CHAPTER I

Introduction to Lie Detection Techniques

A.) Polygraphy Operational Terms

1. Polygraphy– it is the scientific method of detecting deception, using a polygraph.

Polygraphy is the more popular term for Forensic Psychophysiology using the

polygraph also called Polygraph Science a technique used to determine the stress

levels of a person regarding a specific issue to ascertain whether he/she is deceptive or

telling the truth.

2. Polygraph– is an instrument for the recording of changes in blood pressure, pulse

rate, respiration and skin resistance as indication of emotional disturbances especially

of lying when questioned. It is an instrument whereby multiple signals from the

sensors are recorded on a single strip of moving paper. A scientific instrument that

simultaneously records the changes in physiological processes of the human body,

other name for polygraph is truth verifier and lie detector.

The word was derived from two Greek word poly means “many” and graphe

means “writing”. Literally means “many writings”.

3. Polygraph Examination – is a form of Psychophysiological Veracity Examination

which involves the examination of a subject using the polygraph that officially covers

the moment the subject enters the polygraph suite until he leaves. It may, however,

include the time when the examiner officially accepted the case and commenced

gathering information from the requesting party.

4. Polygraph Test–is the specific part of the polygraph examination that transpires

from the moment the chart drive (kymograph) is turned on until it is turned off. It is

the actual test whereby the reactions of the subject on a specific stimulus are being

recorded using the polygraph instrument.

5. Polygraph Examiner/Polygraphist – is the expert in polygraph science who uses

polygraph instrument to verify truthfulness of a subject’s statement or testimony.

Other descriptions for the examiner are polygraphist, forensic psychophysiology's (FP)

and polygraph examiner (PE).

6. Detection– it is an act of discovery of existence, presence of fact or something

hidden or obscure.

7. Lie – refers to uttering intentionally false statement, falsehood, anything that

deceives or creates false impression, to make untrue statement knowingly especially

with intent to deceive and to give an erroneous or misleading impression.

8. Lying– the uttering or conveying of falsehood or creating a false or misleading

information with the intention of affecting wrongfully the acts and opinion of other.

9. Liar– refers to a person who utters intentionally a false statement.

10. Chart or Polygrams – is the polygraph chart tracings obtained from a subject. It

consists of polygraph chart and the traci

ngs (or recorded physiological responses) of a

subject from specific stimuli.

11. Subject– it refers to the person to be (or being) examined, usually a suspected

criminal. The subject is also called examinee.

12. Specific Response – is any deviation from the normal tracing of the subject.

13. Normal Tracing – is a tracing on the chart wherein the subject answered in the

irrelevant question.

B.) Lie Detection Techniques

1. Forensic Assessment Interview Technique– Allows the interviewer to assess non-

verbal and verbal behavior without the need of attachments to make the accurate

determination of truth or deception.

a. Verbal – are signs of lying observe to a person through the words that are

spoken, speed of delivery of words, choice of words, tone of voice and the tense of

language

b. Non-Verbal – are signs of lying observe to a person through patterns of body

movements, gestures, facial expressions, body posture, positioning and movements

use to explain chosen words.

2. Polygraphy

3. Word association test (WAT)introduced by Francis Galton in (1879). Is a form of lie

detection whereby he used a list of 75 stimulus words with which he read and noted

his responses to the words tended to remain alike and they were typically taken from

his childhood experiences. A list of stimulus and non-stimulus words is read to the

subject who is instructed to answer as quickly as possible. The answer to the

questions may be a “yes” or a “no”. Unlike the lie detector, the time interval between

the words uttered by the examiner and the answer of the subject is recorded. When

the subject is asked questions with reference to his name, address, civil status,

nationality, etc. Which has no relation to the subject-matter of the investigation, the

tendency is to answer quickly. But when the questions bear some words which have to

do with the criminal acts the subject allegedly committed, like knife, gun, or hammer

which was used in the killing, the tendency is to delay the answer. The test is not

concerned with the answer, be it a ‘yes” or a “no”. The important factor is the time of

response in relation to stimulus or non-stimulus words. Like the use of the lie

detector, the subject cannot be compelled to be subjected to the test without his

consent.

4. Psychological Stress Evaluator (PSE)invented by Allen Bell Jr. and Charles

McQuiston (1972). It begun in United States when Dektor Counter-Intelligence &

Security, Inc. developed an instrument called Psychological Stress Evaluator (PSE)

that can detect emotional stress in a person’s voice. When a person speaks, there are

audible voice frequencies and superimposed on these are the inaudible frequency

modulations which are products of minute oscillation of the muscles of the voice

mechanism. Such oscillations of the muscles micro tremor occur at the rate of 8 to 14

cycles per second and controlled by the central nervous system.

When the person is under stress as when he is lying, the micro tremor in the

voice utterance in moderately or completely suppressed. The degree of suppression

caries inversely to the degree of psychological stress in the speaker. The psychological

stress evaluator (PSE) detects, measures, and graphically displays the voice

modulations that we cannot hear. When a person is relaxed and responding honestly

to the questions, those inaudible frequencies are registered clearly on the instrument.

But when a person is under stress, as when he is lying, these frequencies tend to

disappear.

Procedure:

The examiner meets the requesting party to determine the specific purpose of

the examination and to begin formulation of relevant questions. A pre-test interview is

conducted with the subject to help him or her feel at ease with the examiner, to

provide an opportunity to specify matters, to eliminate outside issues, and to review

questions that will be asked. An oral test of about 12 to 15 “yes” or “no” questions or

given which is recorded on a tape recorder. The questions are a mixture of relevant

and irrelevant questions. Immediately following the test or at a later time, the tape is

processed through the Psychological Stress Evaluator for analysis of the answers.

If stress is indicated, the subject is given opportunity to provide additional

clarification. A retest is given to verify correction and clarification.

5. Hypnosis first introduce by Anton Mesmer. The technique of inducing a person into

a state of consciousness whereby he can respond to questions and is very susceptible

to suggestions. (MS Encarta Reference Library, 2003)

This altered state of consciousness and heightened responsiveness to suggestion

can be used to elicit the truth from a person. However, not all individuals are

susceptible to hypnotic induction. People who are compulsive-depressive and strong-

willed (like lawyers, accountants, and physicians) are usually non-hypnotizable. (Solis,

P. 1987)

Reasons: (why it is not admissible in court

It lacks the general scientific acceptance of the reliability of hypnosis per se in

ascertaining the truth from falsity. The fear that the Trier of fact will give uncritical

and absolute reliability to a scientific device without consideration of its flaw in

ascertaining veracity. The possibility that the hypnotized subject will deliberately

fabricate. The prospect that the state of heightened suggestibility in which the

hypnotized subject is suspected will produce distortion of the fact rather than the

truth. The state of the mind, skill and professionalism of the examiner are too

subjective to permit admissibility of the expert testimony.

6. Truth Serum invented by Dr. Edward Mandel House. In this lie-detection method,

the term truth serum is a misnomer (a fallacy of description). Giving a drug to the

examinee does not make him tell the truth, thus the chemical administered is not a

serum but is actually a mind-distorting drug. In this method, common drugs used are

hyoscine hydrobromide and scopolamine. The procedure does not make someone

tell the truth and the thing administered is not serum but actually a drug. When the

proper point is reached, the questioning begins and the subject fells a compulsion to

answer the questions truthfully. He forgets his alibi which he may have built up to

cover his guilt. He may give details of his acts or may even implicate others. The drug

acts as depressant in the nervous system. Clinical evidence indicates the various

segments of the brain particularly the cortex. Statements taken from the subjects

while under the influence of truth serum are evolutionary obtained hence they are not

admissible as evidence.

7.Narco-AnalysisThis method is similar to the preceding technique. However, the

drugs used in Narcoanalysis (also called Narcosynthesis) are sodium amytal and

sodium pentothal to sedate the subject. When the narcotic effects appear,

questioning starts. The drug causes depression of the inhibitory mechanism of the

brain and the subject talks freely. A psychiatrist with a long experience on this drug

should be only allowed to administer this drug and conduct subsequent interrogation.

The result of this technique is not admissible in court. (Solis, P. 1987)

8.Intoxication with Alcohol can reveal the real character behind the façade of a

person. The apparent stimulation effect of alcohol is really the result of the control

mechanism of the brain. The apparent stimulation effect of alcohol is really the result

of the control mechanism of the brain, so alcohol, like truth serum and narcoanalysis
drugs “inhibit the inhibitor”.

The ability of alcohol to reveal the real person behind the mask which all of us

are said to wear “mask of sanity” is reflected in the age-old maxim, “in vino veritas”

(in wine there is truth).

The person whose statement is to be taken is allowed to take alcoholic beverages

to almost intoxication. Confessions made by the subjects while under the influence of

alcohol may be admissible if he is physically capable to recollect the facts that he has

uttered after the effects of alcohol have disappeared. But in most instances, the

subjects cannot recall everything that he had mentioned or he may refuse to admit the

truth of the statement given.

The knowledge of the truth is an essential requirement for the administration of

criminal justice. The success or failure in making decisions may rest solely on the

ability to evaluate the truth or falsity of the statement given by the suspects or

witness. The task for its determination initially lies on the hand of the investigator.

9.Statement Analysis

10.Voice Stress Analysis (VSA). The Computer Voice Stress Analyzer (CVSA)

manufactured by the National Institute of Truth Verification (NITV) is the latest in a

series of instruments known to detect deception in voice responses.

11. Brain Fingerprinting patented by Lawrence A. Farwell. The basic principle is that

different regions of the brain light up when people tell the truth or lie, and further,

that different regions are activated depending upon the type of lie. Dr. Farwell's

research, however, looks at a specific type of electrical brain wave, called P300, which

activates when a person sees a familiar object.

12. Functional MR Imaging (fMRI) - measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood
flow
P a g e 4 | 47

C.) Early Methods of Detecting Deception

Ordeal, Trial or Judicium Dei is a common method of deciding guilt or

innocence and a practice of referring questions to the judgment of God, Determined by

Various means, particularly by physical tests.

Ordeal defined a severe test of character or endurance; a trying course of

experience, A medieval form of judicial trial in which the accused was subjected to

various test.

A term of varying meaning closely related in the Medieval Latin “Dei Indicum”

meaning “Miraculous Decision”.

The Holy Bible contains many events of surviving ordeal because of God’s

Intervention. One of them was Daniel in the lion’s den. In the new Testaments, this

Divine intervention continued, one famous incident was when the Apostle Paul was

bitten by a snake but did not die.

For the first decades of his renewed existence, the Medieval Coroner had to be

present at some curious and barbaric rites connected with the law. These were the

various “ordeals”, a semi-magical method of determining guilt or innocence which goes

right back to pre-historic times through many cultures prior to the coming of the

Anglo-Saxons.

The idea that lying produces physical side-effects has long been claimed. In

based on the

idea that their nervousness was to blame. In ancient China the suspect held a

handful of rice in his or her mouth during a prosecutor's speech. Since salivation was

believed to cease at times of emotional anxiety, the person was considered guilty if by

the end of that speech the rice was dry.

Throughout Europe the ordeal existed in various forms under the sanction of
law and was closely related to the oath. The most prevalent kinds of ordeal were those

of fire, water, and the wager of battle.

Ayur-Veda “Hindu book of health and science” the earliest known reference

of the methods for detecting deception. Basis of the invention of polygraph.

1. Red Hot Iron Ordeal

This ordeal is practiced in the hill tribe ofRajhmal in the North Bengal.

a.a.The accused had to carry a bar of red-hot iron in his hands while he walked

nine marked paces. In the unlikely event of no burns appearing on his hands, he was

adjudged innocent. Otherwise, he was promptly hanged.

b.b. The accused placed his tongue to a red hot iron nine times (9) unless burned

sooner. If burned, he is put to death.

2. Ordeal by Balance

This ordeal is practiced in the Institute of Vishnu, India.

a.a. A scale is used, in one end of the scale the accused is placed and in the other

end is a counter balance. The Person will step out of the scale and listen to a judge to

deliver an exhortation on the balance and get back in, if he was found lighter that

before, then he should be acquitted.

3. Ordeal by Water

This ordeal was the usual mode of trial allowed to member of the lower classes. The

water is regarded as symbol of flood in the Old Testament that washed the sins from

the face of the earth. The flood water allowed only the righteous people to survive. In

ancient England, water ordeal was the usual mode of trial allowed for members of the

lower classes.

