INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION U-3 Lecture Notes by- Shrey Anant Sandiman

Unit 5
Basics of Communication System

 Signal and its Classification

Signal is a function which conveys some information. A signal is defined as a physical quantity that varies
with time, space or any other independent variable. Mathematically, a signal is represented as a function of an
independent variable 𝑡. Usually, 𝑡 represent time. Thus, a signal is denoted by 𝑥(𝑡).
Classification of signals:
1. Continuous and Discrete time signals 2. Analog and Digital signals
3. Deterministic and Random signals 4. Even and Odd signals
5. Energy and Power signals 6. Periodic and Non Periodic signals
1. Continuous and Discrete time signals
 Continuous time signals [𝑥(𝑡)] are defined for every instant of time [𝑡]
that means amplitude varies wrt time.
 Discrete time signals [𝑥(𝑛)] are defined for discrete or integer time [ 𝑛 ].
A discrete time signal 𝑥(𝑛) may be obtained by sampling a continuous
time signal 𝑥(𝑡) such as
𝑥(0), 𝑥(1), … … 𝑥(𝑛), …..
𝑥(𝑛) = {… . ,0,0,1,2,2,1,0,1,0,2,0,0, … . . . }
𝑥(𝑛) = {1,2,2,1,0,1,0,2}
Discrete signals are derived from continuous signals through sampling
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑛𝑇𝑠 )
where 𝑡 : Continuous time period, 𝑛: Number of samples and 𝑇𝑠 : Sampling time interval.
2. Analog and Digital signals
Continuous signals are referred as analog signals in any continuous interval between −∞ and +∞.
The signals that are discrete in time and quantized in amplitude are digital signals. In processing and
transmission, digital signals are usually expressed in binary form, a string of zeros and ones.

3. Deterministic and Random signals

 Deterministic signals are defined by some specific mathematical actions or formula. All real signals are
deterministic signals. Eg : 𝑥(𝑡) = cos 𝜔𝑡.
 Random signals does not consist any mathematical actions or formula. Eg : Noise Any signal 𝑥(𝑡) consists
of both deterministic part and random part i.e. 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥𝑑 (𝑡) + 𝑥𝑟 (𝑡). If 𝑥𝑟 (𝑡) = 0 then 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥𝑑 (𝑡) and
if 𝑥𝑑 (𝑡) = 0 then 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥𝑟 (𝑡).

4. Even and Odd signals

 Even signals are always symmetrical about 𝑦 axis or time domain.
In continuous domain : 𝒙(𝑡) = 𝒙(−𝑡), In discrete domain: 𝒙(𝑛) = 𝒙(−𝑛)
Ex: Cosine function, Impulse function, Rectangular function, Triangular function.
 Odd signals are always symmetrical about origin or anti-symmetrical about 𝑦 axis.
In continuous domain : 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒙(−𝒕), In discrete domain : 𝒙(𝒏) = 𝒙(−𝒏)
Ex: Sine function, Signum function.
Any signal can be represented as sum of even and odd signals as 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥𝑒 (𝑡) + 𝑥0 (𝑡)

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INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION U-3 Lecture Notes by- Shrey Anant Sandiman

For even component, 𝑥𝑒 (𝑡) = 𝑥𝑒 (−𝑡), For odd component, 𝑥0 (𝑡) = −𝑥0 (−𝑡)
So, 𝑥(−𝑡) = 𝑥𝑒 (−𝑡) + 𝑥0 (−𝑡) = 𝑥𝑒 (𝑡) − 𝑥0 (𝑡)
In continuous domain,
1 1
Even part of 𝑥(𝑡), 𝑥𝑒 (𝑡) = 2 [𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑥(−𝑡)] Odd part of 𝑥(𝑡), 𝑥0 (𝑡) = 2 [𝑥(𝑡) − 𝑥(−𝑡)]
Similarly, in discrete domain,
1 1
Even part of 𝑥(𝑛), 𝑥𝑒 (𝑛) = 2 [𝑥(𝑛) + 𝑥(−𝑛)] Odd part of 𝑥(𝑛), 𝑥0 (𝑛) = 2 [𝑥(𝑛) − 𝑥(−𝑛)]
Properties of even and odd signals
Consider two odd signals 𝑥𝑜1 (𝑛) and 𝑥𝑜2 (𝑛) Consider two even signals 𝑥𝑒1 (𝑛) and 𝑥𝑒2 (𝑛)

Properties
 Addition of two even signals will be even i.e. [𝑥𝑒1 (𝑛) + 𝑥𝑒2 (𝑛)] = Even .
 Addition of two odd signals will be odd i.e. [𝑥𝑜1 (𝑛) + 𝑥𝑜2 (𝑛)] = Odd.
 Multiplication of two even signals will be even i.e. [𝑥𝑒1 (𝑛)𝑥𝑒2 (𝑛)] = Even .
 Multiplication of two odd signals will be even i.e. [𝑥𝑜1 (𝑛) ⋅ 𝑥𝑜2 (𝑛)] = Even .
 Multiplication of even and odd signal will be odd i.e. [𝑥𝑒2 (𝑛) ⋅ 𝑥𝑜2 (𝑛)] = Odd .
 Addition of even and odd signal will neither be an even signal nor an odd signal [𝑥𝑒1 (𝑛) + 𝑥𝑜1 (𝑛)] =
Neither Even Nor Odd.

