DIGESTIVE

SYSTEM
1.) Explain the functions of the Digestive System.
The Digestive System is responsible for many functions that revolve around the processing of
food material entering our body. These processes include:
>1.) Ingestion: the receiving of food and movement of such into the Alimentary Canal and
Gastrointestinal Tract through the mouth
>2.) Mechanical Processing: the physical breakdown of food material through
Mastication (chewing), Peristalsis (rippling movements of digestive tract), and
Segmentation (division and mixing of chyme)
→Mastication: Chewing
→Peristalsis: The involuntary constriction and relaxation of muscles in the intestine
and other tubular canals, creating wave-like movements that push the contents of
the canal forward
→Segmentation: the muscular activity that divides and mixes the chyme by
alternating between backward and forward movement of the Gastrointestinal Tract
Contents
→Chyme: Pulpy Acidic fluid composed of gastric juices and partly digested food
(found in Small Intestine and Stomach)
>3.) Digestion (Chemical Digestion): The Chemical breakdown of food into smaller molecules
>4.) Secretion: the secretion of digestive fluids (Water, Enzymes, Acids, Salts) in our digestive
tract through organs and accessory organs
>5.) Absorption: the absorption of nutrients into our bloodstream and lipids through our Lacteals
mainly occurring in the Small Intestine
>6.) Excretion and Compaction: the dehydration and organization of undigested material and
waste products to be prepared for release through the Anus

2.) Describe the Histological organization of the four (4) layers of the Digestive Tract
The Digestive Tract is divided into 4 distinct layers:
Innermost→1.) Mucosa: responsible for nutrient absorption and secretion of mucus
→Primarily composed of Stratified Squamous Epithelium cells
>2.) Submucosa: holds nerves, blood and lymph vessels
→Separated from Mucosa by the Muscularis Mucosa
>3.) Muscularis Layer: responsible for mechanical digestion (peristalsis and
segmentation)
→Composed of Smooth and Skeletal Muscles
Outermost→4.) Serosa: holds layers in place
→Absent in Esophagus, Pharynx, and Rectum (replaced by Adventitia)
→Adventitia vs Serosa: Adventitia connects organ to surrounding tissue, Serosa
covers the organ in the bodily cavities
3.) Describe the structure and function of the Pharynx
*The Pharynx is responsible for both Digestion and Respiration (intermediary between the two
systems). This is because it is both the pathway for food and air, which are eventually separated
by the Epiglottis. The Pharynx is composed of three (3) regions:
>Nasopharynx
>Oropharynx
>Laryngopharynx
*During the Pharyngeal Phase of Swallowing, the Epiglottis closes over the Glottis, thus,
allowing food to travel into the Esophagus (Esophageal Sphincter opens and allows Bolus to
travel down to the stomach) during the Esophageal Phase
*The Pharynx’s outermost layer is made of Adventitia

4.) Outline the Gross and Microscopic Anatomy of the Esophagus

*The Esophagus is responsible for taking the food from the Pharynx down to the Stomach. It is
a long tube that is only accessed by food when the Epiglottis blocks the Laryngopharynx from
the Trachea.
*The Esophagus Histology is composed of 4 layers:
Innermost→1.) Mucosa: responsible for nutrient absorption and secretion of mucus
→Primarily composed of Stratified Non Keratinized Squamous Epithelium cells
>2.) Submucosa: holds nerves, blood and lymph vessels
→Separated from Mucosa by the Muscularis Mucosa (thin or absent in Esophagus)
>3.) Muscularis Externa: responsible for mechanical digestion (peristalsis and
segmentation)
→Looks like large folds
Outermost→4.) Adventitia: holds layers in place by connecting to surrounding tissue
→Adventitia vs Serosa: Adventitia connects organ to surrounding tissue, Serosa
covers the organ in the bodily cavities