There are two kinds of ordeal by water and of cold water.

a.) Boiling Water Ordeal– According to the laws of Athelstan the first king of

England.

a.a. The ordeal of boiling water consisted of lifting a stone out of boiling water, if
the accused was able to lift a stone out of the boiling water he is considered innocent

otherwise he is guilty.

b.b. Used in modern Africa. The method is that the subject will plunged their

right arms into the boiling pot to the elbow and step into other side of the fire. All are

told to undergo the test without a murmur and when all are finished, they are told to

return at the same time the next afternoon. The one who by that time had lost some or

showed blisters would prove the thief. (points out who is the one who steal among his

tribe mates)

c.c. Practiced in Asian Countries. The accused was forced to dip his hands

into boiling water or oil and ask to pick up stone in it. If remains unhurt the he is

innocent.

b.) Cold Water Ordeal–The usual mode of trial for witchcraft practiced in

Europe and early United States (17th century).

a.a. In this ordeal, the accused was tied at feet and hands and was lowered to

cold water by rope. This rope is tied around the defendant’s waist and had a knot a

particular distance from the torso. If both knot and accused dipped beneath the surface

of the water, the accused was proven innocent. If the knot is dry or the water refused to

receive him, the defendant was guilty.

b.b. This was the usual mode of trial for witchcraft. It involves a “no-win”

situation just like some other dangerous forms of ordeal. In this ordeal, the accused

was put into a sack then thrown into an icy pond. If the accused sank this showed he

was innocent, but he might well drown anyway. If he floated, this was taken proof that

he was lying and he would be hanged.

4. Ordeal by Rice Chewing

This ordeal is practiced by Indians.

a.a. It is performed with a kind of rice called “sathee”, prepared with various

incantations (prayers or chants). The person on trial eats the sathee, with the face to

east and then spits upon a pea leaf. If saliva is mixed with blood or the corner of his

mouth swells or he trembles, he is declared to be a liar.

5. Ordeal of the Red Water

The ordeal is also known as “sassy bark” is used in the wide region of Eastern Africa.

a.a. The accused is made to fast for twelve hours, and then swallows a small

amount of rice. Then he will be imbedded in dark colored water. The water is actually

emetic and if the suspect ejects all rice, he is considered innocent of the charge.

Otherwise, the accused is guilty.

6. Ordeal by Combat

This ordeal originated from India. In England, King Henry III abolished all legal

ordeals except Ordeal by Combat. This ordeal was vividly dramatized in the movie

“Ivanhoe” based on the novel of the same title.

a.a. The aggrieved party claimed the right to fight the alleged offender or to pay a

champion to fight for him. The victor is said to win not by own strength but because of

supernatural powers that had intervened on the side of the right, as in the duel in the

European ages in which the “judgment of God was thought to determine the winner”.

If still alive after the combat, the loser might be hanged or burned for criminal offense

or have a hand cut off and property confiscated in civil actions.

7. Ordeal of the Corsnaed (Ordeal by Blessed Bread)

This ordeal is practiced in China and Alexandria, Egypt.

a.a. A priest puts the corsnaed or hallowed bread into the mouth of the accused,

with various imprecations (prayers). If the accused swallowed it, he was freed from

punishment.

8. Test of the Eucharist

This ordeal is practiced in European Countries.

a.a. This was applied chiefly among the clergies and monks. When they look the

host, it was believed the God would smite the guilty with sickness or death. Others

believe that if the accused is innocent, when given a poisonous drink for him to take in,

Angel Gabriel will descend from heaven to prevent the accused from taking in the

poisonous drink.

9. Ordeal of the Bier

This ordeal is practiced in Australian and European Countries.

a.a. It’s was an ancient belief that the slain dead could point out their killer. In

England, it was customary for the accused approach the bier on which the corpse lay,

in view of the witness, the wounds of the victim were observed to see if they began to

bleed again. They believe that murderer is near, which causes the blood to flow out

from the wound of the victim. This ordeal was recorded well by Shakespeare in

“Richard III”.

b.b. The corpse was brought on a Bier of boughs (trunk of trees) after which the

natives ask the corpse if it has been bewitched. If the victim died by witchcraft, the

corpse supposed to know more and if the sorcerer who killed him was present, the

corpse will touch him.

10. Ordeal of the Needle

This ordeal is practiced in Wanaka, Eastern Africa.

a.a. A red-hot needle was drawn through the lips of the alleged criminal and if

blood flowed from the wound, he was deemed guilty; but if none, he is innocent.

11. Ordeal by Heat and Fire

This ordeal is practiced in East Germany, Early Scandinavian Countries and early

England.

a.a. The accused walked barefooted over coals of fire.

b.b. Made to walk through fire, if he was unharmed by the fire he was

considered innocent.

12. Trial of the Cross (Test of the Cross Ordeal)

This ordeal is practiced in Europe.

a.a. The accuser and the accused were placed under the cross with their arms

extended or crosswise and the first to move his hands or suffer them to fall was held

guilty.

b.b. The accused was placed before relics and two dice were then produced, one

marked with a cross, of these one taken up at hazard. If it happened to bear the sign of

the cross, the accused was acquitted.

13. Trial of the Waxen Shirt

a.a. The accused was dressed in cloth covered with wax and walked barefooted

over coals of fire. If he was unhurt by the fire and the wax did not melt, he was

considered innocent.

14. Hereditary Sieve Method

It was mentioned by Hans Gross, the Father of Criminalistics in his famous book in

criminal investigation.

a.a. Beans were thrown into the sieve as the name of the suspect was called,

mentioned this ordeal. If the beans jump out of the sieve, the owner of the sieve is

innocent. If the beans remained in the sieve the person named is a thief.

15. Donkey’s Tail Ordeal

Psychological theory

a.a. The donkey is placed in one room alone and observed it, and if the donkey

cried the accused is guilty of the crime, because deep inside and in his conscience, he

is guilty.

16. Ordeal of the Tiger

Practiced in Siam (Thailand).

a.a. The accused and accuser are place on a cage of a tiger; if the tiger spare one

of them he is considered innocent.

17. Trial by Torture

a.a. The accused was put into a severe physical test.

18. Drinking Ordeal

This ordeal is practiced in Nigeria, Brahamic India and India.

a.a. The Accused was given a decoction to drink by the priest, if innocent; no

harm befalls him, but if guilty, will die.

P a g e 7 | 47

19.Wager of Battle

a.a. Involves a pledge to engage in a battle, especially in order to establish guilt or

innocence by single combat, he will go in a battle in order to prove his innocence.

20. Crocodile Ordeal

a.a. The accused would cross a river full of crocodiles, if he reached the other side

unharmed then he deemed innocent.

D.) Other Countries Practicing Ordeal

1. Burma– The (Ordeal by Divination) is being practiced in this country, whereby it

involves two parties being furnished with candles of equal size and lighted

simultaneously; the owner of the candle that outlast the other is adjudged to have won

his cause.

2. Madagascar– Legal authorities practiced trial by ordeal. The supposed criminal was

made to drink a decoction; a poisonous fruit called “tangena”, a small dose is fatal,

by managing to size of the dose, those who administer it can decide result.

3. Borneo– The accuser and accused were presented shellfish placed on a plate. An

irritating fluid was then poured on the shellfish and the litigant whose shellfish moved

first was adjudged the winner.

4. Greece– The (Axe Ordeal) is being practiced in this country. A suspended axe was

spun at the center of a group of suspects. When the axe stopped, whoever was in the

line with the blade as supposed to be guilty out by the divine providence.

5. Nigeria– aa. The priest “greased a cock’s feather” and pierced the tongue of the

accused, if feather passed through the tongue easily, the accused was deemed innocent.

If not, the accused is guilty. bb. The pouring of corrosive liquid into the eyes of the

accused who was supposed to be unharmed if innocent.cc. Pouring of boiling oil over
the hand of the accused with the usual requisites for guilt or innocence is also

practiced.

In the Middle of the 13th century some of the ordeal had died out in England and

on the other Continents.

CHAPTER II

Scientist and Manufacturers in the Development of Lie Detection Techniques

In the middle of 19th century Dr. Hans Gross defined “search for truth” as a

basis and goal of all criminal investigation. He stated, a large of the criminal work is

nothing more than a battle against lies.

Throughout the centuries, man sustained to experiment with more scientific

methods in determining truth and deception with the following scientists having

contributed much in the development of polygraph.

A.) Development of Polygraph

A. Angelo Mosso (1895) (student of Cesare Lombroso) – He stated that fear

influenced the heart and could be used as a basis for detecting deception. He uses

“Sphygmanometer” and scientific radio to study fear, there is however, no evidence

that mosso ever put this into practice.

He developed the mechanical device known as the “Scientific Cradle” often

called “Mosso’s Cradle”. The device was nothing more than a balanced table-like

platform, mounted on a fulcrum.

B. Cesare Lombroso (1836-1909) - An Italian scientist, employed the first

scientific instrument to detect deception known as Hydrosphymograph, this

instrument measures changes in pulse and blood pressure when suspects were

questioned about their involvement of a specific offense. He modified the

plethysmograph thus inventing a more modern device called hydrosphygmograph.

He was accorded the distinction of being the first person to utilize a scientific

instrument successfully in the detection of deception.

 C. William Moulton Marston (1915) (Father of Lie Detection) –He de lt with the

Sphygmomanometer and made researches on the usefulness of Sphygmomanometer

in detecting lies, which was used to obtain periodic discontinuous blood pressure

readings during the course of an examination

He recorded the respiration and noted the time of subject’s verbal responses.

He also experimented with galvanometer to record skin resistance changes and a

gripping device to record tension.

He was the first to use polygraph in espionage case in 1917-1918.

D. Dr. John A. Larson (1921) - He device an instrument that records both

blood-pressure and galvanic skin response. He introduced this machine to the

University of California and first applied in law enforcement work by the Berkeley

Police Department under its nationally renowned Police Chief August Vollmer.

He designed the first two recording channel polygraph in the history. The first

mechanical form of the present-day polygraph consists of two recording components

and that is the cardiosphymograph and the pneumograph.

E. Leonarde Keeler (1926) - He improves Larson’s Apparatus and in 1949 he

invented the “Keeler Polygraph”. He also designed a metal bellows and a

kymograph that pulled at a constant speed, a chart paper under the recording pens

from a roll of chart paper located inside the instrument.

F. John E. Reid (1945) - He designed a special chair equipped with metal

bellows for recording unobserved muscular activities of the arms, thighs and feet,

located on the arm of the chair and on the seat, this transmit singular muscular

activity to the recording polygraph.

He introduced the first recording channel instrument to be developed. This

instrument is excellent for detecting deceptions because it does not only have a

recording pen for cardiosphymograph, pneumograph and galvanograph but also it has

the muscular movement pen for the arms and thighs.

G. Vittorio Benussi (1914)–He successfully detected deception with a

Pneumograph, an instrument that graphically measures an examinee’s inhalation and

exhalation,Benussi thus demonstrated that changes in breathing patterns accompany

deception.

H. Harold Burtt (1918) - He determined that respiratory changes were

indication of deception. He found out that changes in systolic blood pressure were of

greater value in determining deception than in changes in respiration.

I. Luigi Galvani (1791)- He is Italian physiologist who was accorded the

distinction for developing the galvanic skin reflex (GSR) or the galvanometer, which

records electric bodily changes by measuring changes in person’s skin resistance to

electricity in terms of ohms (the lowest current ever recorded).

J. Jacques-ArseneD’arsonval – Declared that electricity is generated by the

body and named external friction as source of generation. He assorted those sweat

glands which the body at times store the electricity and at other times discharged

them.

K. Fere (1888) – He discovered that electro dermal response is caused by an

increase in the action of the heart and vital energy converted with human emotions.

He asserted that human body has the ability to generate store, discharged high voltage

of static electricity.

L. Harold Sticker (1897) – He introduced the method of detecting deception

from the galvanic impression on the chart tracing.

M. Otto Veraguth (1926) – He was the first to use the word “psychogalvanic

reflex”. He believed that electrical phenomena are due to the activity of sweat glands,

and such activity is known as “psychogalvanic”.

N. Francis Franke – He invented “plethysmograph” which was used to reveal

periodic undulations (waves) in blood pressure caused by the breathing cycle. (This

instrument was used by Mosso to measure changes in pulse and blood pressure.)