5. Energy and Power Signals. Energy signals are signals which have finite energy. They are mostly
defined for non-periodic or finite duration signals.
In continuous domain,
𝑇/2 ∞
𝐸 = lim ∫−𝑇/2 𝑥 2 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫−∞ 𝑥 2 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 where 𝑥(𝑡) is a real signal
𝑇→∞
𝑇/2 ∞
𝐸 = lim ∫−𝑇/2 |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡 = ∫−∞ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡 where 𝑥(𝑡) is a complex signal
𝑇→∞
In discrete domain,
𝐸 = lim ∑𝑁 2 ∞ 2
𝑛=−𝑁 𝑥 (𝑛) = ∑𝑛=−∞ 𝑥 (𝑛) where 𝑥(𝑛) is a real signal
𝑁→∞
𝐸 = lim ∑𝑁 2 ∞ 2
𝑛=−𝑁 |𝑥(𝑛)| = ∑𝑛=−∞ |𝑥(𝑛)| where 𝑥(𝑛) is a complex signal
𝑁→∞

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INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION U-3 Lecture Notes by- Shrey Anant Sandiman

Power signals are signals which have finite power. They are mostly defined for periodic signals.
In continuous domain,
1 𝑇/2
𝑃 = lim ∫ 𝑥 2 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 where 𝑥(𝑡) is a real signal
𝑇→∞ 𝑇 −𝑇/2
1 𝑇/2
𝑃 = lim ∫−𝑇/2 |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡 where 𝑥(𝑡) is a complex signal
𝑇→∞ 𝑇
In discrete domain,
1
𝑃 = lim (2𝑁+1) ∑𝑁 2
𝑛=−𝑁 𝑥 (𝑛) where 𝑥(𝑛) is a real signal
𝑁→∞
1
𝑃 = lim ∑𝑁 2
𝑛=−𝑁 |𝑥(𝑛)| where 𝑥(𝑛) is a complex signal
𝑁→∞ (2𝑁+1)
Relation between energy and power signals :
𝐸 𝐸
In continuous domain, 𝑃 = lim 𝑇, In discrete domain, 𝑃 = lim
𝑇→∞ 𝑁→∞ 2𝑁+1
6. Periodic and Non Periodic signals
 A periodic signal will have a definite pattern that repeats again and again over a certain period of time.
Therefore, the signal which satisfies the condition
𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑇0 ) = 𝑥(𝑡) in the continuous domain or
𝑥(𝑛 + 𝑁0 ) = 𝑥(𝑛) in discrete domain is called a periodic signal.
 A signal which does not repeat itself and does not satisfy the condition 𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑇0 ) = 𝑥(𝑡) or
𝑥(𝑛 + 𝑁0 ) = 𝑥(𝑛) is called an aperiodic signal or non-periodic signal.
2𝜋 2𝜋
 In continuous domain : 𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑇0 ) = 𝑥(𝑡) where 𝑇0 = and 𝜔0 = 2𝜋𝑓0 = 𝜔0 𝑇0
𝑇0 : Fundamental time period, in sec
𝜔0 : Fundamental angular frequency, in radian/sec
𝑓0 : Fundamental frequency, in Hertz
When a continuous time signal is a mixture of two periodic signals with fundamental time periods 𝑇1 and
𝑇2 , then the continuous time signal will be periodic, if the ratio of 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 is a rational number. Now the
periodicity of the continuous time signal will be the LCM (Least Common Multiple) of 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 .
5 7 8 √2 7 4
Ex. of rational number : 2 , 9 , 11 Ex. of non rational number : , ,
5 2𝜋 √7
𝑚 Ω 𝑝
 In discrete domain : 𝑥(𝑛 + 𝑁0 ) = 𝑥(𝑛) where 𝑁 = 2𝜋0 = 𝑞 = rational number
0
Where 𝑁 = 𝑞, 𝑁0 = 𝑞
𝑁0 : Fundamental discrete time period, in sec
Ω0 : Fundamental angular frequency, in radian/sec
When a discrete time signal is a mixture of two periodic signals with fundamental time periods 𝑁1 and
𝑁2 , then the discrete time signal will be periodic, if the ratio of 𝑁1 and 𝑁2 is a rational number. Now the
periodicity of the discrete time signal will be the LCM (Least Common Multiple) of 𝑁1 and 𝑁2 .
Example of periodic signals : sin 𝜔𝑡, cos 𝜔𝑡, sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙), cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙), 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡
Example of non periodic signals : sin 𝜔𝑡. 𝑢(𝑡), cos 𝜔𝑡. 𝑢(𝑡), 𝑒 −𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑡, 𝑒 −𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡
Question 1.- Sketch the following signals and calculate their energies. (1) 𝑒 −10𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) (2) 𝑢(𝑡) − 𝑢(𝑡 − 15)
Solution 1.- (1) e−10t u(t) At t = 0, e−0 = 1
At t = +∞, e−∞ = 0
∞ 1 for t > 0
Energy of signal x(t), E = ∫−∞ x 2 (t)dt ∵ u2 (t) = {
0 for t < 0
∞
∞ ∞ e−20t e−∞ −e0 0−1 1
E = ∫−∞ e−20t u2 (t)dt = ∫0 e−20t dt = [ −20 ] = = −20 = 20 Joule
0 −20
(2) u(t) − u(t − 15)
1 for 0 < t < 15
u(t) − u(t − 15) = {
0 for elsewhere
∞
Energy of signal x(t), E = ∫−∞ x 2 (t)dt
∞ 15
E=∫ [u(t) − u(t − 15)]2 dt = ∫ 12 dt = [t]15
0 = 15 − 0 = 15 Joules
−∞ 0

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INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION U-3 Lecture Notes by- Shrey Anant Sandiman

