
their own DNA and replicate independently from the rest of the cell that contains them.
than the short necks. This type of inheritance, sometimes called Lamarckian
inheritance.
- August Weismann- criticized the theory of Lamarckism by performing experiment in

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 which he cut the tail of mice for 22 generation, but all the resulting progeny Natural selection or survival of the fittest:
were tailed. Darwin proposed: "Survival of the fittest" theory states that
- According to Epigenetics, a gene expresses itself may become altered during an "members of a species which are best adapted to their environment will survive and
individual‘s lifetime. These changed genes may be passed on to the next generation. reproduce in greater numbers than others less well adapted."
I. Significance of Lamarkism - Due to struggle for existence and useful heritable variation, only those individuals
A. it was first comprehensive theory of biological evolution survive which show high selective value and in the course of time they develop various
B. it nicely explains the existence of vestigial organs in animals due to their continuous adaptive modification to suit the changed conditions of life.
disuse. - such selection was called natural selection by Darwin.
- Vestigial organs are organs that are a part of the organism that are no longer in use. Origin of Species:
- that can be used to determine the relatedness of different species. - In the course of long periods of time the best fitted and suitable individuals survived
Eg. the bone structure of the front flipper of a whale contain bones of limbs that and adjust to the nature.
exist in mammals such as cows. - As environment is ever changing, further changes occur and thus new adaptations
C. it explain the development of trong jaw muscles and claws in the carnivores due to appear in organisms.
their continued extra use. - The later descendants after several generations become quite distinct from their
D. it stimulated other biologists to look for the mechanism of organic mechanism. ancestors.
- On this ways new species appear.
2. Darwinism (Theory of natural selection) 3. Neo-Darwinism theory
- proposed by Charles Darwin and he published his famous book titled On the Origin - a revised version of Darwin‘s theory of evolution by means of natural selection.
of Species. His argument concerned evolution by natural selection. - This theory, which is now accepted by most biologists, combines Darwin‘s original
- Also Alfred Russell Wallace, had come to similar conclusions theory, genetic theory and theories about animal behavior(ethology).
- some of the Darwin‘s evidence came from a visit to the Galapagos Islands in the - According to Hugo de Vries’s, mutation theory or knowledge of genes and gene
Pacific Ocean about 600 miles off the coast of Ecuador in South America. actions are incorporated into the theory of natural selection to give a better
- Darwin visited five of the Galapagos Islands and made drawings and collected understanding of what drives evolution.
specimens. - Genes or alleles of genes determine features.
- In particular Darwin studied the finches found on the different islands and noted that Postulates of Neo-Darwinism are:
there were many similarities between them, as well as the obvious differences. i. Genetic variability
- He concluded that an ‗ancestral finch‘ had colonized the islands from the mainland • Mutations are important in introducing variation into populations.
and, in the absence of predators, been able to adapt to the different conditions on the • Any mutation could produce an allele which confers a selective advantage; the
islands and, eventually, evolve into different species. frequency of the allele will increase over time.
- Some of the finches evolved into insect eaters, with pointed beaks. ii. Natural selection
- Others had evolved into seed eaters with beaks capable of crushing the seeds. • Environment selects in favor of those traits that adapt the organism to the environment and
Basic postulates of Darwinism against those that do not
Geometric increase iii. Reproductive isolation
- All species tends to produce more offspring than can possibly survive. However, the • This process repeats over many generations which lead to origin of reproductively
space and the availability of food supply is limited to support the number of isolated species
organisms that increase in a geometric ratio.
Struggle for existence 4.1.3. The evidence for evolution
- Since the number of individuals produced is far more than the number that can be Evidences that support the theory of evolution come from many areas, including
supported, there is an everlasting competition between organisms at all levels of life. I. comparative anatomy,
Variation under nature II. comparative embryology
- NO two individuals of a species are exactly similar and they have some differences. III. paleontology (the fossil record), provide direct evidence about past life.
- These differences are called variation and without evolution is not possible. IV. comparative biochemistry,
- Variation give rise to new characters and heredity passes them on to the next
generation (inheritance of useful variation)

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4.1.3.1. Comparative anatomy feathers, while the mosquito wing has neither of these. They are analogous structures
- is one of the strongest forms of evidence for evolution. and have evolved separately.
- study about structural similarities of organisms and determine about their possible - Analogous structures provide evidence for convergent evolution
evolutionary relationship. iii. Vestigial structures
- It suggests that organisms with similar anatomical features are closely related - are rudimentary (reduce in size) structure in many organism, which have no known
evolutionarily, and that they probably share a common ancestor. function, but the same structure could be well developed and functional in other
Structures of body that used for comparative anatomical studies are organisms.
i. Homologous structures eg. - appemdix of human, w/c have no known function, and same organ in herbivores
ii. Analogous structures is useful inprocess of digestion.
- Wings of kiwi, and other flying birds.
iii. Vestigial structures
All the examples provide conclusive evidence
i. Homologous structures
1. Organisms having homologous and vestigial organs have arisen from a common
- are organs that are very similar inform, but very different in function in different
ancestor.
species.
- Best-known example of homologous structures is the forelimb of mammals (called a 2. Organisms having analogous organs had different ancestors.
pentadactyl limb, a limb with five digits). 4.1.3.2. Comparative embryology
- studies the way in w/c the embryos of vertebrates develop before they hatch or are
born.
- This development shows similarities which supports a common ancestry.