B.) Development of Questioning Technique

A. Leonarde Keeler (1942) – He developed the “relevant-irrelevant” test. The

theory of this test is that guilty reacts only to relevant questions and innocent shows
no reactions.

Keeler is also credited with introducing the “card test” and specialized in the

“peak of tension test”.

B. John E. Reid (1950) - He developed the “reviewed control question”

consisting of a known lie incorporated in to relevant – irrelevant test. The theory of the

test is to stimulate the innocent subject, to identify the general nervous tension and

guilt complex reactor and to improve contract between innocent and guilty subjects.

He also discovered the “Guilt-Complex Test” administered to the overly responsive

subject.This question became known as the Reid Control Question Technique

(RCQT) represented a major breakthrough in polygraph technique.

C. Cleve Backster (1947) (Bornon 27 February 1924 at Lafayette, New Jersey) -

In the late 1950s, he disassembled and remounted the Stoelting instrument into a

Samsonite luggage case thus introducing the first suitcase style polygraph. Backster

conceived the psychological set theory. Psychological set postulates that an individual

being asked a series of questions will mentally focus on those questions that have the

greatest salience, because they pose the greatest interest or immediate threat to his

general well-being at the point in time. This forms the basis of his zone of comparison

technique that provides constant monitoring of the subject’s reactivity and designed to

disclose outside issue. This is known as the “Backster’s Zone Comparison Test”.

D. Thomas Hayes Jaycox – He conducted a “name test” which he described as

a group of names of men who might have committed the crime to a suspect who gave

little or no apparent response except to one name at which his blood pressure and

respiration became abnormal.

E. Ronald E. Decker- the head of the Army Polygraph School who initiated the

modification of the Reid Polygraph Technique and called it the Modified General

Question Test (MGQT).

F. Professor James Allan Matte (1977) –He developed the Polygraph Quadri-

Zone Comparison Technique (renamed in January 1995 as Quadri-Track Zone

Comparison Technique - QTZCT). QTZCT was a modification of BZCT because it

provided a fourth Track or Spot for quantification designed to recover response energy

lost by the other tracks/spots as a result of “inside issue” factors, which Matte

identified as “Fear of Error” by the innocent, and “Hope of Error” by the guilty.

In the same year, he developed the Suspicion-Knowledge-Guilt (SKG) test to

provide the Polygraphist with a single test capable of identifying the examinee(s) that

has major involvement, some direct involvement, or guilty knowledge, yet containing

similar controls to that found in the QTZCT. At that time, S-K-Y Test did not yet

contain any earlier-in-life control questions.

G. Paul K. Minor (1980) – He is the Chief Polygraph Examiner of the FBI, who

modified in the R/I technique to include control questions of measured relevance to

the target issue but not designed to cause an arousal. This latest modification of the

R/I technique is known as Modified Relevant-Irrelevant (MRI) Technique.

H. Nathan J. Gordon, William M. Waid, and Philip M. Cochetti (1987) – They

modified the BCZT to include two Backster exclusive control questions and one Reid

non-exclusive control question for comparison with three relevant questions which, at

the option of the Polygraphist, may be combined with Irrelevant Questions. A

symptomatic question, a sacrifice relevant question, and a countermeasure question

are also included in this format, which they named as Integrated Zone Comparison

Technique (IZCT).

C.) Early Publication and Laboratory on Lie Detection

A. Sir James Mackenzie (1906)–A famous heart specialist. It was said

that"polygraph" was used by him 1906 in his invention the "ink polygraph which

appeared in the British Medical Journal in 1908," which was used for medical reasons.

This early polygraph had accurate clockwork that drives paper ribbon with time

markers at one-fifth of a second

Makenzie wrote a second paper on the concept in 1915, when finishing his

undergraduate studies. He entered Harvard Law School and graduated in 1918, re-

publishing his earlier work in 1917.According to their son, Marston's wife, Elizabeth
Holloway Marston, was also involved in the development of the systolic blood-pressure

test, it was his mother Elizabeth, Marston’s wife, who suggested to him that 'When she

got mad or excited, her blood pressure seemed to climb (Lamb, 2001).Although

Elizabeth is not listed as Marston’s collaborator in his early work (Lamb &Matte

(1996), and others refer directly and indirectly to Elizabeth’s work on her husband’s

deception research. She also appears in a picture taken in his polygraph laboratory in

the 1920s (reproduced in Marston, 1938)."The comic book character, Wonder Woman

by William Marston (and influenced by Elizabeth Marston carries a magic lasso which

was modelled upon the systolic blood-pressure test.

B. Vittorio Benussi (1913) – He presented a paper before the second meeting of

the Italian society for psychology in Rome on the subject of his experiments regarding

respiratory symptoms of lying.

C. Richard O. Archer (1953) - The first polygraphist to record simultaneously

on regular basis the chest and abdominal breathing patterns. He was also the first

on to record simultaneously two galvanic skin reflexes.

In 1966, he founded the Journal of Polygraph Science, the oldest of the

polygraph publications.

He appeared to be the first Polygraphist in 1970 to use what is known as the

Mode of Answer technique in which an examinee repeats a word from the question

before answering “NO”.

D. Richard I. Golden (1969) - He presented a paper at the Annual Seminar of

American Polygraph Association at Houston, Texas Regarding his experiments using

existing control question techniques but requiring the subjects to answer each

question twice. The first time truthfully and the second time with lie, for the purpose

or requiring additional psycho-physiological data from the examinee by comparing his

subjective truthful answer with a known lie to the same question.

E. William Stern (1902) (Father of Statement Analysis) - Wrote an article “Die

Aussagepsychologie” (The Witness Psychology) hypothesizing that person’s

statement depends on the cognitive ability of the person as well as on the interviewing
process used to obtain the statement.

F. Daniel Defoe (1730) - wrote an essay suggesting that taking the pulse is a

practical and more humane method of determining a liar.

In relation to this, “Gesta Romanorum” a book published in 1906, stated that

during the middle Ages, a nobleman tested the fidelity of his wife by taking her pulse

G. Cesare Lombroso (1895)- published the 2nd edition of L’Homme Criminel

where he explained how he used plethysmograph and sphygmograph during the

interrogation of criminal suspects.

H. Wilhelm Wundt (1879) - He founded the first Psychological Laboratory in

Leipzig, Germany whereby he immediately attracted students from all over the world.

He modified Galton’s association method to an almost standardized form.

I. Fred E. Inbau (1942) - He wrote a book entitled “Lie Detection and Criminal

Interrogation” that explained the “peak of tension test” in describing the methodology

for the administration of a guilty knowledge test where the subject has not been

informed of the essential details of the case such as the object stolen, the amount of

money missing, or the implement used in the commission of the crime.

J. Dr. William J. Yankee (1968) – He presented a report of the

Computerization of Polygraphic Recordings to the Keeler Polygraph Institute

Alumni Association’s fifth annual seminar in Chicago. Yankee explained the basics of

scientific research and a method of quantifying those variables affecting the

polygraphic recordings as a means of computerizing the polygraph system.

D.) Other Pioneers in the Field of Deception Detection

A. Francis Galton (1879) - He developed the much-acclaimed psychological test

known as the “Word Association Test”, whereby the patient is presented with group

of words sufficiently separated in time to allow the patient to utter his first thought

generated by each word. Dr. Carl Guztav Jung later developed the work and

experiment of Galton.
B. Paul Wilhelm and Donald Burns (1951) – Invented an electronic

psychometric using electrodermal response as a basis for lie detection. Both have

proven that results of lie detection test (during) using their instrumental 95%

accurate.

C.Chester W. Darrow (1930) – He devised a research “photo polygraph” which

records several responses simultaneously, which are;

a. Electro dermal response

b. blood pressure

c. heart beat frequency

d. time between verbal stimuli and verbal response

e. signal marks

f. involuntary tremors of one hand

g. breathing amplitude and frequency

h. voluntary movement of the hand

D.Erasistratus – Greek physician (300 B.C.) had successfully noted the

frequency of heartbeat, upon application of some stimuli related to the question at

hand.

E. Galileo (1581) – Devised a gadget called “Pulsilogium” instrument used to

measure heartbeat frequency. He did not use device for lie detection purpose.

F. Dr. Charles E. Cady– He recommended the use of chloroform to solve

Lincoln’s assassination including the identification of the plotters.

Based on his three years of experience as army surgeon, he had observed rebel

officers divulge important information while they were partially under the influence of

chloroform.

G. Hugo Munsterberg (1908) – A German-American psychologist and

philosopher who introduced in United States the first forensic application of WAT in lie

detection and further suggested possibilities in detecting deception by recording

physiological changes.

H. Arthur Macdonald (1908) - an acquaintance of Lombroso who appeared

before the US congressional hearing proposing the creation of a federal laboratory to

study criminals and suggested the use of an apparatus containing all of the elements

of a modern polygraph

I. Christian Ruckmick (1936)– He repudiated the term psychogalvanic reflex

because such reaction is not a reflex, explained that the psychological nature of the

so-called psychogalvanic reflex is not completely understood, thus he proposed the

term electrodermal response and probably the first to conduct legitimate laboratory

study (1938) involving a Peak-of-Tension (POT) test resembling the current format.

J. Otto Lowenstein (1920) – a German psychiatrist who introduced an

apparatus that has two pneumographs which could record simultaneously the

movement of each foot, each hand, and the head in all three dimension; this

instrument was huge, impractical and difficult to maintain in working order, but it

was considered a true polygraph.

K. Akamatsu, Uchida and Togawa (1933) –they are Japanese psychologists

who suggested the use of electrodermal activity (EDA) for deception detection because

the conductance level was found to decrease during emotional changes.

L. Alexander R. Luria – a Russian psychologist who modified the word

association technique that was introduced by Galton so that it is suitable in the

Russian setting.

M. Father Walter G. Summers – He developed the pathometer, which measured

apparent changes in skin resistance to electricity; he used control questions, which he

called emotional standards, carefully selected from the suspect’s life in an attempt to

evoke intense pychogalvanic reactions to surprise, anger, shame or anxiety such as

‘Are you living with your wife?’ or ‘Were you ever arrested?’.

N. C.W. Darrow (1930)–He developed the Darrow Behavior Research

Photopolygraph (manufactured by C.H. Stoelting Company in Chicago, Illinois)

O. FBI Special Agent E.P. Coffey – The first FBI polygraphist (FP) and probably

the first examiner in the US Federal Government; he established the first federal
polygraph research program. (The 1st FBI use of polygraph in espionage was in 1938)

P. Captain Clarence D. Lee (1938) – He designed the Berkeley Psychograph

consisting of a chart drive or recording unit, a pneumograph or respiration unit, a

cardiograph or pulse-blood pressure unit, and a stimulus signal unit.

E.) Manufacturer in the Field of Deception Detection

A. Stoelting Company (Based at Chicago, Illinois) – They introduced in 1955

the Deceptograph model cat.no. 22500 – a polygraph that contained vacuum tubes in

its amplifier, which required significant warm-up time before use (30 minutes). The

deceptograph contained 3 recording channels for cardio, pneumo and GSR.

The Stoelting Company also introduced in 1966 the Emotional Stress Monitor

(ESM) cat. no. 22600 which was a 3-pen polygraph instrument. The most important

innovation in this model was the replacement of the vacuum tubes.

In 1968, it introduced a 4-pen ESM consisting of double pneumograph which

recorded simultaneously the thoracic and abdominal breathing patterns, in addition to

the GSR and the cardiograph. This new instrument provided a kymograph, which

recorded tracings an 8-inch chart. This was considered a major improvement in

instrumentation by professional polygraphists.

B. Biometrics Inc. (Based at Waltham, Massachusetts) (1969)–They developed a

cardio activity monitor (CAM) designed to obtain from the wrist or thumb the same

recording and chart patter obtained with the conventional sphygmograph using the

cardio medical cuff normally placed against the brachial artery at the inside upper

arm.

C. Dektor Counter-Intelligence & Security, Inc. (Based in Savannah, Georgia)

(1971) –They developed a device for the detection of emotional stress in a person’s

voice; this device was called Psychological Stress Evaluator (PSE) which was used

extensively in both the public and private sector in US.

D. Lafayette Instrument Company (1973) – They initiated the electronic trend

in polygraph instrumentation when it introduced the electronic cardio component.