Question 2.- Sketch the following signals and determine whether the signals are power or energy signal or neither.
(1) 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑡) (2) 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑡𝑢(𝑡)
Solution 2.- (1) x(t) = u(t)
T
1 1 for t > 0
Power of signal x(t), P = lim T ∫2T x 2 (t)dt ∵ u2 (t) = {
T→∞ −
2
0 for t < 0
1 T/2 1 T/2 2 1 T/2
P = limT→∞ T ∫−T/2 u2 (t)dt = limT→∞ T ∫0 1 dt = limT→∞ T × [t]0 =
1 T 1
limT→∞ [ − 0] = Watts
T 2 2
∞ ∞ ∞
Energy of signal x(t), E = ∫−∞ x 2 (t)dt = ∫−∞ u2 (t)dt = ∫0 12 dt = [t]∞
0 =∞
As 𝐮(𝐭) has finite power and infinite energy, so it is a power signal.
(2) x(t) = tu(t) = r(t)
1 T/2
Power of signal x(t), P = limT→∞ T ∫−T/2 x 2 (t)dt
1 T/2 2 2
P = lim ∫ t u (t)dt
T→∞ T −T/2
T/2
1 T/2 2 1 t3 1 T3
P = lim ∫ t dt = lim × [ ] lim [ − 0] = ∞
T→∞ T 0 T→∞ T 3 0 T→∞ T 3 × 8
∞
∞ ∞ ∞ t3
Energy of signal x(t), E = ∫−∞ x 2 (t)dt = ∫−∞ t 2 u2 (t)dt = ∫0 t 2 dt = [ 3 ] = ∞
0
As 𝐭𝐮(𝐭) has infinite power and infinite energy, so it is neither energy signal not power signal.
Question 3.- Determine whether or not each of the following signals is periodic. If a signal periodic, determine its
fundamental period.
𝜋 𝜋 1
(1) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 (2) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑡 + ) (3) sin √3𝑡 (4) 𝑢(𝑡) −
3 3 2
π π 2π 2π
Solution .- (1) x(t) = sin t ⇒ ω0 = ⇒ T0 = = =6
3 3 ω0 π/3
For periodic signal, x(t + T0 ) = x(t)
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑇0 ) = sin 3 (𝑡 + 𝑇0 ) = sin 3 (𝑡 + 6) = sin ( 3 𝑡 + 2𝜋)
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= sin 3 𝑡 ⋅ cos 2𝜋 + cos 3 𝑡 ⋅ sin 2𝜋 = sin 3 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡)
∴ 𝑥(𝑡) is periodic with fundamental time period 𝑻𝟎 = 𝟔 𝐬𝐞𝐜
𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
(2) cos (𝑡 + 3 ) ⇒ 𝑥(𝑡) = cos (𝑡 + 3 ) ⇒ 𝜔0 = 1 ⇒ 𝑇0 = 𝜔 = 2𝜋
0
For periodic signal, 𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑇0 ) = 𝑥(𝑡)
𝜋 𝜋
𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑇0 ) = cos (𝑡 + 𝑇0 + ) = cos (𝑡 + + 2𝜋)
3 3
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= cos (𝑡 + ) cos 2𝜋 − sin (𝑡 + ) sin 2𝜋 = cos (𝑡 + ) = 𝑥(𝑡)
3 3 3
∴ 𝑥(𝑡) is periodic with fundamental time period 𝑻𝟎 = 𝟐𝝅 sec
2𝜋 2𝜋
(3) sin √3𝑡 ⇒ 𝑥(𝑡) = sin √3𝑡 ⇒ 𝜔0 = √3 ⇒ 𝑇0 = 𝜔 =
0 √3
For periodic, 𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑇0 ) = 𝑥(𝑡)
𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑇0 ) = sin √3(𝑡 + 𝑇0 ) = sin(√3𝑡 + 2𝜋) = sin √3𝑡cos 2𝜋 + cos √3𝑡sin 2𝜋 = sin √3𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡)
∴ 𝑥(𝑡) is periodic with fundamental time period 𝑇0 = 2𝜋/√3sec.
1
(4) 𝑢(𝑡) − 2
1
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑡) − 2 is non periodic.

(5) 𝑒 (−1+𝑗)𝑡
Sol. 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 (−1+𝑗)𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑒 𝑗𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑡 cos 𝑡 + 𝑗𝑒 −𝑡 sin 𝑡
∴ 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 (−1+𝑗)𝑡 is non periodic.

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INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION U-3 Lecture Notes by- Shrey Anant Sandiman

 Standard Test Signals

There are five standard test signals: unit step signal, unit ramp signal, unit impulse signal, exponential signal, and
parabolic signal.
1) Unit Step Signal:
1 for 𝑡 > 0
Unit step signal is defined as, 𝑢(𝑡) = {0.5 for 𝑡 = 0
0 for 𝑡 < 0
The unit step signal is discontinuous at 𝑡 = 0 and at 𝑡 = 0 its value is undefined.
𝑢(0+ )+𝑢(0− ) 1+0
So, 𝑢(0) = =
2 2
The unit step function is also known as the Heavside unit function.
2) Unit ramp signal:
𝑡 for 𝑡 ≥ 0
Unit ramp signal is defined as, 𝑟(𝑡) = {
0 for 𝑡 < 0
3) Unit impulse signal:
The impulse signal is a signal with infinite magnitude and zero duration, but with
unit area. The unit impulse function is also known as the Dirac delta function.
∞ at 𝑡 = 0 ∞
Mathematically, 𝛿(𝑡) = { and ∫−∞ 𝛿(𝑡) ⋅ 𝑑𝑡 = 1
0 at 𝑡 ≠ 0
4) Exponential signal: Exponential signals are of two types :
(a) Real exponential signal: 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 𝜎𝑡
If 𝜎 > 0, then 𝑥(𝑡) is a growing exponential, and if 𝜎 < 0, then 𝑥(𝑡) is a decaying exponential.

(b) Complex exponential signal: 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 = cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑗sin 𝜔𝑡

The signal 𝑥(𝑡) is known as complex exponential signal whose real part is cos 𝜔𝑡 and imaginary part is sin 𝜔𝑡.
It is periodic with time period 𝑇 = 2𝜋/𝜔.
The general complex exponential signal is, 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑒 (𝜎+𝑗𝜔)𝑡 = 𝑒 𝜎𝑡 (cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑗sin 𝜔𝑡) whose real part
𝑒 𝜎𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 and imaginary part 𝑒 𝜎𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑡 are exponentially increasing if 𝜎 > 0 and exponentially decreasing
if 𝜎 < 0.