- The forelimbs of humans, whales, cats and bats are all very similar in structure, each
possesses the same number of bones, arranged in almost the same way, while they have eg. Early in development, all vertebrate embryos have gill slits and tails.
different external features and they function in different ways: - The ‗gill slits‘ are not gills; they connect the throat to the outside, but in many
• arm for manipulation in humans species they disappear later in development.
• leg for running in cats - But in fish and larval amphibian they contribute to development of gills.
• flipper for swimming in whales - The embryonic tail does not develop into a tail in all species.
• wing for flying in bats - In human, it is reduced during development of coccyx, or tailbone.
- All organisms with this kind of limb are descended from that original type – they share - The similarity in the pattern of development of vertebrates suggests, again, a common
a common ancestor. ancestor.
- Homologous structures provide evidence for divergent evolution - The more similar the pattern of embryonic development are assumed to be more
ii. Analogous structures closely related species.
- are organs that are having the same function, but morphologically and developmentally - E.H. Haeckel proposed the theory of recapitulation (biogenic law) which states that
these structures are very different. ―ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny‖ i.e. every organisms recapitulates (repeats) its
- Because they are so different structurally, even though they have the same function, evolutionary development(phylogeny) in its own embryological development
they cannot indicate that two species share a common ancestor. (ontogeny).
eg. Although the wings of a bird and a mosquito both serve the same function their - Now days the principles of recapitulation cannot be accepted b/c no living
anatomies are very different. The bird wing has bones inside and is covered with organisms show all features of proposed evolutionary ancestors.

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4.1.3. 3. Palaeontology - The thickness of each stratum is a measure of the time period during which that
- refers to the study of ancient life and comes from the Greek words palaios (ancient) stratum was formed.
and logos (study). - ‗Tertiary‘, ‗Cretaceous‘ and ‗Jurassic‘ are the names of some of the geological periods
- The word Fossils is derived from the Latin word fossus, meaning ‗having been dug up‘ of time.
- Fossils are the remains or traces of animals, plants and other organisms from the remote 1. Cenozoic era ( 65 million years ago) – periods (quaternary and tertiary (older than
past. quaternary fossils))
- Fossils are very important evidence to prove the theory of evolution and common 2. Mesozoic era (250-65 million years ago)- periods (cretaceous, Jurassic and Triassic)
ancestry. 3. Paleozoic era (560-250 million years ago)-periods (Permian, carboniferous,
- Fossils are grouped into two categories: Devonian, Silurian, Ordovician and Cambrian)
Category 1: the remains of the dead animal or plant or the imprint left from the remains.  In this era the fossils or rocks are older than the other eras and they are
These located at the bottom in the strata of sedimentary rocks.
• bones, eg. Spider preserved in amber is fossilized resin from trees. ii. Absolute (Radioactive) dating
• teeth - Some minerals in rocks and organic matter(eg. wood, bones, and shells) can contain
• skin impressions radioactive isotopes.
• hair - The abundances of parent and daughter isotopes in a sample can be measured and used
• the hardened shell of an ancient invertebrate such as a trilobite or an ammonite to determine their age. This method is known as radiometric dating.
• an impression of an animal or plant, even if the actual parts are missing - The amount of time it takes for half of the parent isotopes to decay into daughter
Category 2: something that was made by the animal while it was living that has since isotopes known as the Half-life of the radioactive isotope.
hardened into stone; these are called trace fossils and include: - Radioactive atoms decay into other atoms over time.
• foot prints Biologists use one of two techniques:
• burrows • radiocarbon dating, or
• coprolite (animal faeces) • potassium–argon dating.
 Type I fossil can be the actual organisms or part of an organism, like a pieces of bone Eg. Radioactive atom, C14 decay into non-radioactive nitrogen atoms, N
or hair or feather as it actually was. Radioactive atom, K40 decay into Argon atoms, A40
- For example, this spider has been trapped, completely unchanged, inside the amber Radiocarbon dating
for millions of years. - The ratio of carbon 14 (radioactive carbon) to carbon 12 (ordinary carbon) in living
 Amber is fossilized resin from trees. This spider probably became stuck inside the things is about 1 to 1 trillion, this ratio has always been the same.
sticky resin and could not escape. - During their lives, living things lose carbon 14 (as carbon dioxide and other excretory
 As the amber became fossilized, the spider was protected from microorganisms and products) and also gain it in the food they eat.
the air which would have led to this decomposition. - But when living things die, the carbon 14 starts to decay into nonradioactive nitrogen
 In many fossils like this, the soft parts of the body have been lost, but the and, clearly, is not replaced.
exoskeleton is perfectly preserved. - After 5730 years (one half-life of carbon 14), only 50% of the original carbon 14 atoms
Dating fossils will remain and the ratio of carbon 14 to carbon 12 will be 1 to 2 trillion (or 0.5 to 1
Fossil ages can be determined using two ways; trillion).
 Relative dating(stratigraphy) determine the age by analyzing rocks and - After 11 460 years, 25% of the original carbon 14 atoms remain and the ratio is 1 to 4
structures placed into chronological order, establishing the age of one thing as trillion(or 0.25 to 1 trillion).
order as or younger than another. - if the analyzed a fossil is found that it had only 6.25% of its original carbon 14 atoms, it
 On other hand , Absolute dating which determine the number of years that have is know that it was 22 920 years old.
elapsed since an event occurred or the specific time when the event occurred.
i. Relative dating (stratigraphy)
- Sedimentary rocks are laid down in layers(strata) which helps to deduce how the
organisms have changed over time. This is called stratigraphy
- The oldest strata and the oldest fossils are found in the lowest layers and more recent
rocks and fossils in the layers above them nearest to the surface.

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 3. The fragments from two organisms are mixed and the mixture cooled, ssDNA
from species A and species B will hybridize (bind) as it cools.
4. There will be regions that are mismatched (the base pairs are not
complementary) and so do not bind and there are techniques available to
measure the percentage of this mismatching.
5. Calculating the percentage similarity of the DNA samples based on the
information.

