The Study of Geography

Author(s): Franz Boas

Source: Science , Feb. 11, 1887, Vol. 9, No. 210 (Feb. 11, 1887), pp. 137-141
Published by: American Association for the Advancement of Science

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 S C I E N C E . - S U P P L E MN T.

FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 11, 1887. but that it is the aim of science to deduce laws
from phenomena; and the wider their scope,
the more valuable they are considered. The
THE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHY.
descriptive sciences were deemed inferior in value
IT is a remarkable fact, that, in the recent to researches which had hitherto been outside their
literature of geography, researches on the method range. Instead of systematical botany and zoology,
and limits of that science occupy a prominent biology became the favorite study; theoretical
place. Almost every distinguished geographer philosophy was supplanted by experimental psy-
has felt the necessity of expressing his views on chology; and, by the same process, geography
its aim and scope, and of defending it from being was disintegrated into geology, meteorology, etc.
disintegrated and swallowed up by geology, bot- Ever since, these sciences have been rapidly de-
any, history, and other sciences treating on veloped, but geography itself has for a long time
sub-
jects similar to or identical with those of geogra- been almost overshadowed by its growing chil-
phy. If the representatives of a science as young dren. However, we do not think they can fill its
as geography spend a great part of their time in place, and wish to prove that its neglect cannot
discussions of this kind, though the material for be remedied by the attentive cultivation of those
investigations is still unlimited ; if they feel com- sciences separately.
pelled to defend their field of research against Those accustomed to value a study according to
assaults of their fellow-workers and outsiders, - the scope of the laws found by means of it are not
the reason for this fact must be looked for in a content with researches on phenomena such as are
deep discrepancy between their fundamental views the object of geography. They consider them
of science and those of their adversaries.from a physical stand-point, and find them to be
physical, meteorological, or ethnological; and,
Formerly, when the greater part of the earth's
surface was undiscovered, and European vessels after having explained them by means of physi-
sailed only over their well-known routes from cal, physiological, or psychological laws, have
continent to continent, careful not to stray from finished their work. It is very instructive to con-
the old path and fearing the dangers of unknown sider thoroughly their definition of geography.
regions, the mere thought of these vast territories They declare that the domain of this science com-
which had never been sighted by a European prises neither magnetical and meteorological nor
could fill the mind of geographers with ardent geological phenomena and processes. They gen-
longing for extended knowledge; with the desire erously grant it the study of the distribution of
of unveiling the secrets of regions enlivened by animals and plants, as far as physiologists and
imagination with figures of unknown animals evolutionists will permit; but all agree that an-
and peoples. But the more completely the out- thropo-geography - the life of man as far as it
lines of continents and islands became known, depends on the country he lives in -is the true
the stronger grew the desire to understand the domain of geography.
phenomena of the newly discovered regions by It is not difficult to discover the principle on
comparing them with those of one's own country. which this segregation is founded. Physical phe-
Instead of merely extending their study over new nomena are subject to physical laws which are
areas, scientists began to be absorbed in examin- known, or which will assuredly be found by the
ing the phenomena more intently, and comparing methods used in discovering those that are known.
them with the results of observations already Physiological, and, to a still higher degree, psy-
made. Thus Humboldt's admirable works and chological, laws are not so well known as to allow
Karl Ritter's comparative geography arose out of their being treated in the same way as physical
the rapidly extending knowledge of the earth. laws. The conditions of the phenomena are gen-
The fact that the rapid disclosure of the most erally so complicated, that, even if the most gen-
remote parts of the globe coincided with the not eral laws were known, a strict conclusion cannot
less rapid development of physical sciences has easily be drawn. But were those auxiliary sciences
had great influence upon the development of just as far developed as physics, no doubt the
geography; for while the circle of phenomena same scientists who at the present time concede
became wider every day, the idea became preva- them willingly to geography would not hesitate
to claim them for physiology and psychology. It
lent that a single phenomenon is not of great avail,

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 138 SCIE NYE. [VOL. IX., No. 210
y-