5) Parabolic signal: It is the signal whose magnitude varies as square of time. It is represented by p(t). It is
also called acceleration type input. It is used to analyze system response to Non linear inputs.
p(𝑡)

𝑡2 /2 for 𝑡 ≥ 0
p(𝑡) = {
0 for 𝑡 < 0

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INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION U-3 Lecture Notes by- Shrey Anant Sandiman

Some Basic Signal Function

1) Signum function:
1 for 𝑡 > 0
Signum function is defined as, sgn(𝑡) = { 0 for 𝑡 = 0
−1 for 𝑡 < 0
Relation between signum function and unit step signal :
sgn(𝑡) + 1
𝑢(𝑡) = sgn(𝑡) = 2𝑢(𝑡) − 1
2
2) Gate or Rectangular or Pulse function:
Rectangular function is defined as,
𝑡 𝐴 −𝜏/2 < 𝑡 < 𝜏/2 or |𝑡| < 𝜏/2
Arect ( ) = {
𝜏 0 elsewhere
3) Triangular function:
Triangular function is defined as,
|𝑡|
𝐴 [1 − ] −𝜏 < 𝑡 < 𝜏 or |𝑡| < 𝜏
Δ(𝑡) = { 𝜏
0 elsewhere

 Signals operations and its representation

Operations on signals involve various mathematical manipulations that modify the original signal in time
or amplitude to analyze, process, or extract useful information from it. There are four basic types of signal
operations: amplitude inversion, time reversal (folding), time shifting, and time scaling.
1) Amplitude inversion: 𝑥(𝑡) → −𝑥(𝑡) 𝑥(𝑛) → −𝑥(𝑛)
Example: Consider a signal 𝑥(𝑡).
For 𝑥(𝑡)
Time Amplitude
𝑡 = −2 𝑥(𝑡) = 0 →
𝑡=0 𝑥(𝑡) = 1
𝑡=1 𝑥(𝑡) = 0
For −𝑥(𝑡), multiply amplitude with -1 .
2) Time reversible or Folding:
𝑥(𝑡) → 𝑥(−𝑡) 𝑥(𝑛) → 𝑥(−𝑛)
For 𝑥(−𝑡), replace 𝑡 by −𝑡 in 𝑥(𝑡)
−𝑡 = −2 𝑡 = 2 𝑥(−𝑡) = 0
−𝑡 = 0 𝑡=0 𝑥(−𝑡) = 1
−𝑡 = 1 𝑡 = −1 𝑥(−𝑡) = 0
3) Time shifting:
Right hand shifting or delay: x(t) → x(t − t 0 ) x(n) → x(n − n0 )
Left hand shifting or advance: x(t) → x(t + t 0 ) x(n) → x(n + n0 )
For x(t − 1) replace t by t − 1 in x(t)
t − 1 = −2 t = −1 x(t − 1) = 0
t−1=0 t=1 x(t − 1) = 1
t−1=1 t=2 x(t − 1) = 0
For x(t + 1) replace t by t + 1 in x(t)
t + 1 = −2 t = −3 x(t + 1) = 0
t+1=0 t = −1 x(t + 1) = 1
t+1=1 t=0 x(t + 1) = 0
4) Time scaling: x(t) → x(kt) x(n) → x(kn)
Compression for |k| > 1 Expansion for |k| < 1

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INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION U-3 Lecture Notes by- Shrey Anant Sandiman

For x(2t) replace t by 2t in x(t)

2t = −2 t = −1 x(2t) = 0
2t = 0 t=0 x(2t) = 1
2t = 1 t = 0.5 x(2t) = 0
For x(0.5t) replace t by 0.5t in x(t)
0.5t = −2 t = −4 x(0.5t) = 0
0.5t = 0 t=0 x(0.5t) = 1
0.5t = 1 t=2 x(0.5t) = 0
Question 4.- For the signal 𝑥(𝑡) shown in the figure, sketch the following signals.
(1) 𝑥(𝑡 − 2)
(2) 𝑥(2𝑡 + 3)
(3) 𝑥(3𝑡/2)
(4) 𝑥(−𝑡 + 1)
Soution 4. (1) x(t − 2)
For x(t)
Time Amplitude
−1 < t < 0 x(t) = Slope
0 < t < 1 x(t) = 2
1 < t < 2 x(t) = 1
For x(t − 2) replace t by t − 2 in x(t)
−1 < t − 2 < 0 1 < t < 2 x(t − 2) = Slope
0 < t − 2 < 1 2 < t < 3 x(t − 2) = 2
1 < t − 2 < 2 3 < t < 4 x(t − 2) = 1

(2) 𝑥(2𝑡 + 3)
For 𝑥(2𝑡 + 3) replace 𝑡 by 2𝑡 + 3 in 𝑥(𝑡)
−1 < 2𝑡 + 3 < 0 −2 < 𝑡 < −1.5 𝑥(2𝑡 + 3) = Slope
0 < 2𝑡 + 3 < 1 −1.5 < 𝑡 < −1 𝑥(2𝑡 + 3) = 2
1 < 2𝑡 + 3 < 2 −1 < 𝑡 < −0.5 𝑥(2𝑡 + 3) = 1
(3) 𝑥(3𝑡/2)
For 𝑥(3𝑡/2) replace 𝑡 by 3𝑡/2 in 𝑥(𝑡)
−1 < 3𝑡/2 < 0 −2/3 < 𝑡 < 0 𝑥(3𝑡/2) = Slope
0 < 3𝑡/2 < 1 0 < 𝑡 < 2/3 𝑥(3𝑡/2) = 2
1 < 3𝑡/2 < 2 2/3 < 𝑡 < 4/3 𝑥(3𝑡/2) = 1
(4) 𝑥(−𝑡 + 1)
For 𝑥(−𝑡 + 1) replace 𝑡 by −𝑡 + 1 in 𝑥(𝑡)
−1 < −𝑡 + 1 < 0 1 < 𝑡 < 2 𝑥(−𝑡 + 1) = Slope
0 < −𝑡 + 1 < 1 0 < 𝑡 < 1 𝑥(−𝑡 + 1) = 2
1 < −𝑡 + 1 < 2 −1 < 𝑡 < 0 𝑥(−𝑡 + 1) = 1
Question 5.: A discrete time signal is given by 𝑥[𝑛] = {1,1,1,1,2}
Sketch the following signals :
(1) 𝑥[𝑛 − 2] (3) 𝑥[3 − 𝑛] (5) 𝑥[𝑛 − 1]8[𝑛 − 1]
(2) 𝑥[𝑛 + 1] (4) 𝑥[𝑛]𝑢[𝑛 − 1]
Solution: The sketch of x(n) is shown in figure.
For x(n)
Time Amplitude
−1 ≤ n ≤ 2 x(n) = 1
n=3 x(n) = 2