Potassium–argon dating
- Half-life for radioactive potassium (K40)to decay into non-radioactive argon(A40) is
1.3 million years.
- Potassium–argon dating is suitable for dating rocks millions of years old, whereas
radiocarbon dating is really only accurate with rocks up to 60 000 years old.
- Fossil record: An assemblage of fossils arranged in order of ages, providing evidence Fig. The phylogenic tree of some animals based on difference in DNA
of changes in species overtime.  Differences in DNA are largely due to mutations. By using estimates of mutation
The fossil record for horses provides a detailed view of the evolutionary diversification rates, biologists can calculate how long it might have taken for a certain number
of this group from small forest dwellers to the large and fast modern grassland species. of differences in DNA to have arisen.
Hyracotheriu → Mesohippus → Merychippus → Pliohippus → Equus Hemoglobin
4.1. 3.4. Comparative biochemistry - haemoglobin is the molecule found in red blood cells that carries oxygen to where it is
- Various chemicals and pathways have been studied in order to find evidence of needed.
evolutionary relationships. - The haemoglobin molecule is similar in all animals that possess it, but there are
- Organisms that share very similar molecules and biochemical pathways, are closely differences.
related evolutionarily. eg. the haemoglobin of the lamprey (a primitive fish-like animal) has only one
- Chemicals that have been used in such analyses include: polypeptide chain, not four. Most animals have haemoglobin with four chains, but
• DNA – the base sequences of DNA from different organisms is compared the chains do vary.
• proteins such as: Species α-hemoglobin Polypeptide chains γ - hemoglobin
– cytochrome c (found in the electron transport chain of respiration) and (141 amino acids) β -hemoglobin
– haemoglobin which are compared in terms of amino acid sequences. (164 amino acids)
- Species that are closely related have the most similar DNA and proteins; those that are Human + + +
distantly related share fewer similarities. Chimpanzee + + +
- A comparison of DNA sequences shows that it is 99.9% certain that chimpanzees are Gorilla 1 1 1
humans‘ closest relatives (98% of our DNA is the same as that of chimpanzees). Gibbon 3 3 2
- To measure the similarity of one species‘ DNA with another species, DNA hybridization Table: Similarities and differences between the polypeptide chains of hemoglobin in
technique can be used. four primate species
- This technique measures the extent to which a strand of DNA from one species can keys: hemoglobin composed of four polypeptide chains, made up of α, β, and γ
bind with (or hybridise with) a strand of DNA from another species. polypeptides.
Steps of DNA hybridization technique (+) indicates no difference in amino acid sequence from that of human.
1. The double helix of the DNA molecule from two organisms is heated to separate  The molecules that are used to show evolutionary relationships are those that are
common to large numbers of organisms.
it into single strands.
 But clearly. Hemoglobin analysis cannot be used to include plants and algae in any
2. The single-stranded of the DNA is cut into fragment about 500 nucleotides. phylogenetic tree.

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4.1.4 Natural selection: Definition, Types & Examples
- Natural selection is the ‗driving force‘ behind evolution.
- It is the process that brings about changes (over time) in populations that can,
eventually, lead to different populations of the same species becoming different species.
- Those members of species which are best adapted to their environment will survive to
reproduce in greater numbers than other that are less well adapted.
- They will pass on their advantageous allele to their offsprings and in successive
generations, the frequency of these alleles will increase in their gene pool.
- The advantageous allele will, therefore, increase in frequency in successive generation.
- Natural selection can eventually lead to speciation. - It is evidence that stabilizing (normalizing) selection doesn‘t lead to speciation or
- Speciation the process by which a new species evolves. promote evolutionary change.
- Species is a group of similar organisms with a similar biochemistry, physiology and 3• Disruptive (Diversifying) selection
evolutionary history that can interbreed to produce offspring that are fertile. - is rare kinds of selection, but important in bringing about evolutionary change.
- All types of natural selection work in the same manner, but their influence on a - the fluctuating condition in the environment may favour the presence of more than one
population is different. phenotype within the population.
- The different types of selection include: - the selective pressure in the population due to increased competition may push the
1• Directional selection phenotype away from the mean(average) phenotype toward extreme phenotype of
2• Stabilizing (normalizing) selection population.
3• Disruptive (Diversifying) selection - Eventually selection, splits the population into two sub-population.
1• Directional selection - If the gene flow in b/n two sub-population is prevented each population may give rise
- operates in response to gradual change in the environmental condition. to a new species.
- selection operates against the disadvantaged extreme and it favour the other extreme. eg. The evolution of Darwin‘s finches
The meanand range values shift towards the favoured extreme.  A finch with an ‗average‘ length beak may not be able to obtain insects out of
eg. Thicker fur (longer hair) in foxes is an advantage in a cold climate. Thinner fur in cracks in the bark of trees as well as one with a longer beak. It may also not be
foxes is an advantage in a hot climate. If the environment were to change so that it able to crush seeds as well as one with a shorter, more powerful beak. Over time,
became significantly colder, or a group of the foxes were to establish a population in those with the thinner, longer beaks and those with the shorter, more powerful
a new, colder environment, there would be a selection pressure in favour of the foxes beaks will increase in numbers, whilst those with average length beaks will
with long fur and against those with short fur. decrease in numbers.

2• Stabilizing (normalizing) selection

- Occur in all population and selection favours the mean or average population, reducing
or eliminating the extremes from population. Antibiotic resistance: Modern example of natural selection
- Selection often operates against both these extremes to reduce the variability in the - The spread of antibiotic resistance in pathogenic bacteria is simple and elegant example
population. of evolutionary adaptation by natural selection.
eg. The correlation between birth weight and post natal mortality. - bacteria can become resistance to antibiotic through mutations that alter the cellular
 Babies who are very heavy or very light show a higher neonatal mortality rate (die target of antibiotics.
more frequently at, or just after, birth) than those of medium mass. - the acquisition of resistance is a very rare events; for example, resistance mutation
usually occurs in less than 1 in a million bacteria.