5.) Describe the Gross and Microscopic Anatomy of the Stomach, Small Intestine, and
Large Intestine
*I.) The Stomach is primarily responsible for the temporary storage of ingested food,
where a portion of Mechanical and Chemical Digestion will occur (this is where
Chyme will be produced)
→Chyme: Pulpy Acidic fluid composed of gastric juices and partly digested food
(found in Small Intestine and Stomach)
→The Stomach is composed of:
>Cardia: connection to Esophagus
>Fundus: Topmost part (treat it like the base of the heart)
>Body: Large, middle section
>Pyloric Part: connection to Duodenum of Small Intestine
>Lesser Curvature: smaller curvature proximal to Liver
>Greater Curvature: larger curvature proximal to Spleen
>Lesser Omentum: connects liver to the stomach
>Greater Omentum: covers the Greater Curvature of the Stomach
*I.) The Stomach is composed of Smooth Muscle Layers:
>Longitudinal Muscles
>Circular Muscles
>Oblique Muscles
→The Gastric Folds (Rugae) allows for stomach expansion to accommodate food and
chyme
*I.) The Stomach also shares the same 4 layers that the Digestive Tract is primarily
composed of. However:
>It lacks the Villi and Microvilli that are present in the Small Intestine(replaced by
Gastric Pits and Gastric Glands)
→ These Gastric Glands continuously produce mucus that prevents the stomach
from digesting itself
>The Mucosa is primarily composed of Simple Columnar Epithelium rather than
Simple Squamous Epithelium
II.) The Small Intestine is the longest section of our Digestive Tube and is composed of
three (3) regions:
>1.) Duodenum: where the small intestine receives Digestive secretions from
Pancreas, Liver, and Gallbladder
→Holds large amounts of mucus to protect from ACIDIC digestive secretions
>2.) Jejunum: where most of the Chemical Digestion and Absorption occurs
→ Where the MOST nutrient absorption occurs
>3.) Ileum: connection to the Cecum (first part of the Large Intestine)
→ Further absorption of nutrients and water
→ Features Peyer’s Patches

>The Small Intestine features all the layers of the Digestive Tract (consider it the
baseline)
→ The primary feature of the Small Intestine is the presence of Circular Folds, Villi and
Microvilli, and Lamina Propria(in Mucosa) (for larger surface area in absorbing the most
nutrients)
*III.) The Large Intestine is one of the final sections of the Digestive Tract that will
eventually lead to the Anus. It features 3 major regions:
>1.) Cecum(Beginning): absorption of water and salts
>2.) Colon: pathway goes as:
→Small Intestine→Vermiform Appendix→Ascending Colon→Transverse
Colon→Descending Colon→Sigmoid Colon
>3.) Rectum: where Excretion will be prepared and performed
→Internal Anal Sphincter (Smooth Muscle=Involuntary Control)
→External Anal Sphincter (Skeletal Muscle=Voluntary Control, CLENCH)

>The Large Intestine is features all the layers of the Digestive Tract however:
→The Mucosa LACKS villi (less absorption occurs in the Large Intestine)
→The walls are thinner
→ Lamina Propria and Submucosa contain large Lymphoid Nodules
6.) How are all of the parts of the Digestive Tract similar and different from one another?
*The Digestive Tract usually features the 4 main layers (Mucosa, Submucosa,
Muscular Layer, an outside layer between Serosa(in digestive tubes) and Adventitia
(Esophagus, Pharynx, and Rectum)
*The Small Intestine is unique in that it has Villi and Microvilli (for maximum nutrient
absorption)
*The Stomach has excess mucus and is primarily composed of Simple Columnar
Epithelium, unlike most of the tract which is composed of Simple Squamous
Epithelium
→The Esophagus features Simple Non Keratinized Simple Squamous Epithelium
*The Stomach has Gastric Folds/Rugae whereas the Small Intestine has Circular
Folds and the Large Intestine has Haustra

7.) Describe how movement occurs throughout the digestive tract

*Movement in the Digestive Tract occurs through Peristalsis, which is the involuntary contraction
and relaxation of muscles in the digestive tract. The Circular muscles squeeze and expand in a
synchronized way to push food forward while the longitudinal muscles span the tract walls