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INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION U-3 Lecture Notes by- Shrey Anant Sandiman

(1) 𝑥[𝑛 − 2]
For 𝑥(𝑛 − 2) replace 𝑛 by 𝑛 − 2 in 𝑥(𝑛)
−1 ≤ 𝑛 − 2 ≤ 2 1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 4 𝑥(𝑛 − 2) = 1
𝑛−2=3 𝑛 = 5 𝑥(𝑛 − 2) = 2
(2) 𝑥[𝑛 + 1]
For 𝑥(𝑛 + 1) replace 𝑛 by 𝑛 + 1 in 𝑥(𝑛)
−1 ≤ 𝑛 + 1 ≤ 2 −2 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 1 𝑥(𝑛 + 1) = 1
𝑛+1=3 𝑛=2 𝑥(𝑛 + 1) = 2
(3) 𝑥[3 − 𝑛]
For 𝑥(3 − 𝑛) replace 𝑛 by 3 − 𝑛 in 𝑥(𝑛)
−4 ≤ −𝑛 ≤ −1
−1 ≤ 3 − 𝑛 ≤ 2 𝑥(3 − 𝑛) = 1
1≤𝑛≤4
3−𝑛 =3 𝑛=0 𝑥(3 − 𝑛) = 2
(4) 𝑥[𝑛]𝑢[𝑛 − 1]

(5) 𝑥[𝑛 − 1]𝛿[𝑛 − 1]

For 𝑥(𝑛 − 1) replace 𝑛 by 𝑛 − 1 in 𝑥(𝑛)
−1 ≤ 𝑛 − 1 ≤ 2 0 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 3 𝑥(𝑛 − 1) = 1
𝑛−1=3 𝑛 = 4 𝑥(𝑛 − 1) = 2

Question 06: Sketch the signal:

𝑥(𝑡) = [𝑢(𝑡) + 𝑢(𝑡 − 1) − 2𝑢(𝑡 − 3)] ⋅ 𝑢(−𝑡 + 5)
1 for 𝑡 > 0 1 for 𝑡 > 1 2 for 𝑡 > 3
Solution 06: . 𝑢(𝑡) = { 𝑢(𝑡 − 1) = { 2𝑢(𝑡 − 3) = {
0 for 𝑡 < 0 0 for 𝑡 < 1 0 for 𝑡 < 3

Put 𝑡 = −𝑡 + 5 in expression of 𝑢(𝑡),

1 −𝑡 + 5 > 0 1 −𝑡 > −5 1 𝑡<5
𝑢(−𝑡 + 5) = { ={ ={
0 −𝑡 + 5 < 0 0 −𝑡 < −5 0 𝑡>5
𝑥(𝑡) = [𝑢(𝑡) + 𝑢(𝑡 − 1) − 2𝑢(𝑡 − 3)] ⋅ 𝑢(−𝑡 + 5)

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INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION U-3 Lecture Notes by- Shrey Anant Sandiman

 Defination of System
A system is defined as a physical device that generates a response or output signal, for a given input signal.
Systems can be represented by a block diagram.

An arrow entering the box and arrow leaving the box are representing input signal and output signal
respectively. An input is denoted by 𝑥(𝑡)/𝑥(𝑛) and the corresponding output is denoted by 𝑦(𝑡)/𝑦(𝑛).
𝑦(𝑡)/𝑦(𝑛) = operation on 𝑥(𝑡)/𝑥(𝑛) ⇒ 𝑦(𝑡)/𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)/𝑥(𝑛)]

 System classification ( Includes- Causality, Stability, Invertibility)

A system is a device or process that responds to an input signal to produce an output signal. Systems can
be classified based on various properties as follows：
1．Linear and Nonlinear Systems
 Linear System: A system is linear if it satisfies the principle of superposition (additivity and homogeneity)
Example: 𝑦(𝑡) = 3𝑥(𝑡) + 5𝑥(𝑡 − 1)
 Nonlinear System：A system that does not satisfy superposition. Example: 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥 2 (𝑡)
2．Time－Invariant and Time－Variant Systems
 Time－Invariant System：The characteristics of the system do not change with time．A time shift in
input results in the same shift in output.Example：𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑥(𝑡 − 1)
 Time－Variant System：The system’s properties vary with time. Example：𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑡 ⋅ 𝑥(𝑡)
3．Causal and Non－Causal Systems (Causality)
 Causal System：The output at any time depends only on present and past input values.
Example: 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑥(𝑡 − 1)
 Non－Causal System：The output depends on future input values. Example: 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡 + 2)
4．Stable and Unstable Systems (Stability)
 Stable System：A system is stable if a bounded input always results in a bounded output (BIBO stability)
Example: 𝑦[𝑛] = 0.5𝑥[𝑛]
 Unstable System：A system that produces an unbounded output for a bounded input．
𝑛

Example: 𝑦[𝑛] = ∑ 2𝑘 𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑘]