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- However, resistant bacteria can continue to grow and reproduce under antibiotic • Allopatric speciation, and
susceptible neoghbours. • Sympatric speciation.
Allopatric speciation
Patterns of Evolution - occurs when a population from an existing species becomes geographically isolated and
- Evolution overtime can follow several different patterns. the isolated population develops into a new species.
- Factors such as environment and predation pressures can have different effect on the - the geographical features that isolate a population are
ways in which species exposed to evolves. • a river changing course
- There are three main types of evolution: • a mountain range being created
 Divergent evolution • a land mass separating two bodies of water
 Convergent evolution Sympatric speciation
 Parallel evolution - occurs when a population from an existing species develops into a new species without
Divergent evolution becoming geographically isolated from other members of the original species.
- It is also called adaptive radiation
- In divergent evolution, a basic type ‗diverges‘ along different lines because of different - As long as two populations are able to interbreed, they are unlikely to evolve into
selection pressures in different environments. distinct species.
- Divergent evolution leads to the development of a new species. - They must somehow go through a period when they are prevented from interbreeding.
eg. • the evolution of the different species of finches on the Galapagos Islands - Both allopatric and sympatric speciation involves isolating mechanism that prevents
• the evolution of the different forms of the pentadactyl limb different population from interbreeding for a period of time.
Convergent evolution - During this period, mutation that arises in one population cannot be passed to the other.
- is the process by which unrelated organisms evolve similar structures, adapted for the - As result of this, and the different selection pressure in different environment, genetic
same function. differences between the two populations increase.
- Occurs when species of different ancestry begin to share analogous traits because of - Eventually, the two populations will become so different that they will be unable to
shared environment or other selection pressures. interbreed or they are ‗reproductively isolated‘.
- For example, whales and fish have similar characteristics since both had to evolve
method of moving through the same medium, water. Polyploidy and its important in plant evolution
- The selection pressures on the populations are the same and so similar adaptations - polyploidy means case where cells of organism have many sets chromosomes per cell.
evolve over time. Haploid- one set of chromosomes in a cell.
- Convergent evolution is also responsible for the wings of a bird, a bat and the extinct Diploid- are two sets of chromosomes in a cell.
Pterodactyl. Triploid- are three sets of chromosomes in a cell.
Parallel evolution Tetraploid- are four sets of chromosomes per cell
- occur when two species evolve independently of each other, maintaining the same level - Polyploidy has been important in plant evolution because it has allowed infertile
of similarity hybrids to become fertile.
- it usually occurs between unrelated species that do not occupy the same or similar - When different species from hybrids, very often the hybrid cannot produce offspring
niches in a given habitats. because all the chromosomes cannot form bivalents(homologous pairs) in meiosis.
- So, they cannot form sex cells and cannot reproduce.
Types of speciation - if the chromosome number were double, then all chromosomes would be able to form
- Natural selection provides a mechanism by which new populations of a species can homologous pairs.
arise. - Meiosis and sex cell formation can take place and the hybrid is now fertile.
- But at what point can these populations be considered as distinct species? - Hybridization and polyploidy have both been important in the evolution of modern
- a species- is a group of similar, interbreeding organisms that produce fertile offspring. wheat from wild grasses.
- If two populations become so different that individuals from different populations Example: modern wheat is produced from wild grasses by hybridization and Polyploidy
cannot interbreed to produce fertile offspring. Aegilops squarrosa (wheat) (2n=14) x Triticum durum (grasses) (2n=28)
- There are a number of ways in which speciation can occur. One set of chromosomes (n=7) ↓ one set of chromosomes (n=14)
- The two main ways are: Infertile hybrid (2n=21)