E. National Institute of Truth Verification (NITV) – (Based in West Palm

Beach, Florida) (1980) - produced in the late 1980s what they termed as Computer

Voice Stress Analyzer (CVSA) The CVSA is marketed as a convenient replacement for

the polygraph.

In the early 1990’s, PSE began to be supplanted by the CVSA. Like the PSE, the

CVSA analyzes micro-tremors in a person’s voice. However, unlike PSE the CVSA

provides real-time graphical outputs or charts that examiners can score or numerically

evaluate.

CHAPTER III

Types of Liars, Lies and Signs of Lying

Children and those who suffer from autism cannot lie, Children cannot lie, but

as they acquire language, they learn to co-operate with others and learn about

deception, in order to survive in society. Lying has an unquestionable value in human

culture, for the ability to deceive one’s peers has evolved into one of the most advanced

and powerful of our cerebral functions. It is a power that helps us succeed in love, war

and commerce.

A.) Types of Liar

1. Panic Liar – a person who lies in order to avoid the consequences of confession. He

or she is afraid of embarrassment to love ones and is a serious blow to his or her ego.

A student forgets to do their homework, and the teacher asks for it.

 Teacher: "Did you complete your homework?"

 Student (panicking): "Uh… yes! But I left it at home."

 Teacher: "Okay, bring it tomorrow."

 Student (realizing the problem): "Oh… actually, my dog ate it."

2. Occupational Liar – a person who has lied for years. This Person is a practical liar
and lies when it has a higher payoff than telling truth.

A salesperson is trying to convince a customer to buy an expensive product.

3. Tournament Liar – a person who loves to lie and is excited by the challenge of not

being detected. He views as another contest and wants to win. He lies because it is the

only weapon remaining with which to fight. This person realizes that he or she will

probably be convinced but will not give anyone the satisfaction of hearing him or her

confess. He wants people to believe that the law is punishing an innocent person.

A poker player is bluffing during a high-stakes game.

4. Ethnological Liar – a person who was trained not to be a squealer. This person

loves to be interrogated and has taken a creed either personal or with others, that he

or she will never reveal the truth, the creed of underworld gangs.

5. Psychopathic Liar – this type of liar has no conscience. He shows no regret for his

dishonest actions and no manifestation of guilt. This is the most difficult type of liar

because he is good actor he can fool most investigator.

A manager at a company is caught stealing money from the company’s budget.

 CEO: "We found discrepancies in the financial records. Do you know anything about this?"

 Manager (calmly): "No idea. Maybe the accounting team made an error."

 CEO: "But we traced the transactions back to your account."

 Manager (without hesitation): "That’s impossible. Someone must have hacked my credentials.
You know I’ve always been loyal to this company."

6. Pathological Liar – a person who cannot distinguished what is right from wrong.

These are those people who are mentally sick.

7. Black Liar – a person who always pretends and a hypocrite.

A criminal gets caught for a robbery but falsely accuses an innocent person to escape punishment.

 Police Officer: "We have evidence that you were at the crime scene. Do you want to explain
yourself?"

 Criminal (lying maliciously): "I swear, it wasn’t me! It was John. He planned everything and
forced me to go along with it."

 Police Officer: "John? Are you saying he was the mastermind?"

  Criminal: "Yes! He even threatened me. Check his house—you’ll probably find the stolen money
there."

In reality, John is completely innocent, but the criminal fabricates a story to shift the blame and avoid
getting caught. This black lie is intentionally harmful, aiming to destroy someone else's life for selfish
gain.

B.) Types of Lies

1. Direct Denial - This Is Direct Denial of The Act in Question That Creates an

Emotional Sense of Disturbance. This disturbance refers to the conflict between what

is true and the attempted deception that creates an internal battle in the mind.

Example; “I didn’t do it”. The vague response permits the person to evade inner conflict

while seeming to answer the question. The reply given to a query must be evaluated in

terms of what asked to know if the answer is proper.

2. Lie of Omission - This type of lie that people usually used because it is simple to

tell. Individuals who will make use of this type of lie will tell the truth while omitting

details that could create possible troubles.

A witness is questioned about a hit-and-run accident.

 Police Officer: "Did you see what happened last night at the intersection?"

 Witness (who saw their friend commit the crime): "I saw a car speed through, but it was dark,
so I couldn’t really tell who was driving."

 Police Officer: "Did you notice any details about the car?"

 Witness (leaving out key details): "It was a black sedan, but I didn’t see the license plate."

In reality, the witness did see the driver and the full license plate number but chose to withhold that
information to protect their friend. This is a lie of omission—they aren’t technically lying outright, but
they are intentionally leaving out important details to mislead the investigation.

3. Lie of Fabrication – This is the most difficult type of lie that a subject could use in

an interview.

A person is being questioned about a stolen wallet.

  Police Officer: "Did you see who took the wallet from the café table?"

 Liar (who actually stole it): "Yes! I saw a tall man in a red hoodie grab it and run out the door."

 Police Officer: "Are you sure? Did you get a good look at his face?"

 Liar: "Yes, he had a beard and looked around 30 years old."

In reality, no such person exists, and the liar is completely making up details to shift the blame away
from themselves. This is a lie of fabrication—a completely false story invented to deceive.

4. Lie of Minimization - This type of lie, individual will accept that something has

occurred/but downplays the implication. Lie of minimization could be used if a subject

wanted to stay close to the truth’ however he covers the truth for his or her own

benefit.

A suspect is caught vandalizing a public park.

 Police Officer: "Did you spray-paint the walls and damage the benches?"

 Suspect (minimizing the crime): "I mean, I just painted a small tag on the wall. It wasn’t a big
deal."

 Police Officer: "There’s over $5,000 in property damage."

 Suspect: "Okay, I might have done a little more, but it’s just graffiti. It’s not like I destroyed
anything."

Here, the suspect downplays the severity of their actions, making it seem less serious than it actually is.
This is a lie of minimization—acknowledging part of the truth while making it seem less harmful.

5. Lie of Exaggeration - This is a lie often used to exaggerate things for the hope of

obtaining some advantages. This is also often found on resume, where applicant

exaggerates his or her experiences, knowledge, skills, salary and length of service. The

exaggerated claims can be verified by looking for inconsistencies of the subject story.

A person witnesses a minor altercation at a bar but exaggerates the details when reporting it.

 Police Officer: "Can you describe what happened during the fight?"

 Witness (exaggerating): "It was insane! The guy punched him so hard he flew across the room
and crashed into a table. There was blood everywhere!"

 Police Officer: "Are you sure? The surveillance footage shows a single punch and the victim just
stumbled back."
  Witness: "Well, maybe he didn’t fly across the room, but it was definitely a brutal attack!"

Here, the witness takes a real event but amplifies the details, making it seem far more dramatic than it
was. This is a lie of exaggeration, where the truth is distorted to make something appear more extreme.

C.) Other Forms or Types of Lie

1. Bald-Faced Lie - A bald-faced (or barefaced) is a lie that is told when it is obvious to

all concerned that is it a lie. Example: a child who has chocolate all over his face and

denies that he has eaten the last piece of chocolate cake.

2. Lie-to-Children - is a lie often a platitude that may use euphemism that is told to

make an adult subject acceptable to children. A common example is “The stork

brought you”.

3. Benign or White Lie - A white lie would cause no discord if it were uncovered and

offers some benefit to the liar, the hearer, or both. White lies are often used to avoid

offense, such as telling someone that you think that their new outfit looks good when

you actually think that it is a horrible excuse for an outfit. The lie is told to avoid the

harmful implications and realistic implications of the truth.

Example: the food is really good even though its not.

4. Noble Lie - A noble lie is one that would normally cause discord it if were

uncovered, but that offers some benefit to the liar and perhaps assist in an orderly

society and thus potentially gives some benefit to others also. It is often told to

maintain law, order and safety. A noble lie usually has the effect of helping an elite

maintain power.

 Government Official: "The economy is stable, and everything is under control."

 Reality: The economy is actually struggling, but the government hides the truth to prevent panic and a
financial collapse.

5. Emergency Lie - An emergency lie is a strategic lie told when the truth may not be

told because, for example, harm to a third party would come of it. Example: a neighbor

might lie to an engaged husband about the whereabouts of his unfaithful wife,

because said husband might reasonably be expected to inflict physical injury to his
husband.

6. Perjury - It is the act of lying or making verifiably false statements on a material

matter under oath or affirmation in a court of law or in any of various sworn

statements in writing.

Perjury is a crime because the witness has sworn to tell the truth and, for the

credibility of the court, witness testimony must be relied on an being truthful.

7. Bluffing - Pretending to have capability or intention one doesn’t. Bluffing is an act

of deception that is not usually seen as immoral because it takes place in the context

of a game where this kind of deception is consented to in advance by the players.

8. Misleading - A misleading statement is one where there isn’t an outright lie, but

still has the purpose of making someone believe in an untruth. Dissembling, A polite

term for lying, though some might consider it to refer to being merely misleading.

9. Jocose Lie - Are lies that are meant in jest and are usually understood as such by

all present parties. Sarcasm can be an example. Storytelling traditions that are

present in some places, where the humor comes from the storyteller’s insistence that

he or she is telling that absolute truth despite all evidence to the contrary.

  Friend calls another friend pretending to be a radio station: "Congratulations! You just won a
free trip to the moon!"

10. Promotion Lies - Advertisements often contain statements that are not credible,

such as “we are always happy to give a refund.”

11. Belief Systems - It is alleged that some belief systems may find lying to be

justified.

Example: Religious lies

12. Red Lie - This is common to communist countries. This lie is used to destroy

other ideologies by means of propaganda.

Political Propaganda:
  A government spreads false information about a rival country to unite its citizens and gain
support for a war.

 Example: "Our enemies are planning to attack us any day now!" (Even if there's no actual
evidence.)

13. Malicious Lie- A chronic lie purely used to mislead justice, a pure dishonesty to

obstruct justice.

Ruining Someone’s Reputation (Defamation):

 A jealous coworker spreads a false rumor to get a rival fired.

 Example: "I saw Sarah stealing from the office safe!" (Even though Sarah is innocent.)

14. Bad Faith – It is lying to oneself. Specifically, it is failing to acknowledge one’s own

ability to act and determine one’s possibilities, falling back on the determinations of

the various historical and current totals which have produced one as if they relieved

one of one’s freedom to do so.

 Bad Faith in Business Negotiations:

 A company pretends to negotiate a deal but has no real intention of following through.

 Example: "We’re very interested in your proposal." (But they’re just stalling while secretly
making a deal with someone else.)

 Bad Faith in Relationships:

 A person promises loyalty in a relationship while secretly being unfaithful.

 Example: "I love you and want to be with you forever." (While secretly seeing someone else.)

 Bad Faith in Law:

 An insurance company refuses to pay a valid claim by making false excuses.

 Example: "Your accident claim is denied due to missing paperwork." (Even though all documents
were properly submitted.)

15. Big Lie – It attempts to trick the victim into believing something major which will

likely be contradicted by some information the victim already possesses, or by their

common sense. When the lie is of sufficient magnitude it may succeed, due to the
victim’s reluctance to believe that an untruth on such a grand scale would indeed be

concocted.

Nazi Germany used the "Big Lie" technique to spread falsehoods about Jewish people, blaming them for
Germany’s economic problems.

16. Bullshit – It does not necessarily have to complete fabrication; with only basic

knowledge about a topic, bullshit is often used to make the audience believe that one

knows far more about the topic by feigning total certainty or making probable

predictions. It may also merely be “filler” or nonsense that, by virtue of its style or

wording, gives the impression that it actually means something.

 A person exaggerates their skills to get hired.

 Example: "Oh, yes! I’m fluent in five languages and have 10 years of experience in AI development."
(Even though they barely know one language and just started learning AI.)

17. Butler Lie – It describes small or innate lies which are usually sent electronically,

and are used to terminate conversations or to save face. For example sending an SMS

to someone reading “I have to go, the waiter is her”, when you are not at a restaurant.

18. Half-Truth – It is deceptive statement that includes some element of truth. The

statement might be partly true, the statement may be totally true but only part of the

whole truth, or it may utilize some deceptive element, such as improper punctuation,

or double meaning, especially if the intent is to deceive, evade, blame or misrepresent

the truth.

19. Haystack Answer – It is volume of false or irrelevant information, possibly

containing a true fact (the needle in the “haystack”). Even if the truth is included, it is

difficult or impossible to detect and identify.