𝑘=0
5．Static（Memoryless）and Dynamic (With Memory）Systems
 Static System：Output at any time depends only on the input at that same time．
Example: 𝑦(𝑡) = 4𝑥(𝑡)
 Dynamic System：Output depends on past or future input values．
Example: 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑥(𝑡 − 1)
6．Lumped and Distributed Systems
 Lumped System：The system’s parameters are concentrated at a single point and described using
ordinary differential equations (ODEs). Example：Electrical circuits
 Distributed System：The parameters are spread across space and described using partial differential
equations (PDEs)．Example：Transmission lines，heat conduction systems
7．Invertible and Non－Invertible Systems ( Invertibility)
 Invertible System：Each output is associated with a unique input，and the original input can be
𝑦(𝑡)
recovered. Example：𝑦(𝑡) = 2𝑥(𝑡) ⇒ 𝑥(𝑡) = 2
 Non－Invertible System：The original input cannot be uniquely recovered from the output．
Example: 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥 2 (𝑡).

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INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION U-3 Lecture Notes by- Shrey Anant Sandiman

 System Properties: Additivity and Homogeneity

In signal and system analysis, the linearity of a system is determined based on two important properties:
 Additivity
 Homogeneity (Scaling)
A system is said to be linear if and only if it satisfies both of these properties.
Additivity: A system is said to be additive if the response to a sum of inputs is equal to the sum of the
responses to each individual input.
Mathematical Representation:
𝑥 (𝑡) → 𝑦1 (𝑡)
If 1 then the system is additive if: 𝑥1 (𝑡) + 𝑥2 (𝑡) → 𝑦1 (𝑡) + 𝑦2 (𝑡)
𝑥2 (𝑡) → 𝑦2 (𝑡)
Example: Let the system be 𝑦(𝑡) = 2𝑥(𝑡)
 For 𝑥1 (𝑡) = 𝑡, 𝑦1 (𝑡) = 2𝑡
 For 𝑥2 (𝑡) = 3, 𝑦2 (𝑡) = 6
Now, 𝑥1 (𝑡) + 𝑥2 (𝑡) = 𝑡 + 3, 𝑦(𝑡) = 2(𝑡 + 3) = 2𝑡 + 6 = 𝑦1 (𝑡) + 𝑦2 (𝑡)
Hence, the system satisfies additivity.
Homogeneity (Scaling) system is said to be homogeneous if scaling the input by any constant results in the
output being scaled by the same constant.
Mathematical Representation:
If 𝑥(𝑡) → 𝑦(𝑡), then for any scalar 𝑎 : 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥(𝑡) → 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑦(𝑡)
Example: Let the system be 𝑦(𝑡) = 5𝑥(𝑡)
 For 𝑥(𝑡) = sin(𝑡) , 𝑦(𝑡) = 5sin(𝑡)
 Now, scale the input: 𝑥 (𝑡) = 3sin(𝑡)
′

 Output becomes: 𝑦 ′ (𝑡) = 5 ⋅ 3sin(𝑡) = 15sin(𝑡) = 3 ⋅ 𝑦(𝑡)

Hence, the system satisfies homogeneity.

 Electromagnetic Spectrum Used for Communication

The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum consists of a wide range of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation.
In communication systems, only a specific portion of the EM spectrum is used for transmitting information.
Frequency Ranges Used in Communication
Band Name Frequency Range Wavelength
Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) < 3 kHz > 100 km
Very Low Frequency (VLF) 3 kHz – 30 kHz 10 km – 100 km
Low Frequency (LF) 30 kHz – 300 kHz 1 km – 10 km
Medium Frequency (MF) 300 kHz – 3 MHz 100 m – 1 km
High Frequency (HF) 3 MHz – 30 MHz 10 m – 100 m
Very High Frequency (VHF) 30 MHz – 300 MHz 1 m – 10 m
Ultra High Frequency (UHF) 300 MHz – 3 GHz 10 cm – 1 m
Super High Frequency (SHF) 3 GHz – 30 GHz 1 cm – 10 cm
Extremely High Frequency (EHF) 30 GHz – 300 GHz 1 mm – 1 cm
Important Communication Bands
 AM Radio: 535 kHz – 1605 kHz (MF band)
 FM Radio: 88 MHz – 108 MHz (VHF band)
 TV Broadcast: VHF (30–300 MHz), UHF (300 MHz–3 GHz)
 Wi-Fi: 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz (UHF/SHF)
 Bluetooth: 2.4 GHz (UHF)
 Cellular Networks:
 2G/3G: 850 MHz – 1900 MHz
 4G LTE: 700 MHz – 2.6 GHz
 5G: 3 GHz – 100 GHz (SHF & EHF)
 Satellite Communication: 1 GHz – 30 GHz (UHF/SHF).

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INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION U-3 Lecture Notes by- Shrey Anant Sandiman

 Fourier Transform
Fourier transform is a transformation technique which transforms non periodic signals from the continuous
time domain to the corresponding frequency domain. Fourier transform provides a frequency domain
description of time domain signals. Being a transform, no information is created or lost in the process, so the
original signal can be recovered from knowing the Fourier transform, and vice versa.
𝐹𝑇 𝐹𝑇
𝑥(𝑡) ⟷ 𝑋(𝑓) 𝑥(𝑡) ⟷ X(𝜔)
∞ ∞
Fourier transform 𝑋(𝑓) = ∫−∞ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑋(𝜔) = ∫−∞ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Inverse Fourier transform 𝑥(𝑡) = ∫ ∞ 𝑋(𝑓)𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑓 𝑑𝑓 1 ∞
−∞ 𝑥(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑋(𝜔)𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔
2𝜋 −∞
Frequency response or Fourier spectrum : 𝑋(𝑓) = |𝑋(𝑓)|𝑒 𝐽𝜃(𝑓) or 𝑋(∞) = |𝑋(𝜔)|𝑒 𝐽𝜃(𝜔)
Amplitude spectrum |𝑋(𝑓)| |𝑋(𝜔)| Even function of frequency
Phase spectrum : ∠𝑋(𝑓) = 𝜃(𝑓) ∠𝑋(𝜔) = 𝜃(𝜔) Odd function of frequency
The Fourier transform is a complex valued quantity. The magnitude spectrum |𝑋(𝑓)| gives the information
about the relative magnitudes of the complex exponentials that make up 𝑥(𝑡). The phase spectrum 𝜃(𝑓) does
not affect the magnitudes and gives the information about the relative phases of all the frequency componenets.