(-I

is evident that there is no middle way: geogra- found the law of gravitation, which law was the
phy must either be maintained in its full extent or
preliminary condition of Kant's work.
it must be given up altogether. Here is another example: according to Buckle's
As soon as we agree that the purpose of every
conception, historical facts must be considered
science is accomplished when the laws which as being caused by physiological and psychological
govern its phenomena are discovered, we must laws. Accordingly, he does not describe men and
admit that the subject of geography is distributed
their actions as arising from their own character
among a great number of sciences; if, however, and the events influencing their life, but calls our
we would maintain its independence, we must attention to the laws governing the history of
prove that there exists another object for science mankind. The object of the historians is a dif-
besides the deduction of laws from phenomena. ferent one. They are absorbed in the study of the
And it is our opinion that there is another ob- facts, and dwell admiringly on the character of
ject, - the thorough understanding of phenomena. their heroes. They take the most lively interest in
Thus we find that the contest between geographers the persons and nations they treat of, but are un-
and their adversaries is identical with the old con- willing to consider them as subject to stringent
troversy between historical and physical methods. laws.
One party claims that the ideal aim of science We believe that the physical conception is no-
ought to be the discovery of general laws; the where else expressed as clearly as in Comte's sys-
other maintains that it is the investigation of phe-tem of sciences. Setting aside astronomy, which
nomena themselves. has been placed rather arbitrarily between mathe-
It is easily understood, therefore, why in maticsgeog- and physics, all his sciences have the one
raphy the contest between these views is particu- aim, to deduce la ws from phenomena. The single
larly lively. Here naturalists and historians meet phenomenon itself is insignificant: it is only val-
in a common field of work. A great number of uable because it is an emanation of a law, and
modern geographers have been educated as his- serves to find new laws or to corroborate old ones.
torians, and they must try to come to an agree- To this system of sciences Humboldt's ' Cosmos'
ment with the naturalists, who, in turn, must is opposed in its principle. Cosmography, as we
learn to accommodate their views to those of the may call this science, considers every phenomenon
historians. It is evident that an answer to this as worthy of being studied for its own sake. Its
fundamental question on the value of historical mere existence entitles it to a full share of our
and physical science can only be found by a me- attention; and the knowledge of its existence and
thodical investigation of their relation to each evolution in space and time fully satisfies the stu-
other. dent, without regard to the laws which it corrob-
All agree that the establishment of facts is the orates or which may be deduced from it.
foundation and starting-point of science. The Physicists will acknowledge that the study of
physicist compares a series of similar facts, from the history of many phenomena is a work of sci-
which he isolates the general phenomenon which entific value. Nobody doubts the importance of
is common to all of them. Henceforth the single Kant's researches on the solar system; nobody
facts become less important to him, as he lays derogates from that of investigations upon the
stress on the general law alone. On the other evolution of organisms. However, there is an-
hand, the facts are the object which is of impor- other class of phenomena the study of which is
tance and interest to the historian. An example not considered of equal value, and among them
will explain our meaning more satisfactorily thanare the geographical ones. In considering the
a theoretical discussion. geography of a country, it seems that the geolo-
When Newton studied the motion of the planets, gical, meteorological, and anthropo-geographical
the distribution of those celestial bodies in spacephenomena form an incidental conglomerate, hav-
and time were the means, not the object, of his ing no natural tie or relation to one another,
researches. His problem was the action of two while, for instance, the evolutionist's subject of
bodies upon each other, and thus he found the study forms a natural unity. We may be allowed
law of gravitation. On the other hand, Kant and to say that the naturalist demands an objective
Laplace, in studying the solar system, asked the connection between the phenomena he studies,
question, Why is every one of the bodies consti- which the geographical phenomena seem to lack.
tuting the solar system in the place it occupies? Their connection seems to be subjective, origi-
They took the law as granted, and applied it to nating in the mind of the observer.
the phenomena from which it had been deduced, Accordingly there are two principal questions
in order to study the history of the solar system. which must be answered: first, the one referring
Newton's work was at an end as soon as he had to the opposition between physicists and cosmog-