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  There are not enough chromosomes for them all to form homologous pairs even v. Gametic isolation:
if they were homologous. - If a sperm cannot fertilize an egg cell, then no reproduction will occur.
 But when the hybrid doubled its chromosome number - For example, many marine organisms, such as sea urchin, simply release sperm and egg
 Triticum vulgare (2n=42) new species of wheat (allopolyploid) cells into water.
 Now homologous pairs can form in meiosis and the hybrid is fertile. (It is one - These gametes display unique surface molecules that enable an egg to recognize sperm
form of modern wheat) of the same species.
- In the absence of a ― match‖ fertilization will not occur, and the gene pols will remain
- Polyploidy restore fertility to infertile hybrids, and also results in bigger plants with
separate.
more and bigger seeds.
B. Postzygotic reproductive isolation
Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms - Act after fertilization to prevent the development of viable offspring, or to reduce the
- A new species forms when one portion of a population can no longer breed and produce offspring fertility.
fertile offspring with the rest of the population. i.e the two separate group no longer - postzygotic reproductive isolation mechanisms include the following:
share a gene pool, and each begins to follow its own, independent evolutionary path. i. Hybrid inviability: Zygote or hybrid Mortality
- Two parts of a population can become reproductively isolated in many ways, because - A hybrid embryo may die before reaching reproductive maturity, typically because the
successful reproduction requires so many complex events. genes of its parents are incompatible.
- Any interruption in courtship, fertilization, embryo formation, or offspring development - Since the hybrid offspring cannot reproduce, the gene pools of the parent species remain
can be a reproductive barrier. isolated from one another.
- Reproductive isolating mechanisms fall into two major categories: ii. hybrid infertility( F1- sterility)
A. prezygotic reproductive isolation - some hybrids are infertile.
B. postzygotic reproductive isolation - A familiar example is a mule (2n=63), hybrid offspring of a female horse(2n=64) and a
male donkey(2n= 62).
A. prezygotic reproductive isolation - Mules are infertile because a horse‘s egg has one chromosome than a donkey‘s sperm
- Mechanisms of prezygotic reproductive isolation affect the ability of two species to cell.
combine gametes and form a zygote. - The animal can grow and develop, but meiosis does not occurs in the mule‘s germ cells
- these reproductive barriers include the following because the chromosomes are not homologous.
i. Ecological(or habitat) isolation: - Actually, it‘s a cross between a female horse and a male donkey that produces the mule;
- A difference in habit preference can separate two populations in same geographic area.
the reciprocal cross, between a male horse and a female donkey, produces a hinny,
- For example, one species of ladybird beetle eats one type of plant, while a closely
which has smaller ears and a bushy tail, like a horse. Both mules and hinnies are sterile
related species eats a different plant.
- The two species never occurs on the same host plant, although they interbreed freely in iii. Hybrid breakdown(F2- incompatibility):
the laboratory. - Some species produce hybrid offsprings that are fertile.
- The different habitats preferences are the reproductive barrier that keeps the gene pools - When the hybrid reproduce, however, their offspring may have abnormalities that
of the two species separate. reduce their fitness.
ii. Temporal isolation: - Some F2- hybrid offspring of the mosquitoes species Ades aegypti and Aedes
- Two species that share a habitat will not mate if they are active at different times of day mascarensis, for example, have abnormal genetalia that make mating difficult.
(diurnal or nocturnal) or reach reproductive maturity at different times of year (seasonal). - The strong selective pressure againist hybrid offspring limits gene flow between the two
iii. Behavioral isolation: mosquito species.
- Behavioral (courtship) differences may prevent two closely related species from mating.
- The male of two species of tree frogs, for instance, use distinct calls to attract mates. 4.1.5. Human evolution
- Female frogs choose males of their own species based on unique calls. - There has been a ‗line of evolution‘ for millions of years that has given rise to old world
- Likewise, Sex selection in many birds is based on intricate mating dances. monkeys, new world monkeys, the great apes and the different species of humans that
iv. Mechanical (structural) isolation have lived.
- In many animal species, male and female parts fit together almost like a key in a lock. - Homo sapiens are the latest of several humans to live on the planet.
- Any change in the shape of the gamete-delivering or receiving structures may prevent - Homo sapiens have two features in particular that distinguish us from other primates.
groups from interbreeding. These are: • a very large brain, and
- In plants, males and females do not copulate, but mechanical barrier still apply. • bipedalism – the ability to truly walk on just two legs.

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The evolutionary tree for modern primates - Fossils of many of the species along the early part of the timeline were found in
- a line of evolution that has branched to give the different groups of primates (including Ethiopia. It is indeed the ‗cradle of mankind’.
apes and humans) that exist today and have existed in the not too distant past.
- Primates such as Lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, new world monkeys, old world monkeys, A timeline for fossil of human family
apes and humans are thought to evolve from the ‗common ancestors‘. Lucy and Ardy
- Humans and chimpanzees both evolved from a common ancestor that lived about 6 - Both Lucy and Ardy are important fossils in explaining the evolution of modern human
million years ago. and chimpanzee from a common ancestors.
- The earliest huminids belongs to Ardipethecus, appeared at least 4.4 million yrs ago.
Ardipethecus ramidus (genus-include several species)
(Ardi was 1.2 million years older than Lucy)
(Ardi is the nearest fossil to the ‗common ancestor‘ of humans and
chimpanzees)
Australopithecus anamesis
(4.2 millions yrs old)

Australopithecus afarensis (Lucy) (3.2 millions yrs old)

- discovered by Donald Johanson and Tom Gray in
1974 at Hadar in Ethiopia. (Her skeleton was about 40% completed)

Australopithecus garhi Australopithecus africanus

Early Homo Genus

Homo Habilis -(2 million yrs old - Pleistocene epoch)
- able to use tools. - the cranial capacity was 650-800cm3

Homo- erectus
(1.7 million to 500. 000 yrs old- Pleistocene epoch)
- characterized by large brain size, first use of fire, making stone tools, and
cooperative hunting, rudimentary language.

- Branching points in the evolutionary tree represents ancestors. Homo Neanderthalensis

- At these points it is assumed that ancestral types became divided into at least two (35000-100,000 years ago –Pleistocene epoch )
populations which subsequently evolved along different lines. - cranial capacity was 1300-1600cm3, almost equal to the modern man
- For example, humans and chimpanzees both evolved from a common ancestor that lived - have flat cranium, sloping forehead, thin large orbits, heavy brow ridges, protruding
about 6 million years ago. jaws, strong mandibles and no chin.
- There are other humans before them, what we might call ‗pre-human‘, however, all
humans belongs to the genus Homo. Cromagnon Man (early Homo Sapiens )
- Hominid evolution began in Africa, - has crainial capacity of 1650cm3
- Hominid is a group of species that includes all the species belonging to the genus - lived in families in caves
Homo along with other species such as Ardipethecus ramidus and Australopithecus - were fine hunters and knew the use of fire
afarensis (Lucy).
- Hominin any member of the genus Homo. This includes modern humans (Homo Homo sapiens (modern humans)
sapiens), neanderthals and Homo erectus. (25,000-10,000 years ago)
- Ethiopia has been in the evolution of humans. - first appeared in Africa and have migrate to Asia and Europe.

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 The brain size change during human evolution 2. Caucasoid in Eurasian
- During the course of human evolution, the brain has got bigger. Thee subdivisions exist: Nordic, Mediterranean, Alpine
- The brain has increased in size as a proportion of body mass. 3. Mongoloid in East Asian- split into three groups:
- The brain of Homo sapiens uses 25% of the resting energy requirement, compared with – Eastern Siberians, Eskimos and the Northern American Indians
8% in the great apes. A larger brain allows humans to: – Japanese, Koreans and Chinese
• run faster and in a more upright posture – Indonesians and Malays
• plan in advance to avoid attack However, this classification does not include the Central African pigmies, the
• develop and use tools and weapons Bushmen and the Australoids.