20. Honest Lie or Confabulation – It is characterized by verbal statements or actions

that inaccurately describe history, background and present situations. There is

typically no intent to deceive and the individual is unaware that their information is

false.

21. Lying through your Teeth – This is when one lies face-to-face with the intended

recipient. This also may be an expression describing the act of lying with a smile or
other patronizing tone or body language.

22. Polite Lie – It is a lie that a politeness standard requires, and which is usually

known to be untrue by both parties. Whether such lies are acceptable is heavily

dependent on culture. A common polite lie in international etiquette is to decline

invitations because of “scheduling difficulties”.

23. Puffery – It is an exaggerated claim typically found in advertising and publicity

announcements, such as “the highest quality at the lowest price”, or “Noynoy para sa

tuwid na daan”.

24. View from Nowhere – It refers to journalism and analysis that misinform the

audience by creating the impression that opposing parties to an issue have equal

correctness and validity, even when the truth of their claims are mutually exclusive.

25. Augustine’s Taxonomy of Lies - Lies in religious teaching, lies that harm others

and help no one, Lies that harm others and help someone, Lies told for the pleasure of

lying, Lies told “please others in smooth discourse”, Lies that harm no one and that

help someone, lies that harm no one and that save someone’s life, lies that harm no

one and that save someone’s purity.

C.) Signs of Lying

1. Verbal Clues

A. Methods of Responding to the Question – in general truthful people tend to be

direct; untruthful tend to be cautious about their answer.

B. Length of Time Before Giving Response – In general, truthful persons answer

questions immediately after the question is asked; untruthful persons take their time

in giving a response

C. Repetition of Questions – The question may be repeated word for word, or the

respondent may frame the answer with a request to repeat the question.

D. Fragmented or Incomplete Sentences – Untruthful person often speak in

disjointed or curtailed sentences. Statement such as I…...Think ……. It seems to

me……... if I recall correctly…….

E. Being Overly Polite – The Suspect Who Has Been Accused and Is Lying Will Often

Say, sir, ma’am, boss or chief.

F. Oaths – lying persons will frequently utter oaths, such as “I swear to God I didn’t do

it” or “I swear on my Father grave”.

G. Clarity of Response – honest people tend be very clear in their answers, while

untruthful persons tend to speak softly and broaden their answers.

H. Use of Words – As General Rule, Truthful subjects have no trouble denying the

allegation is precise terms, while untruthful one will have problems with the use of

words.

I. Assertiveness – Truthful persons are confident about their innocence, and deceitful

ones are not confident unless they are practiced liars.

J. Inconsistences – Contradicting testimonies made by witness are one of the best

indications of dishonesty; liars get caught up in their own web of deceit.

K. Slip of the Tongue – Liars, as “Freud” discovered, quite often slip up and divulge

them through a “slip of the tongue.

L. Pauses – “Ekman” says gap in speech patterns may be one reliable clue to

deception.

M. Speed of Speech – Persons who are tense or upset frequently increase the

swiftness of their speech, words tend to run together and the conversation can be

fragmented.

N. Tirades – a long and angry speech.

2. Non-Verbal Clues

A. Emblems – Emblems are often performed deliberately, these are expressions made

with the body, whose meanings are clearly understood.

B. Manipulators – These are usual of touching one’s self. Manipulators encompass

grooming the hair, wringing the hands, picking imaginary fur from a coat.

C. Breathing – Many persons, under prolonged periods of stress, hyperventilate. An

increase in breathing rate or volume may be a sign of deception.

D. Sweating – This is another uncontrollable body function. Perspiration occurs with

heat as well as with emotion.

E. Frequent Swallowing – A dry mouth frequently accompanies deep emotion.

F. Facial Muscles – Other muscles are not easy to control but people can control

certain facial muscles with spirit.

G. Eyes – The eyes most likely express as much emotion as any other part of the

anatomy. Blinking, Pupil dilation, and tears are some of the signs indicative of emotion

in the eyes.

H. Face – People believe that lies will commonly show up in the face and eyes.

Reddening or blushing of the face is supposed to be a sign of embarrassment and

cannot be controlled.

The polygraph is used to test or question individuals for the purpose of detecting

deception or verifying truth of statements through a visual, permanent and

simultaneous recording of a person’s cardiovascular and respiratory pattern as a

minimum instrumentation requirement.

CHAPTER IV

The Polygraph and Attachment of Major Components

A polygraph (commonly referred to as a lie detector) is an instrument that

measures and records several physiological responses. This instrument does not

detect lies. It can only detect whether deceptive behavior is being displayed.

The instrument is carefully and accurately engineered for recording changes in

the blood pressure, pulse, respiration and skin conductivity while the subject is asked

and answers a series of questions, on the basis that false answers will produce

distinctive measurements. The polygraph chart tracing will reveal attempted deception

as shown by physiological changes that are recorded reliably. The polygraph measures
physiological changes caused by the sympathetic nervous system during questioning.

Today, polygraph examiners use two types of instrumentation: analog and

computerized. In the United States, most examiners now use computerized

instrumentation.

A.) Functions and Major Parts of the Polygraph

1. Cardio-Sphygmograph (Red) - records the changes of blood pressure and pulse

rate. It is consisting of arm cuff. The arm cuff is place around the subject’s arm with

the covered rubber bladder part centered at the brachial artery about an inch above

the elbow and must be inflated by a pump bulb to put air into the system, which

recorded in a sphygmomanometer in millimeters of mercury (generally 60-80 mm).

After inflation, the arm cuff becomes so susceptible to monitor changes of blood

pressure as well as pulse rate and amplitude to be sending out to the recording bellow

and be recorded by the cardio pen on the chart.

*Cardio Section:

a. Pump Bulb Assembly

b. Blood Pressure Pump Connection

c. Blood Pressure Cuff Assembly

d. Connector Block

e. Sphygmomanometer Pipe Line

2. Pneumograph (Blue) - component of the polygraph records the subject's respiratory

rate. One tube is placed around the subject's chest and a second is placed around his

or her abdomen. These tubes are filled with air or contains certain of volume of air.

When the subject breaths, changes in the air pressure in the tubes are recorded on

the polygraph.

*Pneumograph Section:

a. Rubber Jellows
b. Beaded Chain

c. Rubber Flexible Tubing

d. Pneumograph Tube Connection

e. Pneumograph Connecting Tube

f. Pneumograph Distributing Ink

g. Pneumograph Pipe Line

h. Vent Valve and Vent Bottom

i. Tambour Assembly

j. Sphygmomanometer

k. Resonance Control

3. Galvanograph (Green) - section records the amount of perspiration produced. It

consists of electrical sensors called galvanometers that are attached to the subject's

fingertips. The skin of the fingertips contains a high density of sweat glands, making

them a good location to measure perspiration. The GSR (Galvanic Skin Reflex)

comprise of finger or palm electrodes that is attached on the subject’s finger primarily

the index and ring finger or palm to check and detect skin resistance towards a small

amount of electricity, to operate the galvanometer supply a current and the

mechanical movement of a seven (7) inches recording pen will take place.

*Galvanograph Section:

a. Hand Electrode

b. Electrode Bellow

c. Galvanometer

4. Kymograph - is sometimes referred as a chart drive module. This is motor that

pulls or drive the chart paper under the recording pen at the same time at the rate of

six (6) to twelve (12) inches per minute. A chart roll is about 100 feet long, 6

inches width with ½ inch margin apart. Paper is imprinted with horizontal line

spaced and ¼ inch interval (20 division) and vertical lines at 1/10-inch interval with
heavy line ½ inch interval. Each ½ inch division across the paper signifies five seconds

of time. Pulse rate per minute may then be calculated by multiplying the number of

beats counted in one division by 12.

*Kymograph or chart driving mechanism:

a. Chart Roll Arbor

b. Idler Roller

c. Pen Table

d. Paper Guides

e. Sprocket Roller

f. Cutter Bar

g. Off and On Power Switch

h. Synchronous Motor

*Pen and Inking System:

a. Capillary Pen

b. Ink Well Plates

c. Ink Dropper

d. Duct Bill

B.) Other Parts of Polygraph

1. Pen Lifter – raises or lowers pens to 3 positions.

2. Program Pacer – a programmable cueing device for question and answer spacing.

3. Paper Tear Bar – provides cutting edge for convenient removal of charts.

4. Foam Pen Hold-Down – keeps pens in place when instrument is being transported.

5. Attache Compartment – storage for all forms and supplies. Slightly smaller in

executive Ultra Scribe.

6. Accesory Storage & Optional Calibration Checking Fixture– slightly smaller in

executive ultra-facilitates set-up and storage.

7. Subject Connection – stylish grouping provides neat, professional appearance.

Facilitates set-up and storage.

8. Mechanical Pneumo Module – recording part of Mechanical Pneumo Channel.

9. Galvanic Skin Response Module - recording part of GSR channel.

10. Multi-Function Module – Selectable recording module. Can be used as;

a. Electronic Pneumo Channel

b. Electronic Cardio Channel

c. Cardio Activity Monitor (CAM)

d. Cardio Tech, or other Accessories

11. Mechanical Cardio Module – recording part of mechanical Cardio Module.

12. Paper Storage Compartment – holds two spare rolls of chart paper or other

supplies.

13. Ac Power Receptacle – power cords connect here; international standard design

for easy cord replacement.

14. Power Switch and Circuit Breaker – applies power to instrument, Built-in

resettable circuit breaker protects instrument and eliminates need for fuses. To re-set,

simply press “off” and then “on” again.

15. Chart Drive Roller Lever – lifts chart drive roller for paper changes and chart

removal.

16. Power Analyzer – automatically indicates whether wall outlets are properly wired

and grounded for proper instrument operation and subject safety.

17. Stimulus Marker – marks significant events on the charts.

18. Sphygmomanometer Dial – reads operating pressure of cardio channels.

19. Pneumo 2 (Blue) – pneumatic connection for upper (thoracic) pneumograph. Not

connected in instrument with only one pneumo Channel.

20. Pneumo 1 (Silver) – pneumatic connection for lower (abdominal) pneumograph.

21. Cuff – pneumatic connection for Cardio Channel subject cuff tubing.

22. Pump – pneumatic connection for hand pump used to inflate subject cuff.

23. Mechanical Cardio Switch – disengages mechanical cardio module from

pneumatic system for low pressure electronic cardio operation.

C. Attachment of the Major Components of Polygraph

A polygraph is in fact several instruments combined to simultaneously record

changes in blood pressure, pulse, respiration and skin resistance. The electrical

conductivity of the skin’s surface can also be measured through the increasing sweat

gland activity that reduces the skin’s ability to carry electrical current.

The pneumograph tube is fastened around the subject’s torso and belly. The

blood pressure cuff is place on the right arm in such a way that the rubber bladder

part should be located over the brachial artery. The electrodes or galvanic skin reflex

(GSR) is attached on the index finger and ring of the left hand of the subject. Position

the subject in a manner that he looks straight ahead with the instrument and the

examiner to the right side or rear somewhat ahead of the kymograph or chart drive so

that the polygraph tracings will not distract him.

CHAPTER V

The Examiner and Examination Proper

Within the U.S. federal government, a polygraph examination is also referred to

as a Psychophysiological Detection of Deception (PDD) examination. Several other

technologies are also used in the field of lie detection, but the polygraph is the most

famous.

I.) Examiner

A. The Polygraph Examiner

Is one who skilled and capable to detect deception or verify truth of statement

through instrumentation or the use of mechanical devise. The instrument or devise

utilized to detect deception or verify truthfulness of the statements must meet the

basic instrumentation requirement of being capable of recording simultaneously on a

moving chart the physiological responses.

The Following are qualifications and qualities expected of a polygraph examiner

are;

1. He must remember that he is an impartial seeker of truth. Conducts examination in

a professional and ethical manner, and never allow his personal feelings, sympathies,

or prejudice influence the results of the examination.

2. He constantly bears in mind his primary obligation to his subjects is to afford them

all possible safeguards against error and must not accept any subjects whose physical

or mental health or state makes him unfit.

3. Technically, he must have a complete knowledge of the instrument and its

capabilities and limitations, the most modern polygraph technique, proficiency in the

conduct of the polygraph examination, test construction and chart interpretation.