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FEBRUARY 11, 1887.1 SCIENCE. 139

raphers, i.e., Is the study of phenomena for their it seems to be the simplest and therefore the
own sake equal in value to the deduction of laws? most probable. But this construction of a prob-
second, Is the study of a series of phenomena able hypothesis as to the origin of these phenom-
having a merely subjective connection equal in ena gives a satisfaction to our aesthetical desire
value to researches on the history of those form- to bring the confusion of forms and species into a
ing an objective unity? system. But it should be borne in mind that a
We shall first treat on the difference of opinion theory must be true, and that its truth is the
between physicists and cosmographers. The two standard by which its value is measured. There-
parties are strongly opposed to each other ; and it fore naturalists are always engaged in examining
is a hard task to value justly the arguments of op- the truth of their theories by applying them to new
ponents whose method of thinking and way of phenomena, and in these researches those phe-
feeling are entirely opposed to one's own. An nomena are the most important which seem to
unbiassed judgment cannot be formed without be opposed to the theories. As soon as the que
severe mental struggles which destroy convictions tion whether the theory is applicable to the class
that were considered immovable, and had become of phenomena is solved, the whole class is of
dear to us. But those struggles lead to the little further interest to the investigator.
grander conviction that both parties, though in a While physical science arises from the logical
permanent state of conflict, aspire to the same and aesthetical demands of the human mind, cos-
end, - to find the eternal truth. mography has its source in the personal feeling of
The origin of every science we find in two dif- man towards the world, towards the phenomena
ferent desires of the human mind, - its aesthetic surrounding him. We may call this an ' affective'
wants, and the feelings, which are the sources of impulse, in contrast to the aesthetic impulse.
the two branches of science. It was an early de- Goethe has expressed this idea with admirable
sire of developing mankind to arrange systemati- clearness: "It seems to me that every phenome
cally the phenomena seen by the observer in over- non, every fact, itself is the really interesting ob-
whelming number, and thus to put the confused ject. Whoever explains it, or connects it with
impressions in order. This desire must be con- other events, usually only amuses himself or makes
sidered an emanation of the aesthetical disposition, sport of us, as, for instance, the naturalist or his-
which is offended by confusion and want of clear- torian. But a single action or event is interest-
ness. When occupied in satisfying this desire, ing, not because it is explainable, but because it is
the regularity of the processes and phenomena true" (Unterhaltungen deutscherAusgewanderten).
would attain a far greater importance than the The mere occurrence of an event claims the
single phenomenon, which is only considered im- full attention of our mind, because we are affected
portant as being a specimen of the class to which by it, and it is studied without any regard to its
it belongs. The clearer all the phenomena are place in a system. This continuous impulse is the
arranged, the better will the aesthetic desire be important counterbalance against the one-sided-
satisfied, and, for that reason, the most general ness of a science arisen from merely aesthetic im-
laws and ideas are considered the most valuable pulses. As the truth of every phenomenon causes
results of science. us to study it, a true history of its evolution alone
From this point of view, the philosophical ideas can satisfy the investigator's mind, and it is for
of Epicurus are very interesting, as they may be this reason that Epicurus's probable or possible ex-
considered the extreme opinion to which this planation is not at all satisfactory for science, but
aesthetical desire can lead if the pleasure one en- that every approach to truth is considered a p
joys in arranging phenomena in a clear system is ress by far superior to the most elaborate system
the only incentive. He considered any explanation which may give proof of a subtile mind and
of a phenomenon sufficient, provided it be natural. scrupulous thought, but claims to be only one
It does not matter, he taught, if an hypothesis is among many possible systems.
true, but all probable explanations are of the Naturalists will not deny the importance of
same value, and the choice between them is quite every phenomenon, but do not consider
insignificant. We believe this opinion is called of study for its own sake. It is only a proof or a
to a new life by a number of modern scientists, refutation of their laws, systems, and hypotheses
i.e., by those who try to construct the evolution of (as they are deduced from true phenomena), which
organisms in details which, at the present time at they feel obliged to bring as near the truth as pos-
least, can neither be proved nor refuted. If, for sible. The deductions, however, are their main
instance, Mfiller describes the history of the evolu- interest; and the reward of the indefatigable stu-
tion of flowers, he gives only a probable way of dent is to review, from the summit of his most
development, without any better proof than that general deductions, the vast field of phenomena.