4.1.6 Mutations
- Mutation is a random change in genetic information or material of an organism.
- The changes caused by mutation show significant difference in traits from parental
generation.
- The characteristics that changed by mutation called mutant character.
- The organisms with mutant characters are called mutant organisms.
Types of point mutation
 Based on the causative agent of the mutation
1. Spontaneous mutations; having no known cause to occur.
2. Induced mutations; result from changes caused by environmental chemicals or
radiation.
- A substance or event that increases the rate of mutation in an organism is called a
mutagen.
Physical mutagen; High-energy radiation
- Ionizing radiation such as X-rays and gamma rays damage DNA by dislodging
electrons from atoms .
- Ultraviolet light causes mutation primarily by producing pyrimidine dimers that
disrupt replication and transcription.
Chemical Mutagens;
- The migration of modern humans out of Africa – it all begins near Ethiopia. - Some chemicals such as mustard gas, formaldehyde, and colchicine.
- Different selection pressures in the different environments resulted in the different - Most chemical mutagens are carcinogenic such as tobacco constituents,
human populations evolving along different lines. Benzephrine, arsenic, etc.
- As humans encountered colder climates, body features that gave a survival advantage by  Based on the genetic materials
helping to conserve heat were selected for. These included: 1. Gene (point) mutations; small DNA change that affects a single gene.
• a shorter, squatter body shape; this reduces the surface-area-to-volume ratio and so 2. Chromosomal mutations; a large-scale genetic alteration that affects chromosome
reduces the rate of heat loss by radiation structure or the number of chromosomes.
• an increased layer of adipose tissue under the skin to act as insulation Point (Gene) mutation
• increased hairiness; this reduces heat loss by convection.  when one of the base in DNA sequence of a gene altered, during DNA-replication
Human races randomly occur
- Humans have been evolving into different ‗races‘ for thousands of years. Point mutations are three types
- The classification of these races is difficult and there is some disagreement about their 1. substitution or silent
exact nature. 2. insertion(addition) or non-sense
There are three main races with several subdivisions.
3. deletion or miss-sense
1. Negroid in African

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1. Substitution (Silent); A. Chromosomal mutation I
In substitution mutations, one base is replaced by a different base. 1. Inversion
Original sequence - Chromosome inversion, in which a chromosome segment is inverted — turned 180
Mutated sequence degrees.
The triplet ATT has been changed to ATG (no other triplet is affected). - For an inversion to take place, the chromosome must break in two places.
The original triplet, ATT, codes for the amino acid isoleucine. However, the new triplet, ATG, - Inversions that do not include the centromere, are termed paracentric inversions (para
codes for methionine. meaning ―next to‖), whereas inversions that include the centromere, are termed
As a result, a different protein will be synthesized. pericentric inversions (peri meaning ―around‖).
Substitutions can result in; - no functional change or no different protein. .- Just one inversion on chromosome 16 can cause leukemia.
- produce different protein. 2. Deletion
- a ‗stop‘ triplet, that cause shortening of protein. - Deletion is the loss of a chromosome segment.
Sickle-cell anaemia; is caused by a substitution of just one base in the sixth triplet of the - Also known as partial monosomies, these occur when a piece of chromosome
gene coding for one of the four polypeptides in the haemoglobin molecule alters the accidentally gets removed or deleted.
triplet from GAG to GTG. - There can be cases with one piece deleted at the end(terminal deletion), two deletions-
2. Insertion (addition); is called non-sense mutation. one deleted within the chromosome, and one on the end (interstitial deletion).
-Extra base pair is inserted into a new place in the DNA. - Microdeletion also occur when deletion in the chromosomes are too small to be
3. Deletion mutation is called miss-sense mutation detected.
- In a deletion mutation a base is ‗missed out‘ or omitted during replication. - Deletion can result in a variety of genetic disorders, such as Prader-Willi syndrome
o Both insertion and deletion are more significant mutation than substitution, w/c results from a malfunction of the hypothalamus.
because the sequence after the point of the mutation is altered and a frame has 3. Duplications/Amplification
- When genes are duplicated it results in them being displayed twice on a single
been shifted.
chromosome.
o So both insertion and deletion are called frame shift mutations.
- Duplication of the whole chromosome is more serious.
Eg. THE MAN WAS HO TAND RAN FOR HIS HAT.it makes sense
Eg. Three copies of chromosome 16, known as trisomy 16, leads to babies to have
But if ‗S‘ at the end of WAS is deleted (a deletion mutation),
poor foetal growth, muscular and skeletal anomalies, congenital heart defects and
THE MAN WAH OTA NDR ANF ORH ISH AT
underdeveloped lungs.
Chromosomal mutations 4. Translocations
 Chromosomal mutations occur when there is any change in the arrangement or - A translocation entails the movement of genetic material between non-homologous
structure of the chromosomes. chromosomes or within the same chromosome.
 They occur most often during meiosis at crossing over in prophase 1 - occurs when a segment of a chromosomes breaks off and then relocate to a completely
 Their effects are much bigger than point mutations and usually result in the different chromosome. This creates fusion chromosomes as one type of chromosome
death of a cell and affect the whole organism. fuses with another.
- Reciprocal translocation occurs when pieces of chromosomes ―swap‖ places.
Types of chromosome mutations
- Most chromosomal mutation are either chromosomal mutation I or chromosomal - Robertsonian translocation occurs when a segment of chromosome is attached to
another chromosomes, causing an elongation of it.
mutation II.
Chromosomal mutation I; change the structures of chromosomes - These can be balanced or unbalanced, where the chromosomes is fully functional with
1. Inversion no missing genetic information(balanced) or with important missing pieces and cannot
function as normal(unbalanced).
2. Deletion
- The translocation of chromosome 21 onto the 14 th chromosome cause the common
3. Duplications/Amplication
genetic mutation of down syndrome.
4. Translocations
B. Chromosomal mutation II
Chromosomal mutation II; change the number of chromosomes - Variations in chromosome number can be classified into two basic types:
1. Aneuploidy or Chromosome non-disjunction - changes in the number of individual chromosomes (aneuploidy) and changes in the
2. Polyploidy number of chromosome sets (polyploidy)