 Elements of a Communication System- Transmitter and Receiver

A communication system is designed to transmit information (message) from a source to a destination through
a channel. The essential elements of a communication system are:
1. Information Source, 2. Transmitter, 3.Channel, 4. Receiver, 5. Destination

In this section, we will focus on the Transmitter and Receiver, the two most vital functional blocks in the
communication process.
Transmitter: The transmitter is responsible for processing the message signal and converting it into a suitable
form for transmission over the channel.
Main Components of a Transmitter:
Component Function
Input Transducer Converts non-electrical signals (e.g., sound) into electrical signals.
Modulator Superimposes the message signal onto a high-frequency carrier wave.
Amplifier Boosts the strength of the modulated signal for efficient transmission.
Antenna (for wireless) Converts electrical signals into electromagnetic waves and radiates them.
Example: In radio broadcasting, the microphone acts as the transducer, the modulator creates AM or FM
signals, and the antenna radiates the signal.
Receiver: The receiver captures the signal transmitted over the channel, extracts the original message, and
delivers it to the destination.
Main Components of a Receiver:
Component Function
Antenna Captures incoming electromagnetic signals.
Tuner Selects the desired frequency or channel.
Demodulator Recovers the original message signal from the modulated carrier.
Amplifier Strengthens the weak received signal.
Output Transducer Converts electrical signals back to non-electrical form (e.g., sound).

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INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION U-3 Lecture Notes by- Shrey Anant Sandiman

Example: In a radio receiver, the antenna picks up signals, the tuner selects the desired station, the
demodulator extracts the audio, and the speaker (transducer) outputs the sound.

 Need of Modulation
Modulation is the process of varying a carrier signal (usually a high-frequency sine wave) in accordance
with the message signal (low-frequency baseband signal). It is an essential process in communication systems.
Why Modulation is Necessary
1. To Reduce the Size of the Antenna
 The size of a transmitting antenna is directly proportional to the wavelength of the signal.
 For a baseband audio signal (e.g., 1 kHz), the required antenna length would be several kilometers, which
is impractical.
 Modulation increases the frequency of the signal, making the required antenna length much shorter and
practical.
2. To Avoid Signal Overlap (Multiplexing)
 If all message signals were transmitted in the baseband range, they would interfere with each other.
 Modulation shifts signals to different frequency bands, allowing multiple signals to be transmitted
simultaneously without interference.
3. To Improve Signal Range and Quality
 Baseband signals cannot travel long distances due to attenuation and noise.
 Modulated high-frequency signals travel longer distances more efficiently and are less susceptible to
distortion.
4. To Facilitate Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
 Modulation allows multiple signals to be transmitted over the same channel by assigning them different
carrier frequencies.
 This is essential in applications like radio, TV broadcasting, and mobile communication.
5. To Match the Transmission Medium
 Different media (like coaxial cables, optical fibers, or air) have preferred frequency ranges.
 Modulation ensures that the signal is transmitted within the efficient frequency range of the medium.

 Introduction to Analog and Digital Communication Systems

A communication system is a setup that enables the transmission of information from a source to a
destination. Based on the nature of the signal being transmitted, communication systems are broadly classified
into: Analog Communication Systems and Digital Communication Systems
Analog Communication System
The figure below shows a block diagram of a typical analog communication system. It represents how a
continuous-time signal (like human speech or audio) is transmitted from a source to a destination using analog
techniques.

1. Information Source
 The origin of the message to be transmitted.
 Produces information in a non-electrical (analog) form (e.g., sound, image).
2. Input Transducer
 Converts the non-electrical signal into an electrical analog signal.
 For example, a microphone converts sound into an electrical signal.
Purpose: Makes the message compatible with electronic circuits and transmission media.

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INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION U-3 Lecture Notes by- Shrey Anant Sandiman

3. Transmitter
 Prepares the analog signal for efficient transmission over the channel.
 Performs operations such as:
 Amplification (to boost the signal)
 Modulation (to shift the signal's frequency)
 Filtering (to remove unwanted components)
Output: A modulated analog signal ready to be sent through the channel.
4. Channel
 The medium through which the signal travels from transmitter to receiver.
 Can be:
 Wired: Coaxial cable, telephone lines
 Wireless: Air, space, etc.
Note: The channel often introduces noise and attenuation (loss of signal strength).
5. Receiver
 Extracts the original analog message signal from the received signal.
 Performs operations such as:
 Demodulation
 Amplification
 Filtering
Purpose: Reconstructs the original signal as closely as possible.
6. Output Transducer
 Converts the electrical analog signal back to its original non-electrical form.
 Example: A loudspeaker converts the electrical signal back to sound.
7. Destination
 The final point where the message is received and understood by the user.
 Can be a person, display device, or another system.
Digital Communication System
The figure below illustrates the block diagram of a digital communication system. It includes three essential
signal processing operations: 1. Source Coding, 2. Channel Coding, 3. Modulation

If the information source is analog, it must first be converted into digital form before processing.
1. Source Encoder
 Converts the digital signal generated by the source into another efficient digital format.
 Removes redundancy in the message signal.
 Enables efficient bandwidth utilization.
Advantage: Reduces the bandwidth requirement by compressing the source data.
2. Source Decoder
 Located at the receiver.
 Performs the inverse operation of the source encoder.
 Reconstructs the original digital source output and delivers it to the user.
3. Channel Encoder
 Introduces controlled redundancy in the signal using parity bits.