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140 SCIENCE. [VOL. IX., No. 210

Joyfully he sees that every process and every From the stand-point we occupy, a discussion
phe-
nomenon which seem to the stranger an irregular as to the value of these researches is of just as lit-
and incomprehensible conglomerate is a link of a tle avail as that on the value of the two branches
long chain. Losing sight of the single facts, he of science, for the judgment will be founded on
sees only the beautiful order of the world. the mental disposition of the judge, and be only a
The cosmographer, on the other hand, holds to confession as to which impulse predominates, the
the phenomenon which is the object of his study, aesthetic or the affective. However, one fact
may it occupy a high or a low rank in the system appears from our inquiry: cosmography is closely
of physical sciences, and lovingly tries to pene- related to the arts, as the way in which the mind is
trate into its secrets until every feature is plain affected by phenomena forms an important branch
and clear. This occupation with the object of his of the study. It therefore requires a different
affection affords him a delight not inferior to that treatment from that of the physical sciences.
which the physicist enjoys in his systematical v We will apply these results to the study of
arrangement of the world. geography. Its objects are, the phenomena caused
Our inquiry leads us to the conclusion that it is by the distribution of land and water, by the
in vain to search for an answer to the question, vertical forms of the earth's surface, and by the
Which of the two methods is of a higher value ? mutual influence of the earth and its inhabitants
as each originates in a different desire of the humanupon each other.
mind. An answer can only be subjective, being What does the physicist do with this object of
a confession of the answerer as to which is dearer study? lie selects a single element out of phe-
to him, -his personal feeling towards the phe- nomena which are observed at a certain point of
nomena surrounding him, or his inclination for the earth's surface, and compares it with another
abstractions; whether he prefers to recognize the one found at another place. He continues in this
individuality in the totality, or the totality in the way searching for similar phenomena, and loses
individuality. sight altogether of the spot from which he started.
Let us now turn to the discussion of the second Thus he becomes the founder of the sciences into
point. We have seen that physicists are inclined which geography has gradually been resolved, as
to acknowledge the value of a certain class of cos- his studies are either directed to geological phe-
mographical studies. It is the characteristic nomena alone, or to meteorological, botanical, or
quality of those phenomena that they are the re- whatever it may be. The most general deductions
sult of the action of incidental causes upon one which can be reached in the pursuit of these studies
group of forces, or upon the elements of phe- still have a close connection with the single ob-
nomena. The physicist does not study the whole ject, as they cannot be carried farther than to the
phenomenon as it represents itself to the human most general geographical ideas, as mountain-
mind, but resolves it into its elements, which he ranges, running water, oceans, etc. The most
investigates separately. The investigation of the general results of his investigations will therefore
history of these elements of phenomena leads to be a general history of the earth's surface. If he
a systematical arrangement, which gives to the bring these results into a system, he acts, as it
aesthetical desire as much satisfaction as the for- seenas to us, against the cosmographical character
mulation of laws. The end which evolutional and of the science. For instance, a system of all pos-
astronomical researches tend to is the best proof sible actions of water as forming the earth's sur-
of this fact. A study of groups of phenomena, face seems to us of little value, except from a
which seem to be connected only in the mind of practical stand-point as being useful in studying
the observer, and admit of being resolved into the geological history of a district or of the
their elements, cannot lead to a similar result, and earth's surface. Therefore these systems must be
is therefore considered of inferior value. However, considered as important auxiliary sciences, but
we have tried to prove that the source of cosmo- they are not geography itself. Their value is
graphical researches is an affective one. If this be founded only on their applicability to the study
right, we cannot distinguish between complex and of geography. The invention of geographical
simple phenomena, as the physicist tries to do, and systems, so far as they do not serve this purpose,
neglect their subjective unity, -the connection in must be considered as useless, and classifications
which they appear to the mind of the observer. must be made only as far as geographical phe-
The whole phenomenon, and not its elements, is the nomena of a similar kind must be explained by
object of the cosmographer's study. Thus the different causes.
physiognomy of a country is of no interest to the But there is another branch of geography be-
physicist, while it is important to the cosmog- sides this, equal to it in value, - the physiognomy
rapher. of the earth. It cannot afford a satisfactory ob-