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1. Aneuploidy is the addition or loss of individual chromosomes. o Trisomy 13
- Aneuploidy arises from nondisjunction in meiosis or mitosis. o Trisomy 16
- Chromosome non-disjunction is when homologous chromosomes do not separate o Klinefilter‘s syndrome
successfully to opposite poles during meiosis or mitosis, this result in one of the o Turner Syndrome
gametes lacking a chromosome and the other having an extra chromosome. o Triple X syndrome; super semale
Sex-chromosome aneuploids o XYY syndrome; super male
- The most common aneuploidy seen in living humans has to do with the sex 4.1.7 Genetic Drift
chromosomes. - Genetic drift is a mechanism of evolution in which allele frequencies of population
- As is true of all mammals, aneuploidy of the human sex chromosomes is better tolerated change over generations due to chance events.
than aneuploidy of autosomal chromosomes. - It is change due to ―sampling error‖ in selecting the alleles for the next generations from
- Turner syndrome and Klinefelter syndrome both result from aneuploidy of the sex the gene pool of the current generation.
chromosomes. - Each population possesses a gene pool, which includes all the alleles for all the loci
Autosomal aneuploids present in the population.
- Most autosomal aneuploids are spontaneously aborted, with the exception of aneuploids - The term genetic drift is derived from the observation that allele frequencies may ―drift‖
of some of the small autosomes. randomly from generation to generation as a matter of chance.
- Because these chromosomes are small and carry fewer genes, the presence of extra - Allele frequencies can change due to chance alone. This is called genetic drift.
copies is less detrimental. - Drift is a binomial sampling error of a gene pool, i.e alleles that form the next
- For example, the most common autosomal aneuploidy in humans is trisomy 21, also generation‘s gene pool are a sample of the alleles from the current generation.
called Down syndrome. - when sampled alleles from a population, the frequency of alleles differs slightly due to
chance alone.
- Down’s syndrome is characterized by mental retardation, heart defects and stunted
- Alleles can increase or decrease in frequency due to drift.
growth. - The advantage expected change in allele frequency is zero, since increasing or
decreasing in frequency is equally probable.
2. Polyploidy - A small percentage of alleles may continually change the frequency in a single direction
- Most eukaryotic organisms are diploid (2n) for most of their life cycles, possessing two for several generations just as flipping a fair coin may, on occasion, results in a string
sets of chromosomes. of heads or tails.
- Occasionally, whole sets of chromosomes fail to separate in meiosis or mitosis, leading - A very few mutant alleles can drift to fixation in this manner.
to polyploidy, the presence of more than two genomic sets of chromosomes. - The variance in the rate of change of allele frequencies is greater in small populations
- Polyploids include triploids (3n) tetraploids (4n), pentaploids (5n), and even higher than in large populations.
numbers of chromosome sets. Calculating allele frequency
- It usually causes effects like giantism and the reduction of fertility. An allele frequency is the proportion of a specific allele (that is, of A or a) in a particular
population. Each individual, being diploid, has two alleles at each genetic locus. Let a
The advantage of chromosomal mutation population of 1000 individuals, we must account for a total of 2000 alleles. The 490 AA
- In some cases, chromosomal mutation can benefit the organism.
individuals have 980 A alleles, whereas the 420 Aa individuals have 420 A alleles,
- Some mutations can help the organisms to survive better than others.
- Lactose tolerance become an advantage to have over others when numerous populations making a total of 1400 A alleles in the population. The total number of a alleles in the
depended on cows and goats as sources of food. population is 420 + 90 + 90 = 600. Now it is easy to calculate allele frequencies:
- on other hand, chromosomal mutations can be dangerous and even determential to the
Allele Number Allele Frequency
life of living organisms. Some of these can cause numerous problems within animals,
A 1400 0.7
plants and humans.
a 600 0.3
Genetic Disorder Total 2000 1.0
- These are specific disorder or disabilities caused mutations within the organism‘s DNA. Example
- These can be small genetic issues that may barely affect the individual or larger issues - A very small rabbit population, made up of 8 brown individuals (genotype BB or Bb)
that may bring major concerns to the individual. and 2 white (genotype bb )
- A chromosomal disorders list can be seen below: - Initially, the frequencies of B and b are equal.( each 0.5)
o Trisomy 21: Down syndrome - But in 2nd generation, allele frequency of the five lucky rabbits selected by chance,
o Trisomy 18 shows different allele frequency than a whole, a whole frequencies of B and b in