8.) Describe the anatomy of the Liver, Gallbladder, and Pancreas

*I.) The Liver is primarily responsible for filtering the blood in our body and the
breakdown of toxic substances. It is also where Bile is produced (by hepatocytes)
and stored in the Gallbladder
→Bile: fluid produced by the Liver that Emulsifies fat in the Small Intestine
→The Liver is composed of:
>Right Lobe: larger anterior lobe
>Left Lobe: smaller anterior lobe
>Caudate Lobe: between left and right lobe
>Quadrate Lobe: Inferior Surface of the Right Lobe
>Falciform Ligament: between left and right ligament (bottom becomes Round Ligament)
>Coronary Ligament: ligament that wraps around
*I.) The Liver is composed of 100,000 liver lobules, which are hexagon-shaped
microscopic units that are each separated by Interlobular Septa
→They are mainly composed of Hepatocytes, Portal Triads (Interlobular Bile Duct,
Artery, Vein), Central Veins, Bile Canaliculi
II.) The Gall Bladder is the small structure connected to the posterior side of the Liver.
It is mainly responsible for the storage of Bile and the maintenance of its
concentration levels.
→Higher Levels of Fat in food will result to higher levels of Cholecystokinin (CCK)
which leads to larger releases of Bile to emulsify said fat.
>It is composed of 3 regions
>1.) Fundus: superior and “head” of the Gall Bladder
>2.) Body: large round section
>3.) Neck: thin section that will connect to the Cystic Duct
>The Gall Bladder features all the layers of the Digestive Tract

*III.) The Pancreas is responsible for the secretion of enzymes that aid in the Chemical
Digestion of food (mainly protein release)
>The Pancreas is mainly composed of:
>1.) Pancreatic Duct: releases secretions to the Duodenum
>The Pancreas is uniquely defined by the presence of Pancreatic Islets and
Pancreatic Acini
→The Pancreas is mainly composed of Pancreatic Acini, which produce digestive
enzymes
→The Pancreatic Islets are responsible for hormone production
9.) How do the Liver, Gallbladder, and Pancreas contribute to the function of the
Digestive System?
The Liver, Gallbladder, and Pancreas all create digestive secretions that aid in the digestion of
chyme and bolus in the Small Intestine. The Liver is responsible for producing the Bile that is
necessary for the emulsification of fats entering our digestive tract while the Gallbladder is
responsible for the storage and release of Bile. The Pancreas on the other hand, is responsible
for the release of Enzymes that aid in the breakdown of food products (Proteins that breakdown
food)
10.) From the Oral Cavity to the Anus, what six (6) sphincters control movement of
materials through the Digestive Tract?
>1.) Upper Esophageal Sphincter
>2.) Lower Esophageal Sphincter
>3.) Pyloric Sphincter
>4.) Ileocecal Valve
>5.) Internal Anal Sphincter
>6.) External Anal Sphincter
11.) Describe the changes in the Digestive Tract that occur with Aging
As we age, our Digestive Tract weakens as our Smooth muscles weaken (making Peristalsis
less efficient). The risk of Cancer also increases in our Colon, Stomach, and Pharynx.
URINARY
SYSTEM
1.) Describe the Various Functions of the Urinary System
The Urinary System is primarily responsible for the filtration of blood and the release of bodily
waste(released through Urethra in the form of Urine). In addition to filtering blood, the Urinary
System is also responsible for regulating plasma ion concentrations, blood volume, pressure,
pH(Acidity/Alkalinity), and Red Blood Cell count. Lastly, the Urinary System also aids in the
production of Vitamin D and assists the Liver in performing its metabolic functions
2.) Outline the Gross and Histological Anatomy of the Kidney
*The Kidney is composed of 3 layers:
>1.) Fibrous Capsule: holds structure and protects kidney from outside influences
>2.) Perinephric Fat: surrounds capsule
>3.) Renal Fascia: separates fat layers
*The Kidney also features:
>1.) Cortex: Outer layer where Cortical Nephrons would lie
>2.) Medulla: Inner layer where Juxtamedullary Nephrons would lie
>3.) Renal Pyramids: structures surrounded by the Interlobar Arteries/Veins
>4.) Renal Columns: structures that separate each Renal Pyramid
>5.) Renal Papillae: tips of Renal Pyramids that connect to the Minor Calyx
>6.) Minor Calyx: small branches connecting Renal Pyramids to Major Calyxes
>7.) Major Calyx: larger branches connecting Minor Calyxes to Renal Pelvis
>8.) Renal Pelvis: large intersection that connects to the Ureters

*The Kidney is primarily made of Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