4. Morally, he must have a sincere desire to be a polygraph examiner in its strictest

sense, by devoting himself to the polygraph profession through maintenance of a high

personal integrity and increasing personal proficiency through constant study and

research.

B. Responsibilities of Polygraph Examiner to His Subject

In conducting polygraph examination, the examiner should be reminded of his

responsibilities to his subject.

1. The polygraph examiner recognizes the fact that his primary responsibility must be

to the person who has voluntary submitted him to a polygraph examination.

2. He should never conduct examination on person without first the appraisal of the

subject’s constitutional rights, rights against self-incrimination.

3. He should never perform examination to any person unless the instrument he is

going to utilize is in good working condition and makes a continuous permanent

recording on a moving chart of at least two physiological tracings.

4. He should never render a certain or conclusive verbal or written opinion based on

the chart analysis without having administered at least two or more charts.

5. He should not suggest testimony concerning the charts or conclusions presented by

another examiner unless he is methodically familiar with the technique and

procedures employed.

C. Responsibilities of the Investigator to the Examiner

In asking polygraph assistance, the investigator must always confer first with

the examiner on the requirement for the test, selection and fitness of subject, and

appropriate schedule for the test. The following should guide the investigator in asking

assistance for polygraph examination.

1. He must not wait until the last minute, after all investigative methods and

techniques have failed, and the test should never be used as a last resort;

2. He must not fail to investigate the case as a last resort.

3. He should not depend on the mass screening of possible suspects to produce the

guilty party except when no reasonable amount of investigation had produced a likely

suspect or materially narrowed down the number of possible suspects;

4. Not to stop investigation if polygraph examination is deferred or temporarily

delayed;

5. He must not ask the test to bolster the evidence submitted to the court. This is a

display of doubt as to his investigative findings of guilt on the part of the accused.

Such doubt always builds up to the benefit of an accused, and in numerous instances,

the opinion of the examiner is accepted by the court in favor of the defense rather for

the prosecution;

6. He must not use polygraph as a props, ruse or trickery to secure confession or for

the evaluation of the mental and physical state of the suspect; and

7. He should not tell anyone that the polygraph would decide whether the subject or

suspect is innocent or guilty. The court makes the decision.

8. He must not think that investigation is over if the test indicated that the subject lied

or confessed. Evidence and testimonies should be gathered to prove the facts of the

offense and the allegation against the subject.

D. Responsibilities of Investigators to the Subject

In asking a person involved in a criminal case under investigation to take

polygraph test, the investigator should;

1. Be knowledgeable about the polygraph so that he can talk openly and freely to the

person about the test. The subject may know very little or may have been misinformed

about it;

2. Not to divulge details of an offense which may be utilized in application of a peak of

tension test;

3. Recommended the test as a means for the subject to indicate his truthfulness.

4. Stress the test’s capacity for indicating through the recorded response whether a

person is telling the truth;

5. Guarantee the subject that the examiner is qualified and impartial to all persons

involved in the case; and

6. Avoid any claim for the instrument or examiner that is not backed up by fact.

II.) Examination Proper

A.) The Examination Room or Polygraph Suite

1. It must be private and free from all outside noise and detracting influences.

2. Adequately lighted and well ventilated with an even comfortable temperature.

3. Devoid of pictures, paintings, decors or other ornaments.

4. Preferably sound-proof (90%)

5. Without any furniture other than a polygraph desk, Subjects chair with arm rest

and an examiner’s stool.

7. With one-way mirror and remote sound system for monitoring the test proceedings

to an authorized audience. (Lawyer or Investigator)

B.) Selection of Test Subject

1. Permanent physical illness such as mental derangement, addiction to narcotic

drugs, a person who is being forced to do so, a person who suffers from a serious heart

condition, a person who suffers from a severe nervous condition, a person who suffers

from a severe respiratory illness and a quadriplegic (paralysis on both arms and legs).

2. Temporary illness conditions such as sickness, injury, pain, physical discomfort,

external physical or mental fatigue, colds, coughs, fever, allergies, and influences of

sedatives and liquor are causes for deferment of the test until such time that the

subjects regain his ordinary physical condition, a pregnant woman, unless he has

obtained prior written permission from a physician to do so.

Note: Treatment of the subjects before being asked to make or while awaiting test

affects the success of the examination.

Note: Prolonged interrogation with constant accusation directed against the subjects

may condition him to react falsely to the test, or may result to a flat emotionless chart.

Note: A person’s daily habit should not be upset more than necessary. Long delay

should be avoided.

III.) Phases of Polygraph Examination

AA.) Phase I - Initial Interview with the Investigator Handling the Case

Test question are formulated by the polygraph examiner based from information

obtained from the investigator. General facts, theories and suspicions are not enough

basis for a polygraph test. Question formulation depends greatly upon detailed and

accurate information regarding all the available facts.

The investigator on case should personally inform the examiner of such facts as:

1. Unpublicized facts of the offense known only to the victim, the investigator and the

offender.

Specific articles or exact amounts of money stolen.

2. Exact time and place the offense occurred.

3. Peculiar aspects of the offense or any strange or obscene acts committed at the

scene.
4. Known facts about a suspect’s action or movements immediately preceding of after

the incidents.

5. Facts indicating a connection between suspects, victims and witnesses, especially

when they deny any connection.

6. Exact type of firearm, weapon or tool used.

7. Results of laboratory test if any.

8. Background information particularly previous police records or verifies facts which

subjects denies.

BB.) Phase II - Pre-Test Interview

Before the actual testing is done, the examiner must first make an informal

interview of the subject which may last from 20 to 30 minutes to condition the subject

psychologically for the test, to apprise the subject of his constitutional rights, a written

consent which must be freely and voluntary given is taken.

Purpose of the Pre-Test Interview;

1. To determine whether the subject has any medical or psychiatric condition or has

used drugs that will prevent the testing.

3. To explain to the subject the purpose of the examination.

4. To develop the test questions, particularly those of the types to be asked.

5. To relieve the truthful subject of any apprehension as well as to satisfy the deceptive

subject as to the efficiency of the technique.

6. To know any anti-social activity or criminal record of the subject.

Rights of the Subject;

1. To be examined by a qualified examiner

2. To be determined if fit for examination

3. To be informed of the reason for the lie detector test

4. To have an explanation of the lie detector machine and what it does

5. To give consent to the lie detector test

6. Not to be compelled to undergo prolonged questioning

7. Not to be expose to oral criticism or abuse

8. Not to be exposed to physical, mental or psychological abuse, and

9. To refuse to submit to the lie detector test

CC.) Phase III – The Conduct of Instrumentation or Actual Test

Questions are formulated from the information given by the investigators, from

declaration of witnesses or the subject himself, from records, interviews and from

other factual in nature. Questions in the same exam must be related to one another. If

distinctly separate issues must be covered, they must be asked in a separate

examination. Personal and disturbing questions have no place in a properly conducted

polygraph examination. There are general and specific rules to be followed in the

formulation of the test questions. The questions to be formulated must;

1. Short

2. Simple and Direct

3. Be answerable by either ‘Yes” or “No” only

4. Phrased in the language easily understood by the subjects

5. The questions must be clear and must have reference to only one element of

an offense of fact.

6. Not involve legal terminologies like murder, rape, etc.

7. Not be in the form of an accusation

8. Not contain influence to one’s religion, race or belief

9. Never contain an inference that presupposes knowledge on the part of the

subject

a.a. Types of Question

1. Irrelevant Question- These are questions which have no bearing to the case under

investigation. The question may refer to the subject’s age, educational attainment,

marital status, citizenship, occupation, etc. The examiner asks these types of

questions to ascertain the subject’s normal pattern of response by eliminating the

feeling of apprehension.

2. Relevant Question - These are questions pertaining to the issue under

investigation. They must be unambiguous, unequivocal and understandable to the

subject. They must be related to one issue or one criminal act. It is equally important

to limit the number of relevant questions to avoid discomfort to the subject.

 "Did you take the missing money from the office on March 5th?"

 "Were you present when the fire was started?"

 "Did you physically harm [victim's name] on the night of April 10th?"

a. Strong Relevant or Primary or Crucial Question – These questions are

intended and created to test for direct participation only and specifically designed to

produce and emotional response in guilty subject.

Theft Investigation

❌ Weak: "Did you ever take something that wasn’t yours?" (Too vague)
✅ Strong: "Did you steal $5,000 from the company safe on March 10th?"

Drug Use Screening

❌ Weak: "Have you used drugs before?" (Not time-specific)

✅ Strong: "Have you used cocaine in the past 90 days?"

b. Weak Relevant or Secondary Question – These are questions concern in

several secondary aspects of the crime or problem and often deal with guilty

knowledge and partial involvement.

Theft Investigation

❌ Weak: "Did you ever take something that wasn’t yours?"

🔹 Why it's weak? Too vague; could apply to anything (a pen, food, money, etc.).

Workplace Misconduct

❌ Weak: "Have you ever done something wrong at work?"

🔹 Why it's weak? Too subjective; "wrong" can mean different things to different people.

3. Control Question- These are questions which are unrelated to the matter under
investigation but are of similar nature although less serious as compared to those

relevant questions under investigation.

General Honesty

✅ "Have you ever told a lie to avoid getting in trouble?"

✅ "Have you ever taken something that didn’t belong to you?"

🔹 Why it's a control question? Most people have lied or taken something small before, so their response
helps compare against the relevant questions.

a. Primary Control Question – is based on known lie. It must concern about

actions that transpired within three (3) to five (5) years’ time prior to case under

investigation occurred.

Example: Before turning the age of 15, have you ever raped a

goat?

b. Secondary Control Question – is more precise in nature and is based on

another experience of unlawful activity, which will improve the chance for

responsiveness. It ranges covers up to the current period. The question for

responsiveness must not be connected to the case under investigation.

How Secondary Control Questions Work in a Polygraph?

✅ Less intense than primary control questions – Designed to cause a mild reaction.
✅ Used to refine baseline responses – Helps differentiate between nervousness and deception.
✅ Still unrelated to the case – Allows for proper comparison with relevant questions.

✅ "Have you ever driven slightly over the speed limit?"

✅ "Have you ever forgotten to return change when given too much?"

4. Evidence Connection Question – This is intended to arouse the guilty subject and

focus his attention on the probability of incriminating proof that would tend to

establish his guilt. In formulating the question, the examiner must know from the

investigator whether or not pieces of evidences were collected from the scene of the

crime.

Example: Was the evidence found at the scene of the crime yours?

5. Knowledge Question – This question is intended to discover whether the subject

possesses information regarding the identity of the offender, or as to the location of the

evidence or other secondary elements of the facts of the case under investigation.

Example: Did you know who committed the crime?

6. Sacrifice or DYAT Question – This is intended to obtain responses usually

produced by the introduction of the first relevant question in the sequence. These

divulge the subject’s norm plus stimulus and excitement stage. Example: Regarding

the stealing incident, do you intend to answer all of these questions truthfully?

7. Symptomatic or Introductory Question – These questions are intended to identify

and assess the occurrence of the outside issues that might restrain subject’s

responses to the relevant question. An outside factor in a case, which he is concerned,

but not the issue under investigation. Example: Do you understand that i will only ask

you questions we discussed?

8. SKY Question – These are three groups question place as one by Backster and they

are intended to verify the previous charts and detect indirect participation or guilty

knowledge. The “S” stands for “suspect”, the “K” stands for “know”, and “Y” stands for

“you”. Example: Do you know who stole the money of Pedro?

b.b. Test Construction Applied are of Two Main Types.

1. General Peak Tension Test- The general question test consists of a series of

relevant and irrelevant questioned asked in a planned order.

Example:

Have you ever been called by the name Fred? (Irrelevant)

Is today Friday? (Irrelevant)

Do you have anything to do with the robbery at Goodwill Grocery last night? (Relevant)

Did you rob the Goodwill Grocery last night? (Relevant)

Are you over twenty years of age? (Irrelevant)

Do you know is any of the fingerprints found at goodwill Grocery is yours? (Relevant)

Do you drink water? (Irrelevant)

Do you know of anyone involved in the robbery of Goodwill Grocery last night?
(Relevant)

2. Peak of Tension Test

This valid test is only made when there is no widespread publicity about the crime.

Example:

Do you know whether the stolen watch from Fred is Boluva?

It is an Elgin?

Is it a Colorado?