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FEBRUARY 11, 1887.1 SCIE NCE. 141

ject
jectof
ofstudy
study
to the
to the
physicist,
physicist,
as its unity
as itsis
unity
a is a
perimental stu
merely subjective one; and the geographer, in and which merits an English translation. One of
treating these subjects, approaches the domainhis oflatest researches is embodied in a long article
art, as the results of his study principally affect in this review on the electric reaction of the acous-
the feeling, and therefore must be described in an tic nerve in the insane. If you place one of the
artistic way in order to satisfy the feeling in which poles in the external auditory chamber, and the
it originated. other on the neck or the hand, besides causing
Our consideration leads us to the conclusion slight pain, muscular contractions, etc., a distinct
that geography is part of cosmography, and soundhaswill be heard on closing the circuit if the
its source in the affective impulse, in the desire negative pole is in contact with the ear, and on
to understand the phenomena and history of a opening the circuit if it is the positive pole. This
country or of the whole earth, the home of man- for the healthy ear. But in the insane this formula
kind. It depends upon the inclination of the is sometimes reversed, and suffers irregularities.
scientist towards physical or cosmographical The examination of the auditory apparatus is thus
method, whether he studies the history of the of diagnostic value, especially in cases of auditory
whole earth, or whether he prefers to learn that hallucinations. In almost all such cases the hear-
ing is thus shown to be diseased, and in a few
of a single country. From our point of view, the
discussion whether geology or meteorology be- cases stimulation of the auditory nerve caused the
longs to geography is of little importance, and hallucinations to appear.
we are willing to call all scientists geographers Two observers, Tambroni and Algeri, contribute
who study the phenomena of the earth's surface. to this study of the psychic diagnosis of insanity
We give geology no preference over the other an account of experiments upon the reaction times
branches of science, as many modern scientists of the insane. After some preliminary training,
are inclined to do. The study of the earth's the patient was subjected to eight tests of forty
surface implies geological researches as well as observations each. An observation consisted, 1?,
meteorological, ethnological, and others, as none in measuring the time necessary for the patient
of them cover the scope of geography, to delineate to feel the contact of a point; 2?, the time to per-
the picture of the earth's surface. ceive whether a single point or a pair of points
Many are the sciences that must help to reach 2.2mm. apart was drawn across the tip of his right
this end ; many are the studies and researches that forefinger. The paranoic patient reacts more
must be pursued to add new figures to the incom- quickly than the normal man; and in this is im-
plied not only that he feels sooner, but knows
plete picture; but every step that brings us nearer
the end gives ampler satisfaction to the impulsewhat he feels more rapidly: it is a psychic hyper-
which induces us to devote our time and work to aesthesia. In all other forms of insanity the time
this study, gratifying the love for the country of we
a simple reaction and of a distinction is length-
inhabit, and the nature that surrounds us. ened when the normal time is .183 of a second;
FRANZ BOAS. the time of the paranoic type is .174 of a second;
of the maniacal, .812; of the demented, .344; of
the epileptic, .362; of the melancholic (in whom
ITALIAN MEDICAL PSYCHOLOGY.
all mental life is sluggish and monotonous), .374.
THE study of the nervous system in health and Four persons of each type were examined. It
disease has been assiduously cultivated in Italy takes slightly longer to perceive a double than a
for many years. The peculiar environment and single point.
volatile characteristics of the race may have been A very careful study on the effect of repetition
influential in drawing attention to the study of of simple acts, that is, of practice, upon the time
insanity. it takes to perform them, is rendered by Guic-
Italian alienists have taken a deep interest in ciardi and Cionini. They take as their basis three
the psychological aspects of their specialty; and well-known laws regarding practice; viz., 1?,
their main review, the Rivista sperimentale di that it makes repetition easier (and quicker); 2?,
freniatria, has been thriving for many years. Athat it does so at first more rapidly than later on;
brief notice of a few of the articles contained in and, 3?, that a limit to this process is slowly
the last volume will serve to indicate some of the reached. The original part of their work consists
directions in which work is being carried on. in showing that practice has greater abbreviating
A frequent contributor to this review was the power in complicated than in simple acts. A
physiologist Buccola, who died last year. He has simple touch reaction by the effect of 250 repeti-
published a volume in the International scientific tions was shortened .018 of a second; the time for
series which is devoted to an account of the ex- perceiving that but a single point was touching

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