3.) How are the Proximate and Distal Convoluted Tubules different from each other?
*The Proximal Convoluted Tubules are connected to the Descending Limb of Nephrons and are primarily
responsible for the general reabsorption of filtrate (Water, Salts, Glucose, Amino Acids). On the other
hand, the Distal Convoluted Tubules is connected to the Ascending Limb of Nephrons and is primarily
responsible for the selective reabsorption of ions in maintaining body pH and electrolyte levels
(regulation)
4.) Explain the interaction of the Urinary System and the Circulatory System
*Blood from the Circulatory System enters the Urinary System through the Renal Arteries
leading to our Kidneys. Through the Kidneys, our blood is filtered clean of toxins and nutrients
are absorbed into the body. The waste products resulting from our the toxins are released
through our Urethra while clean and deoxygenated blood are returned to the body through the
Renal Veins (which will take deoxygenated blood back to the heart through the Inferior Vena
Cava)

5.) Outline the Gross and Histological Anatomy of the Ureter, Bladder, and Urethra. How
are they Similar and Different?
*I.) The Ureter is primarily responsible for the transport of Urine from the Kidney
(Hilum) to the Urinary Bladder
→Propelled by Peristalsis and Gravity
→Ureteral Orifices enter the bladder in the Trigone Area
>The Ureters are long tubes connected to the Kidneys Renal Pelvis and the
Bladder’s Trigone Area
*The Ureter features 3 layers:
>1.) Inner Mucosa that is lined with Transitional Epithelium (allows for stretching) (looks like a
bunch of frog eggs
>2.) Middle Muscular Layer
>3.) Adventitia that is continuous with Fibrous Capsule and Parietal Peritoneum

II.) The Bladder is responsible for the temporary storage of Urine and is mainly
composed of the Detrusor Muscle
→The Bladder is mainly composed of:
>1.)Trigone Area: Triangle section connected to the Internal Urethral Sphincter
>2.) Rugae: folds created by the stretchy nature of the Bladder
>3.) Detrusor Muscles: contracts to expel Urine during Urination
>4.) Internal Urethral Sphincter: Smooth muscles; involuntary control
→The Bladder is composed of 4 layers:
>1.) Inner Mucosa that is lined with Transitional Epithelium (allows for stretching) (looks like a
bunch of frog eggs
>2.) Lamina Propria
>3.) Muscular Layer
>4.) Serosa
*III.) The Urethra is the connection between the Urinary Bladder and our External
Urethral Sphincter and is responsible for Micturition (Urination)
>As the Urinary Bladder fills, we can prevent the relaxation of the External Urethral
Sphincter
→ In females, the Urethra is composed of the External Urethral Orifice
→ In males, the Urethra is composed of three sections:
>1.) Prostatic Urethra: tube inside Prostate connected to Ejaculatory Duct
>2.) Membranous Urethra: small section connected to External Urethral Sphincter
>3.) Spongy Urethra: tube following the Corpus Spongiosum of the Penis

>The Urethra features 3 layers:

→ Inner Mucosa
→ Muscular Layer
→ Adventitia
6.) Give examples of the effects of Aging on the Urinary System.
*Aging diminishes the efficiency of our Urinary System in many ways:
>1.) Number of functional nephrons decrease (less efficient filtration)
>2.) Frequent Urination
>3.) Sphincters lose muscle tone (Decreased ability to control Micturition/Urination)
REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
1.) What are the general functions of the male and female reproductive systems?
*In general, the Reproductive System is responsible for the creation, storage, and
transportation of gametes (sex cells; sperm cells/spermatocytes and egg
cells/oocytes)
→It is also responsible for the joining of both types of gametes
*The Male Reproductive System is primarily responsible for the production of sperm
and its transfer into the Female Reproductive Tract
*The Female Reproductive System is primarily responsible for the production of
gametes and reproductive hormones. It is also responsible for supporting the
developing fetus and delivering offspring
2.) Compare and contrast the general organization of the male and female reproductive
systems
*The MALE Reproductive System is composed of the:
>1.)Testes
>2.)Penis
>3.)Epididymis
>4.)Vas Deferens
>5.)Ejaculatory Ducts
>6.)Urethra
*The FEMALE Reproductive System is composed of the:
>1.)Ovaries
>2.)Fallopian Tubes
>3.)Uterus
>4.)Cervix
>5.)Vagina
>6.)Vulva
3.) Identify and describe Location, Gross Anatomy, and Histology of the major structures
of the Male Reproductive System.
*The MALE Reproductive System is composed of the:
>1.)Testes:
→
>2.)Penis