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INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION U-3 Lecture Notes by- Shrey Anant Sandiman

 This redundancy helps detect and correct errors caused by channel noise.
Functions:
 Maps incoming digital data to codewords (data + parity).
 Reduces errors in the received data.
 Increases system reliability by mitigating the effect of noise.
4. Channel Decoder
 Located at the receiver end.
 Reverses the effect of channel encoding by removing redundancy and correcting errors.
Functions:
 Converts codewords back into digital messages.
 Reduces noise effects for reliable communication.
 Complements the channel encoder to ensure error resilience.
Note:
 Source Coding removes redundancy.
 Channel Coding adds redundancy in a controlled way for error detection/correction.
5. Modulation
 Used to transmit the signal efficiently over the physical channel.
 Converts digital data into waveforms suitable for transmission.
Types of Digital Modulation:
 ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying)
 FSK (Frequency Shift Keying)
 PSK (Phase Shift Keying)
6. Demodulation
 Performed at the receiver end.
 Extracts the digital data from the modulated signal.
 Delivers it to the channel decoder for further processing.
 Includes modulator, physical channel, and detector (enclosed in a dotted box).
 Called "discrete" because both input and output are in digital form.
 Traditional systems perform modulation and coding separately, which increases bandwidth usage.
 In advanced systems, joint modulation and coding is performed to optimize bandwidth efficiency.

 Examples of Telecommunication Systems

Telecommunication systems are technologies that allow transmission of information over distances. These
systems use various transmission media and modulation techniques to send data, voice, and video. Below are
the primary types of telecommunication systems along with their working principles and applications.
1. Telephone System (Landline)
 Definition: A wired telecommunication system that allows two-way voice communication.
 Working Principle:
o Converts voice into electrical signals using a microphone.
o Transmits through copper wires via circuit-switched networks.
o Reconverted into sound at the receiver's end using a speaker.
 Key Features:
o Reliable for voice communication.
o Operates mostly in the audio frequency range (~300 Hz – 3400 Hz).
o Low latency and minimal signal loss in local connections.
 Applications:
o Domestic and business voice communication.
o Emergency services and customer support systems.
2. Radio Communication System
 Definition: A wireless system used for one-way transmission of audio signals via electromagnetic waves.
 Working Principle:

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INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION U-3 Lecture Notes by- Shrey Anant Sandiman

o Audio signals are modulated (AM/FM) and transmitted through radio waves.
o A receiver demodulates the signal and plays the audio.
 Frequency Bands:
o AM Radio: 535 kHz – 1705 kHz.
o FM Radio: 88 MHz – 108 MHz.
 Key Features:
o Wide coverage area.
o Simple and low-cost receivers.
o Broadcasts can be received by millions of listeners simultaneously.
 Applications:
o Entertainment (music and talk shows).
o Emergency broadcasts.
o Military and aviation communication.
3. Television Communication System
 Definition: A system that transmits both audio and video signals for one-way communication.
 Working Principle:
o Captures audio and video using cameras and microphones.
o Transmits signals using radio waves or cable (terrestrial/satellite/IPTV).
o Signals are decoded by TV receivers.
 Frequency Bands:
o VHF (Very High Frequency): 30 MHz – 300 MHz.
o UHF (Ultra High Frequency): 300 MHz – 3 GHz.
 Key Features:
o Audio-visual content.
o Real-time broadcasting of live events.
o Can carry multiple channels over a single frequency using multiplexing.
 Applications:
o News, entertainment, sports broadcasting.
o Educational and public information systems.
4. Mobile Communication System
 Definition: A wireless two-way communication system using cellular networks.
 Working Principle:
o Region divided into cells, each with a base station.
o Mobile phones connect to nearest base station using radio frequencies.
o Signal is routed through switching systems to the destination.
 Generations of Mobile Technology:
o 1G: Analog voice.
o 2G: Digital voice and SMS.
o 3G/4G: High-speed internet and multimedia.
o 5G: Ultra-fast speed, low latency, IoT support.
 Key Features:
o Supports voice, video calls, messaging, and internet.
o High mobility and global connectivity.
o Uses frequency bands from 700 MHz to 3.5 GHz (varies by region and generation).
 Applications:
o Voice and video communication.
o Internet access and app-based services.
o Remote control and IoT applications.
5. Satellite Communication System
 Definition: A communication system that uses satellites orbiting Earth to relay signals between two
distant Earth stations.

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INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION U-3 Lecture Notes by- Shrey Anant Sandiman

 Working Principle:
o Uplink: Earth station sends signal to the satellite.
o Transponder amplifies and converts the frequency.
o Downlink: Satellite transmits signal to receiving Earth station.
 Frequency Bands:
o L-band: 1–2 GHz (GPS).
o C-band: 4–8 GHz (television).
o Ku-band: 12–18 GHz.
o Ka-band: 26–40 GHz.
 Key Features:
o Provides communication in remote and inaccessible regions.
o High coverage area (can cover one-third of the Earth).
o Delay (latency) due to large distance.
 Applications:
o DTH television services.
o Global navigation systems (GPS).
o Remote sensing and Earth observation.
o Disaster management and military communication.
Summary Table
System Medium Type Key Feature Example Use
Telephone (Landline) Wired Two-way Circuit-switched, stable signal Voice calls, customer service
Radio Wireless One-way Wide-area audio broadcast FM/AM stations, public alerts
Television Wireless/Cable One-way Audio-visual broadcast News, entertainment,
education
Mobile Communication Wireless Two-way Cellular network, high mobility Calls, internet, messaging
Satellite Wireless Two-way Global coverage, long range DTH TV, GPS, disaster
Communication communication

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