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 population have shifted to 0.7 and 0.3 respectively.
- In series of events by 3rd generation the b allele frequency is completely lost from the
population.
- However, the overall rate of genetic drift is independent of population size. If mutation
rate is constant, large and small populations lose alleles to drift at same time.
- This is because large population will have more alleles in the gene pool, but they will - At Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium, allele frequency is used to calculate genotype
lose them more slowly. frequency.
- Smaller population will have fewer alleles, but these will quickly cycle through - Squaring both sides of p + q = 1 results in (p + q)2 = 1.
- This equation can be expanded to describe the relationship of the allele frequencies to
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium the genotypes in the population.
- At Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium, allele frequency do not change. - When it is expanded, we obtain the frequency of the offspring genotypes:
- The study of population genetics relies on the intimate relationship between allele p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
frequency and genotype frequency.
- Each genotype‘s frequency is number of individuals with that genotype, divided by the
total size of population.
- Suppose, for example, that all 1000 individuals of a hypothetical population have their
genotypes tested, with the following results:
Genotype Number Genotype Frequency
AA 490 0.49 - At Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium, allele frequency remain constant from generation to
Aa 420 0.42 the next; ―evolution does not occur.‖
aa 90 0.09
Total 1000 1.00 Conditions for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
- Each genotype frequency is the proportion of a particular genotype in the population.
- Genotype frequency is usually expressed as a decimal fraction, and the sum of all
genotype frequencies is 1.0.
- For example, the genotype frequency for the Aa genotype is 420 ’1000 = 0.42.

- Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium is the highly unlikely situation in which allele frequencies

and genotype frequencies do not change from generation to next.
- It occurs only in populations the meet the following assumptions:
1. No natural selection.
2. No net mutations.
3. Large population size.
4. Random mating.
5. No migration.
- Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium is named after Mathematician Godfrey H. Hardy and
physician Wilhelm Wienberg.
- They independently developed two simple equations that represent the relationship
between allele frequency and genotype frequency.
- To understand their logic, begin by assuming that a gene has only two possible alleles,
with frequency p and q. Effects of Genetic Drift: A Summary
- The first equation represents the frequencies of both alleles in a population: 1. Genetic drift is significant in small populations.
P + q = 1, the two frequencies add up to 1because the two alleles represent all the 2. Genetic drift can cause allele frequencies to change at random.
possibilities in the population. 3. Genetic drift can lead to a loss of genetic variation within populations.
4. Genetic drift can cause harmful alleles to become fixed.

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The genetic bottleneck effect 4.1.8 Gene flow
- When bottlenecks occur, genetic drift becomes a major evolutionary force. - Gene flow also called migration; is any movement of individuals, and/or the genetic
- The bottlenecks effect is an example of genetic drift that happens when the size of a materials they carry from one population to another.
population is severely reduced. - Gene flow includes lots of different kinds of events, such as pollen being blown to a
- A sudden change in the environment, such as a fire or flood, may drastically reduce the new destination or people moving to new cities or countries.
size of a population. - If gene versions are carried to a population where those gene versions previously did
- A severe drop in population size can cause the bottleneck effect, so named because the not exist, gene flow can be a very important source of genetic variation.
population has passed through a ―bottleneck‖ that reduces its size. - Immigration is when new organisms join a population, changing allele frequencies.
- By chance alone, certain alleles may be overrepresented among the survivors, others - Emigration is when members of a population leave, taking with them their genes.
may be underrepresented, and some may be absent altogether. - These phenomena change the overall balance of the gene pool of the populations.
- Gene transfer is the flow of alleles from one species to another.
- Ongoing genetic drift is likely to have substantial effects on the gene pool until the
- Horizontal gene transfer is especially common in bacteria.
population becomes large enough that chance events have less impact.
- But even if a population that has passed through a bottleneck ultimately recovers in size, 4.1.9 Causes of species extinction
it may have low levels of genetic variation for a long period of time—a legacy of the - Evidences suggests anthropogenic effects(human activities) and natural disaster played
genetic drift that occurred when the population was small. a significant role for the direct and indirect causes of species extinction.
- There are three primary anthropogenic processes that lead to species endangerment
and extinction
- overharvesting;
- the introduction of non-native species, including the spread of disease; and
- habitat destruction.
- Natural disaster that cause species extinction are flooding, drought, earthquake, tropical
cyclone, lightning, tsunami, volcanic activity, wildfire.

4.2 Renowned Anthropologists in Ethiopia

- Dr Yohannes Haile-Selassie Ambaye (born 23 February 1961) is an Ethiopian
paleoanthropologist.
- Dr Berhane Asfaw; discovered two 160 000-year-old human skulls.
The bottleneck effect. Shaking just a few marbles through the narrow neck of a bottle is - Dr Zeresenay Alemseged; discovered a 3.3 million-year-old humanoid child fossil in
analogous to a drastic reduction in the size of a population. By chance, blue marbles are 2006.
overrepresented in the surviving population and gold marbles are absent -
4.3 Renowned Evolutionist in Ethiopia
The founder effect
- Dr. Berhane Asfaw is an Ethiopian paleontologist of Rift Valley Research Service, who
- The founder effect occurs when a few ―founders‖ establish a new colony.
- The founder effect is another extreme example of genetic drift that occurs when a co-discovered human skeletal remains at Herto Bouri, Ethiopia later classified as
small group of individuals breaks off from a larger population to establish a colony. Homo sapiens idaltu, proposed as an early subspecies of anatomically modern humans.
- The new colony is isolated from the original population, and founding individuals may - Dr Yohannes Haile-Selassie; is recognised for his discovery of a 3.8-million-year-old
not represent the full genetic diversity of the original population. fossil cranium of an early human ancestor in Ethiopia.
- i.e. alleles in the founding population may be present at different frequencies than in the - Dr. Zeresenay “Zeray” Alemseged studies the origin and evolution of early human
original population, and some alleles may be missing together. ancestors, and the environmental factors that influence their evolution
- The small size of the new colonies means that they will experience strong genetic drift
for generations.
- The founder effect is similar in concept to the bottleneck effect, but occurs via a
different mechanisms (colonization rather than catastrophe)
- Founder effect eliminates genes from population.

Evolution by Abinet @ Hayo Page 17