>3.)Epididymis: connected to the Testis

>4.)Vas Deferens: Connects Epididymis and Testis to the Urethra
>5.)Ejaculatory Ducts: Connects Seminal Glands and Vas Deferens
>6.)Urethra: connects the bladder and testes to the External Urethral Orifice
4.) Describe the functions of the Epididymis
*The Epididymis functions as the “Quality Control” of Sperm production in the Male
Reproductive System. The Epididymis stores spermatozoa and recycles damaged
spermatozoa. It also monitors the composition/quality of fluids produced in the Seminiferous
Tubules

5.) What are the Accessory glands of the Male Reproductive System and what function
does each have?
*The Accessory Glands of the Male Reproductive System includes:
>1.) Seminal Glands: production of the majority of Semen volume and allow Spermatozoa to be
motile
>2.) Prostate: handles the rest of the Semen Volume and produces enzymes that allow
Spermatozoa to survive in the Vagina’s environment. It also has antibiotic properties that
prevent UTIs in males
>3.) Bulbo-Urethral Glands (Cowper’s Glands): coats Spermatozoa in thick coating that allows it
to survive the journey through the Urethra and the Vaginal Canals

6.) Identify and describe the Location, Gross Anatomy, and Histology of the major
structures of the Female Reproductive System.
*The FEMALE Reproductive System is composed of the:
>1.)Ovaries
>2.)Fallopian Tubes
>3.)Uterus
>4.)Cervix
>5.)Vagina
>6.)Vulva
7.) What is the difference between Oogenesis, the Ovarian Cycle, and the Uterine Cycle?
How do they impact one another?
*Oogenesis is the production of Oocytes (egg cells).
*Ovarian Cycle is the maturation of Ovarian Follicles to accommodate developing Oocytes
*Uterine Cycle is the preparation of the Uterus for the implantation of fertilized Embryo
*All of these processes are affected by and impact hormone levels within the body. Whenever
there is a rise of Estrogen, Luteinizing Hormones and Follicle Stimulating Hormones encourage
the follicles to begin the Ovarian Cycle and the development of Oocytes that were produced by
Oogenesis. The maturation of the Oocytes through the Ovarian Cycle initiates the Uterine Cycle
and the end of the Uterine Cycle drops the hormones that impact the other 2 processes.

8.) What are the three (3) phases of the Uterine Cycle? What is the function of each?
*The three (3) phases of the Uterine Cycle include:
>1.) Menstrual Phase: breakdown of Uterine layer and decrease in Estrogens
→The cleaning out of the House
>2.) Proliferative Phase: preparation of the body for implantation of fertilized egg
→ The re-installation of house necessities
>3.) Secretory Phase: addition of functional layer for fertilized egg to implant
→ Addition of furniture for residents to rest in
9.) Describe the functions of the Vagina
*The Vagina serves as the passageway for Menstrual excretions, gamete fertilization, and fetus
delivery.

10.) Compare the pathway of the gametes of each sex as they travel through the
reproductive tracts
*In the Male Reproductive System:
→ The Sperm is made in the Seminiferous Tubules of the Testis, then are evaluated
in the Epididymis and sent through the Vas Deferens to arrive at the Accessory
Glands. The Accessory Glands mature the spermatozoa and prepare it for the travel
down the penis’s Urethra into the Vaginal Canal of the receiving female to fertilize
the Oocyte/ Egg Cell that will be waiting at the Uterine/Fallopian Tubes
*In the Female Reproductive System:
→ The Egg Cell/Oocyte is developed in the Ovaries and travels through the Fimbriae
of the Uterine Tube and enters the Infundibulum. After that, the Oocyte travels
down the Ampulla and Isthmus of the Fallopian Tube to meet the incoming sperm
and become fertilized

11.) Compare and Contrast the age-related changes in the male and female reproductive
systems.
*As females age, they encounter Menopause, where the size of the Uterus and Breasts
decrease alongside the thickness of the vaginal walls. In addition to this, women experience hot
flashes and are more prone to Osteoporosis. These age changes also occur at an earlier point
in life (45-55 years old) as opposed to males.
*As males age, they encounter Male Climacteric, where their testosterone levels and sexual
activity decrease.