Is it a Rolex?

c.c. There are Three Basic Approaches to the Polygraph Test:

1. The Control Question Test (CQT) - This test compares the physiological response

to relevant questions about the crime with the response to questions relating to

possible prior misdeeds. "This test is often used to determine whether certain criminal

suspects should be prosecuted or classified as uninvolved in the crime" (American

Psychological Association).

EXAMPLE: John is undergoing a polygraph exam regarding the theft of company property. The examiner
is using the Control Question Test (CQT) format.

The examiner begins:

 Irrelevant Question: “Is your name John?”

 Control Question: “Before the age of 25, did you ever lie to someone in a position of authority?”

 Relevant Question: “Did you steal the missing laptop from your office?”

The examiner watches John’s physiological responses. If John shows a stronger reaction to the control
question than the relevant question, it may suggest he's being truthful. If his reaction to the relevant
question is stronger, it may indicate deception.

Scoring

Examiners look at physiological responses such as:

 Blood pressure

 Respiratory rate

 Galvanic skin response (sweat gland activity)

A greater response to relevant questions suggests deception; a greater response to control questions
suggests truthfulness.

2. The Directed Lie Test (DLT) - This test tries to detect lying by comparing

physiological responses when the subject is told to deliberately lie to responses when

they tell the truth.

Sarah is being questioned about money missing from a cash register. Before the exam begins, the
examiner explains:

“I will ask you some questions where I want you to lie. This helps us see how your body reacts when you
lie.”

During the polygraph:

 Directed Lie Question: “Have you ever taken anything that didn’t belong to you, even as a
child?” (Sarah is told to answer “No,” even though everyone likely has.)

 Relevant Question: “Did you take the $500 from the register on April 12th?”

3. The Guilty Knowledge Test (GKT) - Also called the Concealed Information Test This test compares
physiological responses to

multiple-choice type questions about the crime, one choice of which contains

information only the crime investigators and the criminal would know about.

Objectives;

1. Ascertain if a person is telling the truth by verifying statement and/or comparing

conflicting statements.

2. Obtain additional investigative leads to the facts of an offense.

3. Locate fruits or roots of crime or whereabouts of wanted persons.

4. Identify other persons involved.

5. Obtain valuable information from reluctant witnesses.

6. Most important is the elimination of innocent suspects.

EXAMPLE: safe was stolen from a business office. The examiner tests Alex, a suspect.

“I’m going to read several options. Just answer ‘No’ to each one.”
The examiner asks:

“Was the stolen safe…”

 A) Black

 B) Grey

 C) White

 D) Blue

 E) Red

Correct Answer: Grey (only the thief would know this).

Alex says "No" to all, but his strongest physiological reaction is to “Grey.”

That suggests Alex recognizes the correct detail—supporting suspicion he has guilty knowledge of the
crime.

D.) Polygraph Technique

1. Concealed Information Test- It has the best theoretical foundation and validation

research. It serves as an important tool in the post test interrogation. Useful in

circumstances where the CQT may produce less than optimal results. The foundation

of CIT is the orienting response/reflex theory. (O’Gorman, 1979; Siddle, Kyriacou,

Heron, & Mathews, 1979; Sokolov, 1963,1966; Verschure, Crombez, De Clerq, &

Koster, 2004)

When a person is involved in a significant event, a memory of that event is

created. If presented with information that is important because it is linked to the

memory of the event, his or her body will have an orienting response to the key.

Because an innocent person does not have a memory of that event.

Guidelines in Conducting CIT

a.a. Educating Crime Scene Investigators

 1. Investigators must be taught with the CIT techniques during their professional

training, it should be included as part of their investigative practices.

2. Investigators should be exposed on all aspects and approaches of CIT, from

theory to applications.

b.b. Gathering Information

Early involvement of the examiner for the investigation helps secure critical

information and ensures that information is not to be released to anyone but those

individuals responsible for working the investigation.

- ocular/visit of the crime scene

- early participation in the investigation

cc. Constructing CIT’s

Each CIT include one key item. Non-key item is always placed as the first item

in the sequence. Key item is randomly placed in the sequence after the first non-key

item. Key Item must be something that the perpetrator is most likely to have paid

attention to, and to be able to recall during the test.

Example:

If you killed Mary Smith, you know the object that was used to strike her. Repeat after

me these object.

Non Critical Item : Steam Iron

Non Critical Item : Table Lamp

Key Item : Stone book end

Non Critical Item : Wine Bottle

Non Critical Item : Tire Jack

Non Critical Item : Hammer

Pre-Test Practices

Subject is informed that she or he will be undergoing a knowledge-based examination,

and that it is necessary to determine whether the topic to be tested is known to the

examinee. The Polygraphist should also collect and inform the following;
1. Overview of the entire process of the CIT

2. Securing of forms, waivers, medical background.

3. Examinee is asked to write everything they know about the incident; and

4. The examinee is reassured that the knowledge of the information does not mean

that they have committed the crime, and that there are instances when others involved

in the investigation leak information (investigator, victim, witness, media, etc).

Note: It should be stated that the goal of the examiner is to conduct a fair examination

and to eliminate any potentially corrupted data) to ensure that key information was

concealed from a possible innocent examinee. Verbal review of the written statement to

written statement to confirm the concealment of the key information. Examinee must

verbally commit to the information as their only knowledge about the crime.

Explanation of the procedure or instrumentation Practice examination is conducted to

acclimate the examinee of the instrumentation, the examiner voice, and ensure that

the examinee can properly follow the movement and answering instruction. Examinee

is instructed to answer each question by repeating the alternative ending.

2.) Acquaintance Test- Examinee is instructed to answer each question by repeating

the alternative ending.

a.a. Example A:

*Examiner: Regarding the color of your shirt today, is it blue?

*Subject: Blue

Reviewing the Question

1.To ensure that the examinee understands all of the questions and how to

pronounce it.

2. To identify any problematic items, and

3. To verify that the examiner does not know the key stimulus from the control

stimuli in the test.

Before each test, review the general question that is to be asked, and inform the

examinee to repeat the alternative ending.

b.b. Example B:

*Examiner: Regarding where the house was entered, was it at the ___? and you don’t

know the correct answer to that question, do you?

Note: If NO proceed with the test.

Note: If YES, document the information

Only the Question is reviewed

c.c. Example C:

1. Key items are presented only once.

2. Read each item with same voice inflection

Scoring Rules (Lykken Scoring) Ranking of EDA responses computed from 2 to 0.

1. If the largest EDA response takes place on the key item, the score is 2.

2. If the second largest EDA response takes place on the key items, the score is 1.

3. All others are scored 0.

Note: Reactions to the first buffer is ignored.

Decision Rules

Note: Decisions are based on the total score

RI = equal to the number of CITs

NRI = score lower than the total number of CITs

NO = no reaction to any of the CITs

Strengths

1. The most scientifically supportable techniques.

2. Scoring methods allows the examiner to calculate the precise likelihood of a false

positive error.

3. Less intrusive than the CQT.

4. Easy to set up, conduct and score.

5. Can be used in emotionally charge case where the CQT might fail.

6. Conducted either visually or aurally.

Limitations

1. It is designed only to determine whether the examinee knows certain information

about the crime.

2. Cannot be used in circumstances where the examinee might legitimately have

knowledge of potential key items. (Victims or Witness)

3. Development of key items - educate the investigators in the necessity to withhold

information from the public in general, and from the potential suspects in particulars.

3.) Demonstration Test

a.a. Purpose:

1. To familiarize the examinee with the testing procedures.

2. To provide a glimpse of the examinee’s normal physiological pattern.

3. To set the instrument proper gains and centering.

4. To test for examinee cooperation or countermeasure.

5. To reassure the innocent, and focus the guilty.

6. For practice in conducting and interpreting Peak of Tension test.

7. To look for evidence of drugs, such a very unresponsive tracings or unusual tonic

physiological levels.

b.b. General Rules

1. There should be no trickery involved, nor the appearance of trickery.

2. If demonstration test is used, they should be given to all examinees, and conducted

as the first chart.

3. Do not use responses on demonstration test as template for response patterns of

typical examinee.

4. A Demonstration Test must have a proper pre-test and posttest.

5. The examiner should not manipulate the tracing.

6. Sometimes emphasis on reactions on the DT may give feedback to an examinee

using a countermeasure.

c.c. Kinds of Demonstration Test

1.1Calibration and Verification of Sensitivity (CVOS)

Procedure:

i. Advise the examinee that you are going to run a special test to calibrate the

instrument to him.

ii. Reassure that the test is easy and review all the questions to him.

iii. The 1stquestion is neutral questions for which the truth is known, such as

examinee’s name or other verified detail that is not emotionally evocative.

iv. The 2nd question is another neutral question for which the truth is known, such as

the location of the examination.

v. On the 3rd question advise the examinee that you will ask a simple math question

for the purpose of confirming that he can process information. Tell the examinee to

figure out the answer, to tell it to you.

vi. Do not reveal what the math question is. Ensure the difficulty of the math

question.

Example: “How much is 6 times 6, minus 11?”

vii. For the 4th question, tell the examinee you will ask: “Have you taken any drugs or

medication today?”

viii. For the 5th question, tell the examinee you will ask: “Regarding this test, do you

intend to answer each question truthfully?”

ix. When the question review is complete, have the examinee prepare for the test.

2.2Fail-Proof Blind Numbers Test

Procedure:

 Step i: The examiner asks the examinee to select a number between 2 and 6 and write it down
on a sheet of paper.
Example: The examinee chooses the number 4.

 Step ii: The examinee folds the paper and places it under their leg or arm, ensuring that the
number is hidden and not visible to anyone.

 Step iii: The examiner tells the examinee:

"I’m going to give you a test about the number you just wrote. Please answer 'no' to all the questions,
including the number you picked."

 Step iv: The examiner begins the test with the preparatory statement and asks:

"Regarding the number you wrote down, was it the number 2?"
The examinee answers “no.”
"Was it the number 3?"
The examinee answers “no.”
"Was it the number 4?"
The examinee answers “no.”
The examiner continues with additional numbers (5 and 6).

 Step v: The examiner continues the testing in a mixed order, with a sequence where the first
numbers are unlikely guesses, but the third and fourth are more likely guesses:

o First Guess (Least Likely): “Was it the number 6?”

(Examinee answers "no.")

o Second Guess (Unlikely): “Was it the number 3?”

(Examinee answers "no.")

o Third Guess (Most Likely): “Was it the number 4?”

(Examinee answers "no.")

o Fourth Guess: “Was it the number 5?”

(Examinee answers "no.")

o Fifth Guess (Second Guess): “Was it the number 2?”

(Examinee answers "no.")

o Final Guess: “Was it the number 4?” (Last number is again guessed.)

 Step vi: For the third test, the examiner asks the examinee to answer truthfully to the question:

"Now, answer truthfully: Was the number you wrote 4?"

If the answer is yes, the examinee answers “yes”; if the answer is no, the examinee answers “no.”
The examiner asks, "Do you understand the instructions?"
The examinee responds affirmatively.

 Step vii: The examiner then asks:

"What was the number you picked?"

If the examiner guesses correctly (in this case, 4), they turn off the polygraph and optionally comment on
the test.
Example comment: “Your response pattern indicates that the correct number was 4.”

 Step viii: If the first guess was incorrect, the examiner then reads all numbers in the sequence
again and makes a final guess, starting with number 1 and then choosing the second guess:
“Was it the number 1?”
If the second choice is correct, the polygraph is turned off and the examiner may make an optional
comment.

 Step ix: If neither guess is correct, the examiner ends the test without commenting and turns
off the polygraph. The test is concluded.

 Step x: At the end of the polygraph test, the examiner can truthfully explain to the examinee
whether the test was readable, if they inquire.

This structure ensures that the test maintains its fail-proof nature by leveraging physiological responses
tied to hidden knowledge only the examinee should possess.

Would you like this turned into a multiple choice question or further simplified?

3.3True Blue Control Test- Before the test, draw a large red “1” on one card, a large

blue “2” on one card, a large “3” with the top of the number red and the bottom half is

blue on one card, a large blue “4’ on one card, A red “5” on one card and a large “6”

that is ¾ blue and ¼ red.

Advise the examinee that you are going to verify that the charts look differently

when the examinee tells a lie and tells the truth. State that if there are no difference

between his lies and truthfulness on the charts, there is no reason to continue the

examination.

