Atomic Structure
Atomic Theories
Dalton's Atomic Theory
John Dalton, an English chemist, proposed the atomic theory in the early 19th
century to explain the nature of matter and the behavior of chemical reactions.
His theory laid the foundation for modern chemistry.
Key Postulates of Dalton's Atomic Theory:
1. Indivisibility of Atoms:
○ Matter is composed of extremely small particles called atoms,
which are indivisible and indestructible in chemical reactions.
2. Uniformity of Atoms:
○ All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and properties,
but they differ from atoms of other elements.
3. Combination of Atoms:
○ Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine
in simple whole-number ratios.
4. Rearrangement in Reactions:
○ Chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms. Atoms are
neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions.
Impact and Limitations:
● Impact:
○ Dalton’s theory provided a scientific explanation for the Law of
Conservation of Mass and the Law of Definite Proportions.
○ It established the concept that chemical compounds are composed
of atoms in specific ratios.
● Limitations:
○ Dalton's theory could not explain the existence of isotopes (atoms
of the same element with different masses).
○ The indivisibility of atoms was later disproven by the discovery of
subatomic particles.
Discharge Tube Experiments
Discharge tube experiments, conducted in the late 19th century, involved
passing electric current through gases at low pressure, leading to the discovery
of the electron and insights into atomic structure.
Key Concepts and Discoveries:
1. Cathode Rays:
○ Discharge tubes, also known as cathode ray tubes, were used to
study the properties of cathode rays (streams of electrons).
○ When a high voltage is applied across electrodes in a vacuum tube,
cathode rays travel from the negative electrode (cathode) to the
positive electrode (anode).
2. Properties of Cathode Rays:
○ Cathode rays travel in straight lines.
○ They cause fluorescence when they strike certain materials.
○ They are deflected by electric and magnetic fields, indicating that
they are negatively charged particles.
○ They have a very small mass compared to atoms.
J.J. Thomson's Experiment (1897):
● Setup:
○ Thomson used a discharge tube with a fluorescent screen to
observe the behavior of cathode rays.
○ He applied both electric and magnetic fields to the rays and
measured their deflection.
○
● Findings:
○ Thomson concluded that cathode rays are composed of negatively
charged particles, later named electrons.
○ He calculated the charge-to-mass ratio (e/m) of the electron,
showing that electrons are much smaller than atoms.
○ This discovery led to the realization that atoms are divisible and
contain subatomic particles.
J.J. Thomson’s Model of the Atom
J.J. Thomson proposed the "plum pudding" model of the atom in 1904, following
his discovery of the electron. This model was an early attempt to describe the
internal structure of atoms.
Key Features of the Plum Pudding Model:
1. Positive Sphere:
○ The atom is envisioned as a positively charged sphere.
2. Embedded Electrons:
○ Electrons (negative charges) are embedded within this positively
charged sphere, similar to plums in a pudding or raisins in a bread.
3. Neutral Atom:
○ The overall charge of the atom is neutral because the positive
charge of the sphere balances the negative charge of the electrons.
Significance and Limitations:
● Significance:
○ Thomson's model introduced the concept of internal structure
within the atom, challenging Dalton's idea of indivisible atoms.
○ It provided a framework for understanding the presence of
electrons within atoms.
● Limitations:
○ The model could not explain certain experimental results, such as
the scattering of alpha particles observed in Rutherford's gold foil
experiment.
○ It lacked a detailed explanation of how electrons are distributed
within the atom.
Rutherford's Gold Foil Experiment (1911)
● Rutherford's experiment showed that most alpha particles passed through
gold foil, but some were deflected at large angles.
● This led to the nuclear model of the atom, where a dense, positively
charged nucleus is surrounded by electrons.
Key Features:
● Conducted by Ernest Rutherford.
● Alpha particles were directed at a thin sheet of gold foil.
● Most alpha particles passed through the foil, but some were deflected at
large angles, and a few even bounced back.
Significance and Limitations:
Significance:
● Led to the discovery of the atomic nucleus.
● Proposed that the atom is mostly empty space with a small, dense,
positively charged nucleus.
● Overturned the plum pudding model of the atom, which suggested that
atoms were composed of evenly distributed positive charge embedded
with electrons.
Limitations:
● Could not explain the stability of the atom or the discrete lines in atomic
spectra.
● Did not provide details on how electrons are distributed around the
nucleus.
Bohr's Model (1913)
Key Features:
● Proposed by Niels Bohr.
● Electrons orbit the nucleus in specific, quantized orbits without radiating
energy.
● Electrons can jump from one orbit to another by absorbing or emitting a
photon with energy equal to the difference between the orbits.
● Introduced the concept of energy levels.
Significance and Limitations:
Significance:
● Successfully explained the stability of atoms and the emission spectra of
hydrogen.
● Introduced the idea of quantized energy levels, laying the groundwork for
quantum mechanics.
● Explained the Rydberg formula for the spectral emission lines of atomic
hydrogen.
Limitations:
● Applicable primarily to hydrogen-like (single-electron) atoms and could
not accurately predict spectra of more complex atoms.
● Did not account for the finer details of atomic spectra (fine structure) or
the Zeeman effect (splitting of spectral lines in a magnetic field).
● Later superseded by quantum mechanics, which provides a more
comprehensive understanding of atomic and subatomic particles.
Summary of Models in Tabular Form
Model Key Postulates Characteristics Observations and
Interpretations
Dalton's - Atoms are indivisible - First scientific - Explained
Model and indestructible. atomic theory. conservation of
(1803) - Atoms of a given - Explained laws mass, definite
element are identical. of chemical proportions, and
- Compounds are combination. multiple proportions.
formed by combining
atoms in fixed ratios.
- Chemical reactions
involve rearrangement
of atoms.
Thomson's - Atoms are composed - Electrons - Based on cathode
Model of a positively charged embedded in a ray experiments.
(1904) sphere with embedded positive sphere. - Explained atomic
electrons. - Neutral overall neutrality.
- Overall charge of the charge.
atom is neutral.
Rutherford' - Atoms consist of a - Dense nucleus. - Gold foil
s Model dense, positively - Electrons orbit experiment.
(1911) charged nucleus. nucleus. - Concluded
- Electrons orbit the - Mostly empty existence of a small,
nucleus. space. dense nucleus.
- Most of the atom's
volume is empty
space.
Bohr's - Electrons orbit in - Quantized - Explained
Model fixed energy levels. energy levels. hydrogen's line
(1913) - Energy levels are - Stable electron spectra.
quantized. orbits. - Quantized electron
- Electrons move energy levels.
between levels by
absorbing/emitting
energy.