Procedure:

i. Before the test begins, hold up the first card, and ask the examinee what is the color

of number 1, continue the procedure trough the remaining cards.

ii. Advise the examinee that when the red number is shown, he should lie, when the

blue number is shown, he should answer truthfully.

iii. Advise the examinee that when the mixed –color 3 is shown, he will be ask if the

“3” is blue. He should answer yes, and therefore he will be telling a half lie.

iv. Advise the examinee that when the mixed question “6” is shown, he will be asked if

and the “6” is red. He should answer no, and therefore he will be telling a small lie.

v. Conduct the test with the cards in order of 1 to 6.

vi. Discuss the test with the examinee when it is completed. Emphasizing that you

now have a recording of responses when the examinee is completely truthful, when he

is telling full, half and small lies.

E.) Validated Techniques and Scoring Models for PDD Test Data Analysis

American Polygraph Association New Standard of Practice

1. Mandatory use of a motion sensor for all examination.

2. Obligatory polygraph instrument functionality test recorded semi-annually.

3. General requirement for using only validated technique.

4. Criteria for the admissibility of particular technique in specific type of examinations,

evidentiary, paired testing, investigation, and screening.

5. Test format that conforms to valid principles relating to: target selection, question

formulations, and in-test presentation of the stimulus questions.

a.a. Validated methods for Test Data Analysis (PDD validated techniques)

1. Federal Zone Comparison Test (FZCT)

2. Utah Zone Comparison Test (UZCT)(PLC/DLC)

3. Air force Modified General Question Test (AFMGQT)

4. DLST

5. Backster You- Phase

6. Concealed Information Test (CIT)

7. Integrated Zone Comparison Test (IZCT)

8. MQTZCT

1. Federal Zone Comparison Test (FZCT)

Meaning:
The FZCT involves using control and relevant questions to compare physiological responses (like heart
rate, breathing, and skin conductance) across different "zones" to detect deception. The responses to
control questions are compared to those related to the crime or investigation to determine whether the
subject is being truthful.

Scenario:
Detective Sarah is questioning a suspect, Mark, in a robbery investigation.
  Irrelevant Question: "Is your name Mark?"

 Control Question: "Have you ever stolen something before?"

 Relevant Question: "Did you rob the jewelry store on June 5th?"

Sarah compares Mark’s physiological responses to these questions. If his reaction to the relevant
question about the robbery is stronger than the control question, it may indicate deception.

2. Utah Zone Comparison Test (UZCT) (PLC/DLC)

Meaning:
The UZCT uses two different types of questions: Primary Zone Comparison (PLC) and Differential Zone
Comparison (DLC). The primary zone questions are designed to provoke strong emotional responses,
and the secondary zone questions are less likely to trigger strong reactions. The relevant questions are
then compared to these zones to assess the truthfulness of the examinee.

Scenario:
Investigator John is examining a suspect, Laura, who is accused of embezzling funds from a company.

 Irrelevant Question: "Is today Monday?"

 Primary Zone Comparison (PLC): "Have you ever taken something that wasn’t yours?"

 Differential Zone Comparison (DLC): "Did you take money from the company’s account last
month?"

 Relevant Question: "Did you embezzle money from the company?"

John analyzes Laura’s physiological responses to determine whether her strongest reaction was to the
relevant question about the embezzlement, which could suggest deception.

3. Air Force Modified General Question Test (AFMGQT)

Meaning:
The AFMGQT is a modified version of the General Question Test. It involves asking broad questions
about general behavior and then comparing those answers to questions directly related to the subject's
involvement in a crime. It is designed for military or sensitive investigations.

Scenario:
Sergeant Robert is using the AFMGQT on Mike, a soldier suspected of sharing classified information.

 General Question: "Have you ever been told to keep something confidential?"

 Modified General Question: "Have you ever shared classified information without permission?"

 Relevant Question: "Did you give sensitive information to a foreign agent?"

Robert compares Mike's physiological responses to the general versus the relevant questions to assess if
his responses indicate deception about his involvement in the information leak.

4. Directed Lie Screening Test (DLST)

Meaning:
The DLST involves instructing the examinee to lie about certain non-criminal matters, so their
physiological responses to those lies can be compared to responses to relevant questions about the
investigation. This helps to establish a baseline for detecting deception.

Scenario:
Detective Lisa uses the DLST on Alex, a suspect in a theft investigation.

 Directed Lie Question: "Have you ever stolen anything from a store?" (Alex is told to lie and
answer "no.")

 Relevant Question: "Did you steal the watch from the store on April 15th?"

Lisa compares Alex's physiological responses to the directed lie (which is a baseline) and the relevant
question (about the theft). If Alex’s response to the relevant question is more intense, it could indicate
deception.

5. Backster You-Phase

Meaning:
The Backster You-Phase focuses on asking questions about the examinee’s direct involvement in an
event, which is intended to provoke a physiological reaction related to personal guilt or knowledge. The
physiological responses to these personal questions help detect deception.

Scenario:
Polygraph examiner David is questioning Anna, who is suspected of being involved in a hit-and-run
accident.

 You-Phase Question: "Did you witness the hit-and-run accident on April 20th?"

 Relevant Question: "Did you drive the vehicle that caused the accident?"

David measures Anna’s physiological responses. If she reacts strongly to the relevant question about her
involvement, it could indicate she is hiding something.

6. Concealed Information Test (CIT)

Meaning:
The CIT (or Guilty Knowledge Test) aims to detect whether the subject knows details about a crime that
only the perpetrator would know. The examinee is presented with multiple-choice questions that include
the correct information (about the crime) and irrelevant options. Physiological responses to the correct
information help indicate guilt.

Scenario:
Detective Emily is investigating a murder case, and she suspects Jake knows more than he's letting on.

 Question Set: "Was the weapon used in the murder a knife?"

o "Was the victim stabbed with a fork?"

o "Was the victim strangled?"

 Correct Information: The weapon was a knife.

Jake’s physiological responses to the correct weapon question (the knife) are more intense than to the
irrelevant ones, suggesting that he has guilty knowledge of the crime.

7. Integrated Zone Comparison Test (IZCT)

Meaning:
The IZCT integrates multiple physiological measurements (heart rate, skin conductance, respiration) and
compares responses to different types of questions across different "zones" to improve the accuracy of
deception detection.

Scenario:
Detective Mark is questioning Emily, who is suspected of stealing funds from her company.

 Control Question: "Have you ever lied to someone in a position of authority?"

 Relevant Question: "Did you steal the company funds?"

 Test Question: "Have you ever been caught for any theft?"

Mark analyzes Emily’s physiological responses across several zones (e.g., heart rate, respiration, and skin
conductance). A strong reaction to the relevant question might suggest she’s being deceptive.

8. MQTZCT (Multi-Zone Comparison Test)

Meaning:
The MQTZCT uses multiple zones of physiological responses to detect deception. Questions are divided
into different categories (e.g., unlikely, moderately likely, most likely) and physiological responses are
compared across these zones.

Scenario:
Polygraph examiner Sarah is questioning Alan, who is suspected of smuggling contraband through
airport security.

 Unlikely Question (Least Likely): "Did you ever take any contraband in your luggage on any
previous flight?"
  Moderately Likely Question: "Did you carry illegal substances on your last flight?"

 Most Likely Question: "Did you smuggle contraband through the airport security last week?"

Sarah compares Alan's physiological responses across multiple zones to determine whether he reacts
more strongly to the most likely question, indicating deception.

b.b. Seven (7) Position U.S. Federal Government Scoring System

1. Utah Scoring System (USS) - Introduced by David Raskin (1970) simplified version

of the numerical scoring system techniques introduced by Backster in 1963 and

modified by the US Army in 1970. Uses a 7-position scale numerical scoring relevant

question is normally compared to the preceding comparison question If the preceding

CQ is distorted by an artefact, use the closest artefact free CQ for evaluation. Scores

are assigned in each channel without reference to scores in the other channels.

-Positive (+) scores are assigned when the reaction to a CQ is stronger.

-Negative (-) scores are assigned when the reaction to a RQ is stronger.

-A zero is assigned if there is no difference between CQ and RQ

0 = No Difference

+/-1 = Noticeable difference

+/-2 = Strong and clear difference

+/-3 = Dramatic difference, stable tracing &strongest on the chart

2. Empirical Scoring System (ESS)- Introduced in 2008 by R. Nelson, M. Handler

and D. Krapohl, Derived from experiment and observation rather than theory. Simple,

least complicated

Use five diagnostic features;

Respiration

1. decrease in amplitude for 3 cycles

2. decrease in rate for 3 cycles

3. temporary increase in baseline

EDA

4. amplitude
Cardio

5. amplitude

Respiratory Features (X1)

EDA (X2)

Cardio (X1)

*ESS Rules

1. Assign 3- position scores to each component, using the bigger is better Rule on the

stronger bracketing CQ for each component.

- If you can see it, point to it, and argue it is BIGGER, then you can score it. Score all

EDA with +/-2

2. Score only timely reactions.

- Don’t score reactions that begin before the stimulus onset/latency long after the

answer

3. Don’t score ugly, unstable, and artifacted data.

- Leave blank, mark “A” or “/” or score zero (0). Use three position scores (+/-)

Weights are applied regardless of the magnitude of difference in response example;

even tiny difference in EDA are scored +/-2

3. Lykken Scoring System (LSS)- Introduced by David Lykken (1959-1960) use for

CIT/GKT.

Entails the ranking of the electro dermal response amplitude from 2 to 0, if the largest

EDR takes place on the key item, the score for the test is 2, if the largest EDR takes

place on the key item, the score is 1, all others are scored 0. Reactions to the first

buffer are ignored. The cut off for the result of RI (reaction indicated) is equal to the

number of CIT subtest.

4. Backster Scoring System - complex, with high rate of false-positive errors.

5. U.S. Army Military Police School Polygraph Branch (1970)- simplified the criteria

and rules of Backster method and uses up to 27 physiological features.

6. University of Utah Scoring System- reduce the number of physiological features

from twenty-seven (27) to ten (10) and assessment of reaction is based on principles of

psychophysiology.

7. Emperical Scoring System- base on Bigger is better scoring principle.

i. Test Data Analysis- The systematic process by which a particular set of decision is

applied to the evaluation of diagnostic features and other physiological data resulting

in one of the three outcome decisions.

a. Deception Indicated or Reaction Indicated (DI/RI/SR)

b. No Deception Indicated or No Reaction Indicated (NDI/NRI/NSR)

c. Inconclusive or No Reaction (INC/NR/NO)

ii. Types of TDA

1. Global Test Data Analysis - A system of rendering an opinion by viewing the

polygraph chart as a whole as opposed to making a systematic comparison among

questions.

- Use in relevant/irrelevant technique, peak of tension test and Reid’s GQT.

2. Numerical Test Data Analysis - A systematic assignment of numerical values to

physiological responses, and decision rules that are based on the sum of those

numerical values.

- Used in ZCT, MGQT

a. Seven-Point Scale

+3 = Maximum Truthful Score

+2 = Truthful Score

+1 = Minimum Truthful Score

1 = Minimum Deception Score

2 = Deception Score
3 = Maximum Deception Score

b. Three-Point Scale

+1 = if the reaction to the CQ is stronger

-1 = if the reaction to the RQ is stronger

iii. Four (4) Major Standardized TDA Methods

1. Lykken Scoring

2. Us Federal Government Scoring System

3. University of Utah Scoring System

4. Empirical Scoring System

E.) Scoring

Respiration is scored first, to note any artefacts that may affect other channel (DB’s,

MVT’s and SNF).

Reactions are indicated by reduction in respiratory activity

1. decrease in amplitude

2. elevated baseline

3. apnea (blocking)

4. slowing of rate

Respiratory Features

-Reaction cannot begin before .5 seconds after question onset

-Amplitude measured from onset to peak

-If reaction started early, measure from point of inflection

-Use caution when evaluating reaction that occur during recovery

+/-1 = amplitude is double or 1.5 plus duration or complexity

+/-2 = amplitude is triple or 1.5 plus duration or complexity

+/-3 = amplitude is quadruple, tracing is stable and largest on chart

Electrodermal Features
-Rise in tracing, usually clearer on diastolic side

Duration

+/-1 = ratio of 1.5 to 1

+/-2 = ratio of 2 to 1

+/-3 = ratio of 3 to 1

-Only one 3 scores per chart and it has to be the largest reaction on the chart

Cardio Features

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